E::r:mf^:--.'):M^c^: 


zmttt^^' 


7    .A  i 


\C^:'-'--^. 


;v*>.-^ 


THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 

GIFT  OF 


Neil  C.Needham 


ELUMENTS 

OF 

GENERAL   HISTORY, 

ANCZSN  V  AND  IVSODEBN. 
BY  ALEXANDER  FRASER  TYTLER,  F.  R.  S.  E 

P»ol"esscr  of  History  ia  the  University  of  Kdiuburgh, 
WITH    A 

CONTINUATION, 

TERMINATING    AT 

THE  DEMISE  OF  RING  GEORGE  III.,  1,820. 

BY  REV.  EDWARD  NAPES,  D.  D. 
Professor  of  Modern  History  iu  the  University  of  Oxford 

TO  WHICH  AKE  ADDED,  A  SUCCINCT 

HISTORY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES ; 

WITH 

ADDITIONS  AND  ALTERATIONS 

BY  AN  AMERICAN  GENTLEMAN. 

SUPPLYING  IMPORTANT  OMISSIONS.  BJIINGING  DOWN  THE  NARRATIOll 

OF  EVENTS  TO  THE  BEGINNING  OF  THE  PRESENT  YEAR. 

AND  CORRECTING  MANY  PASSAGES  RELATING 

TO   THE 

HISTORY  OF  THIS  COUNTRY. 

\1hrTH    AN    IMPROVED 

TABLE  OF  CHRONOLOGY; 

A  COMPARATIVE  VIEW  OF 

ANCIENT  AND  MODERN  GEOGRAPHY; 

AND 

QUESTIONS  ON  EACH  SECTION. 

ADAPTED  FOR  THE  USE  OF  SCHOOLS  AND  ACADEMIES, 
BY  AN  EXPERIENCED  TEACHER. 


STEREOTYPED  BY  T.  H.  CARTER  &  CO.  BOSTOW^ 

(toncovtf,  N»  fJ^, 

•RINTED   AND   PUBLISHED    BY  MANAHAN,   HOAG   &  CQ. 

1827. 


k 


DISTRICT  OF  NEW-HAMPSHIRE,  to  wit  t 

District  Clerk  s  office. 

BE  IT  REMEMBERED,  that  on  the  sixth  day  of  November,  A.  D 
1,824,  and  in  the  forty-ninth  year  of  the  Independence  of  the  Uniied' State* 
«f  America,  ISAAC  HILL,  of  the  said  District,  has  deposited  in  tliis  office 
the  title  of  a  book,  the  right  whereof  lie  claims  as  proprietor,  in  the  words  fol- 
lowing, to  wit : — 

"  Elements  of  General  History,  ancient  and  modern.  By  Alexander  Fra- 
■er  Tytler,  F.  R  S.  E.  Professor  of  History  in  the  University  of  Edinburgh. 
With  a  continuation,  terminating  at  the  demise  of  King  George  III.,  1,8^0. 
By  Rev.  Edward  Nares,  D.  D.  Professor  of  Modern  History  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Oxford.  To  which  are  added,  a  succinct  History  of  the  United 
States;  with  additions  and  alterations,  by  an  American  gentleman.  Supply- 
ing important  omissions,  bringing  down  the  narration  of  events  to  the  begin- 
ning of  the  present  year,  and  correcting  many  passages  relating  to  the  history 
of  this  country.  With  an  improved  Table  of  Chronology  ;  a  comparative 
view  of  Ancient  and  Modern  Geography ;  and  Questions  on  each  seotion. 
Adapted  for  the  use  of  Schools  and  Academies,  by  an  experienced 
Teacher." 

In  conformity  to  the  act  of  the  Congress  of  the  United  States,  entitled, 
"  An  act  for  the  encouragement  of  learning,  by  securing  the  copies  of  maps, 
charts,  and  books,  to  the  authors  and  proprietors  of  such  copies,  during  the 
times  therein  mentioned  ;"  Jind  also  an  act,  entitled,  "  An  act  supplementa- 
ry to  an  act,  entitled  an  act  for  the  encouragement  of  learning,  by  securing 
the  copies  of  maps,  charts,  and  books,  to  the  authors  and  proprietors  of  such 
copies  during  the  times  therein  mentioned,  and  extending  the  benefits  there- 
of to  the  arts  of  designing,  engraving,  and  etchii  g  historical  av;d  other 
prints." 

WILLIAM  CLAGGETT,   Clerk 

of  the  District  of  J\i'ew- Hampshire. 
A  true  copy  of  Record.  ^g. 

Attest WILLIAM  CLAGGETT,  Clerk.  ^^ 


D 


(J25'< 


1 

IS  ^7 
ADVERTISEMENT. 


— Q(®^— • 


In  preparing  this  edition,  the  original  text  of  Tytler  and 
Nares  has  been  carefully  revised  and  corrected.  Part  IV., 
M'bich  contains  the  History  of  South  America,  New  Spain,  and 
the  West  Indies,  has  been  added.  These  countries  are  scarcely 
noticed  in  former  editions ;  but  they  have  acquired  a  rank  and 
importance  which  make  their  history  equally  important  to  the 
plan  of  this  work,  and  equally  interesting,  with  that  of  most 
countries  in  Europe.  Additions  have  also  been  made  to  many 
chapters  in  Part  III.,  by  which  the  history  is  continued  to  the 
commencement  of  1,824.  The  Questions  for  Examination  in 
the  edition  of  1,823,  have  been  corrected,  and  new  Questions 
are  added,  adapted  to  the  additions  made  to  the  text. 

The  publisher  has  been  at  considerable  expense  in  obtaining 
these  improvements,  but  he  trusts  that  they  make  this  edition 
decidedly  superior  to  any  that  has  been  hitherto  published. 


i^^/"" 


PREFACE. 


—*»•••««— 


THE  folloTvini^  work  contains  the  Outliues  of  a  Course  of  Lectures  on 
General  liisi  j.-y,  dclivereJ  for  m>iny  years  in  tho  University  of  Kdia- 
burTrh,  and  received  witli  a  portion  of  the  public  approbation  amply 
SnlficifUt  to  cnmpensati-  the  la'onrs  of  the  author.  He  began  to  compose 
th  :Sfc  Elements  principally  with  the  view  of  furnish in|^  an  aid  to  stiidenti 
atkiidins;  his  Lee;  :^  t  ;  hut  soon  conctived,  that,  by  g-iving'  a  little  more 
amplitude  to  their  composition,  he  nii^jht  render  the  work  of  more  general 
Utility.  As  now  given  io  the  public,  be  would  willingly  flatter  iiimsell 
that  it  may  be  not  only  se.rviceabK-  to  ycith,  in  furnishing  a  regular  plan 
for  the  prosecution  of  this  important  study,  but  useful  even  to  those  wlio 
have  acquired  a  competent  knowledge  of  general  history  from  the  peru- 
sal of  the  works  of  detached  historians,  and  who  wish  to  methodize  that 
knowledge,  or  even  to  refresh  their  memory  on  material  facts  and  the 
•rder  of  events.  "^ 

In  the  composition  of  these  Elements  the  author  has  endeavoured  to 
unite  with  the  detail  of  facts,  so  much  of  reflection  as  to  aid  the  mind 
in  the  formation  of  rati.v..al  views  of  the  causes  and  consequences  of 
events,  as  well  as  of  the  policy  of  the  actors  ;  but  he  has  anxiously 
guairded  against  thut  speculative  refinement  which  has  sometimes  entered 
into  works  of  this  nature.  Such  works  profess  to  exhibit  the  philoeophy 
or  (he  spirit  of  history,  but  are  more  adapted  to  display  the  writt-r's 
ingenuity  as  a  theorist,  or  talents  as  a  rhetorician,  than  to  instruct  the 
reader  in  the  more  useful  knowledge  of  historical  facts. 

As  the  progress  of  the  human  miu'l  forms  a  capital  object  in  the  study 
of  history,  the  state  of  the  arts  and  sciences,  the  religion,  laws,  govern- 
ment, and  manners  of  nations,  are  material  parts,  even  in  an  elementary 
work  of  this  nature.  The  history  o;  literature  is  a  most  important  arti- 
cle in  this  study.  Tlie  author  ha^  theief.^rt  endeavoured  to  give  to  each  of 
these  topics  its  due  share  of  attention  ;  and  in  that  view  they  are  sepa- 
rately treated,  in  distinct  section's,  at  parti<;ular  periods  of  time. 

ALEX.  FRASER  TITLER. 

Edinburgh,  ^pril   1801. 


CONTENTS. 


— «»»«9«44*- 


INTRODUCTION. 

Ativantages  arising  from  the  Study  of  History,  and  moro  particularly 

from  prosecuting  it  according  to  a  regular  Plan      -        -        -        -        11 
Plak  of  the  course  '        •  13' 


PART  FIRST 

ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


Sect.  1.  Earliest  authentic  Accounts  of  the  History  of  the  World  17 
Soct.     2.  Considerations  on  the  Nature  of  the  First  Governments,  and 

on  the  Laws,  Customs,  Arts,  and  Sciences   of  the  first 

Ages              18 

Sect.     3.  Of  the  Egyptians 29 

Sect.     4.  Of  the  Phoenicians  -------22 

Sect.     5.  The  History  of  Greece ib. 

Sect.     6.  Reflections  on  the  first  and  rudest  Periods  of  the  Grecian 

History 23 

Sect.     7.  Early  period  of  Grecian  History.     Argonautic  Expedition. 

Wars  of  Thebes  and  Troy           -         .        -         -         -  24 

Sect.     8.  Establishment  of  the  Greek  Colonies         -         -         •  25 

Sect.     9.  The  Republic  of  Sparta         ......  26 

Sect.  10.  The  Republic  r.f  Athens 28 

Sect.  11.  Of  the  state  of  the  Persian  Empire,  and  its  History  down  to 

the  War  with  Greece          --....  29 

Sect.  12.  The  War  between  Greece  and  Persia         -        »         -         -  31 

Sect.  13.  Age  of  Peric  les      ----..,.  33 

Sect.  14.  The  Republic  of  Thebes            -*.-..  35 

Sect.  1.5.   Philip  of  Macedon          •-•....  Jb, 

Sect.  16.  Alexander  the  Great          '-•■>■---  36 

Sect.  17.  Successors  of  Alexander         •-....  33 

Sect.  18.  Fall  and  conquest  of  Greece  ...  .  ,  .  gQ 
Sect.  19.  Political  Reflections  arising  from  the  History  of  the  States  of 

Greece       ----»....  40 

Sect.  20.  State  of  the  Arts  in  Greece        •«•...  41 

Sect.  21.  Of  the  Greek  Poeis 43 

Sect.  22.  Of  the  Greek  Historians             ••>«...  45 

Sect.  23.  Of  the  Greek  Philogophara              47 

Sect.  24.  The  HiBtory  of  Rome 49 

Rcflectious  on  the  Government  and  State  of  Eome  under  tht 

Kingii  .>...•....  01 
A2 


«  C0^fTENT3. 

Page. 

Sect.  25.  Rome  under  the  Consuls            •        .*...-  53 

Sect.  26.  The  LawofVolero 56 

Sect.  27.  The  Decemvirate      .».-..        ..57 

Sect.  28.  Increase  of  popular  Power      ---.-.  53 

Sect.  29.  Conquest  of  Italy  by  the  Romans      .        -        -        •        .  59 

Sect.  30.  History  of  Carthage 60 

Sect.  31.  History  of  SicUy -61 

Sect.  32.  The  Punic  Wars 62 

Sect.  33.  The  Gracchi,  and  the  Corruption  of  the  Commonwealth  64 
Sect.  34.  Progress  of  the  Civil  Wars.     Second  Triumvirate,  and  fall  of 

the  Republic          -' 67 

Sect.  35.  Considerations  on  such  particulars  as  mark  the  Genius  and 

national  Character  of  the  Romans      ...         -  70 

System  of  Roman  Education     ..---.  ib. 

Sect.  36.  Of  the  Progress  of  Literature  among  the  Romans            •  71 

Sect.  37.  State  of  Philosophy  among  the  Romans     ...  75 

Sect.  38.  Of  the  Public  and  Private  Manners  of  the  Romans     -         -  76 

Sect.  3.9.  Of  the  Art  of  War  among  the  Romans  ...  77 
Beet.  40.  Reflections  arising  from  a  View  of  the  Roman  History  during 

the  Commonwealth              ......  79 

Beet.  41.  Rome  under  the  Emperors          ......  81 

Sect.  42.  The  same  subject  continued            .....  84 

Sect.  43.  Age  of  the  Antoniues,  &c.         ......  87 

Sect.  44.  State  of  the  Roman  Empire  at  the  time  of  Constantine.     His 

Successors  ...-..--  90 
Sect.  45.  Progress  of  the  Christian  Religion  from  its  Institution  to  the 

Extinction  of  Paganism  in  the  Reign  of  Theodoeius       -  93 

Sect.  46.  Extinction  of  the  Roman  Empire  in  the  West  -  -  95 
Sect.  47.  Of  the  Origin,  Manners,  and  Character  of  the  Gothic  Nations 

before  their  establisluuenl  in  the  Roman  Empire  -  97 
Sect.  48.  Of  the  Manners,  Laws,  and  Government  of  the  Gothic  Na- 
tions after  their  establishment  in  the  Roman  Empire  99 
Sect.  49.  Method  of  studying  Ancient  History          -        -        -        -  108 


PART  SECOND. 

MODERN   HISTORY. 


Sect.     1.  Of  Arabia  and  the  Empire  of  the  Saracens  -        -       106 

Sect.     2.  Monarchy  of  the  Franks         ...  -         -  lUQ 

Sect.     3.  Reflections  on  the  State  of  France  during  the  Merovingian 

race  of  its  Kings -        -       109 

Sect.    4.  Charlemagne.     The  new  Empire  of  the  West        -        -  112 

Sect.    5.  Manners,  Governments,  and  Customs  of  the  Age  of  Char- 
lemagne        .........       113 

Sect.    6.  Retrospective  View  of  the  Affairs  of  the  Church  before  the 

Age  of  Charlemagne  ......  115 

Sect.     7.  Empire  of  the  West  under  the  Successors  of  Charlemagne        116 
Sect.     8.  Empire  of  the  East  during  the  Eighth  and  Ninth  Centuries        118 
Sect.     9.  State  of  the  Church  in  the  Eighth  and  Ninth  Centuries      '      119 
Sect.  10.  Of  the  Saracens  in  the  Eighth  and  Ninth  Centuries        -  120 

Sect.  11.  Empire  of  tb«  West  and  Italy  in  the  Tenth  and  Eleventh 

Centuries      ......---       121 

Beet  12   Histoiy  of  Britain  from  its  earliest  Period  down  to  the  Nor- 
man Conquest  .......  123 

Mta  18  Ofta«Ginr«rnnMnt)iLaws,andManiMrs9f  the  AD£lo-&ax(HM  IS^* 


CONTENTS.  7 

Page. 

fleet.  14.  State  of  Europe. during  the  Tenth,  Eleventh,  and  Twelfth 

Centuries       -        -         --        ...        -        .       128 
Sect.  15.  History  of  England  in  the  Eleventh,  Twelfth,  and  part  of  the 

Thirteenth  Centuries 131 

Sect.  16.  State  of  Germany  and  Italy  in  the  Thirteenth  Century  134 

Sect.  17.  The  Crusades  or  Holy  Wars 135 

Sect.  18.  Of  Chivalry  and  Romance 138 

Sect.  19.  State  of  Europe  in  the  Thirteenth  and  Fourteenth  Centuries    140 
Sect.  20.  Revolution  in  Switzerland  -         -         -         .         .         .       141 

Sect.  21.  State  of  Europe  continued  in  the  Thirteenth,  Fourteenth,  and 

part  of  the  Fifteenth  Centuries  ....  142 

Sect.  22.  History  of  England  in  the  Thirteenth  Century  -         -       143 

Sect.  23.  History  of  Scotland  from  the  Eleventh  to  the  Fourteenth 

Century 144 

Sect.  24.  History  of  England  in  the  Fourteenth  Century        -         -  146 

Sect.  25.  England  and  France  in  the  Fifteenth  Century.      State   of 

Manners 147 

Sect.  26.  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Greek  Empire  .        -        ,  149 

Sect.  27.  Government  and  Policy  of  the  TurTkish  Empire  -        •       150 

Sect.  28.  France  and  Italy  in  the  End  of  the  Fifteenth  Century  151 

Sect.  29.  History  of  Spain  in  the  Fourteenth  and  Fifteenth  Centuries      152 
Sect.  30.  France,  Spain,  and  Italy,  in  the  End  of  the  Fifteenth  and  Be- 
ginning of  the  Sixteenth  Century  ....         158 
Sect.  31.  History  of  England  from  tke  Middle  of  the  Fifteenth  to  the 
Beginning  of  the  Sixteenth  Century.     Civil  Wars  of  York 
and  Lancaster       •         -         -         --         -        .        .       154 
Sect.  32.  History  of  Scotland  from  the  Middle  of  the  Fourteenth  Cen- 
tury to  the  End  of  the  Reign  of  James  V.  -        -  1.56 
Sect.  33.  Of  the  Ancient  Constitution  of  the  Scottish  Government           159 
Sect.  34.  A  view  of  the  Progress  of  Literature  and  ^ience  in  Europe 
from  the  Revival  of  Letters  to  the  End  of  the  Fifteenth 

Century ...      160 

Sect.  35.  View  of  the  Progress  of  Commerce  in  Europe  before  the 

Portuguese  Discoveries 163 

Sect.  36.  Discoveries  of  the  Portuguese  in  the  Fifteent^i  Century,  and 

their  efiects  on  tlie  Commerce  of  Europe        ...       165 
Sect.  37.  Germany  and  France  in  the  Reigns  of  Charl«^s  V.  and  Fran- 
cis I.  -         -         -         -         -         -        ,-         -        -  167 

Sect.  38.  Observations  on  the  Constitution  of  the  German  Empire  170 

Sect.  39.  Of  the   Reformation  in  Germany   and  Switzerland,  and  the 

Revolution  in  Denmark  and  Sweden      .       •*.         .         .       n\ 
Sect.  40.  Of  the  Reformation  in  England  under  Henry  VIII.  and  his 

Successors  ........  174 

Sect.  41.  Of  the  Discovery  and  Conquest  of  America  by  the  Spaniards  175 
Sect.  42.  Possessions  of  the  other  European  Nations  in  America  177 

Sect.  43.  Of  the  State  of  the  Fine  Arts  in  Europe,  in  the  Age  of  Leo  X.  180 
Sect.  44.  Of  the  Ottoman  Power  in  the  Sixteenth  Century        -         -       182 
Sect.  45.  State  of  Persia,  and  the  other  Asiatic  Kingdoms,  in  the  Six- 
teenth and  Seventeenth  Centuries       ....  183 

Sect.  46.  History  of  India 184 

Sect.  47.  Ancient  State  of  India  ;  Manners,  Laws,  Arts,  and  Sciences, 

and  Religion,  of  the  Hindoos     .        .        -        -        ,  186 

Sect.  48.  Of  China  and  Japan  .......       lyQ 

Sect.  49.  Of  the  Antiquity  of  the  Empire  of  China.     State  of  the  Arts 

#nd  Sciences,  Manners,  Government,  Laws        -        -  189 

Sect.  50.  Mr.  Bailly's  Theory  of  the  Origin  of  the  Sciences  among  the 

Nations  of  Asia      .         -        .-        -        .        .        .       J98 
Sect.  51.  Reignof  Philip  II.  of  Spaia.     Revolution  of  the  Netherlands, 

and  Estsblishment  of  the  Republic  oft  Holland  -  194 

Beet.  .52.  Of  the  Constitution  a«d  GovernmcDt  of  the  United  Provinces  19$ 
Sect.  53.  R«ign  of  Philip  II.  continued  *        &        ^        .<       .      I97 


8  COISfTENTS. 

Fagt. 
Sect.  54.  State  of  France  in  the  End  of  the  Sixteenth  Century,  under 
Henry    II.,    Francia    II.,    Charles    IX.,    Honry    III.,    and 

Henry  IV. 197 

Sect.  55.  History  of  England  and  Scotland  in  the  Reigns  of  Elizabeth 

and  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  199 

Sect.  56.  History    of  Great    Britain    in   the  Reigns  of  James  I.  and 

Charles  I. 203 

Sect.  -57.  The  Commonwealth  of  England 207 

Sect.  .^)8.  Reigns  of  Charles  II.  and  James  II.       -         -         -         .  209 

Sect.  50.  On  the  British  Constitution 211 

Sect.  60.  Of  the  Public  Revenue  of  Great  Britain  •.      -         •         214 

Sect.  61.  History  of  France  under  LcwiK  XIII.         ....       216 

Sect    62.  Spain  under  Philip  III.  and  Philip  IV.     Constitution  of  Por- 
tugal and  Spain     -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -       217 

Sect.  63.  Affairs  of  Germany  from  the  Abdication  of  Charles  V.  to  the 

Peaae  of  Westphalia  ......  218 

Sect.  64.  France  under  Lewis  XIV. 219 

Sect.  65.  Of  the  Constitution  of  France  under  the  Monarchy         -  223 

Sett.  66.  Of  Peter  the  Great,   Czar  of  Muscovy,   and  Charles  XII., 

King  of  Sweden 224 

Sect.  67.  A  View  of  Ihe  Progress  of  Science  and  Literature  in  Europe, 
from  ihe  End  of  the  Fifteenth  to  the  End  of  the  Sixteenth 
Century -        .      237 


APPENDIX. 

THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS. 

Sect.     1.  A  General  View  of  the  History  of  Mankind  in  the  Primeval 

Ages 231 

Sect.    2.  Summary  View  of  Jewish  History          ....  232 

Sect.     3.  The  Antiquity  of  the  Scriptures 233 

Sect.     4.  The  Subject  of  the  Books,  and  Characters  of  the  Writers  235 

Sect.     5.  Of  the  Antediluvian  World 240 

Sect.     6.  First  Ages  after  the  Deluge       ......  241 

Sect.     7.  Of  the  Jews ib 

Sect.     8.  The  History  of  the  Hebrews  during  the  Government  of  the 

Judges 244 

Sect.     9.  Retrospect  of  the  Government  of  the  Hebrews           -        -  245 

Sect.  10.  Regal  Government  of  the  Hebrews         ....  246 

Sect.  11.  Restoration  of  the  Jews  to  their  Liberty  and  Country        -  249 

Sect.  12.  The  State  of  Learning  and  Commerce  among  the  Jews  252 

Conclusion       ,.,-.--...*  253 

PART  THIRD. 

MODERN  HISTORY. 

Ccdb    1.  France,  from  the  death  of  Lewis  XJV^  1,715,  to  the  Peace  of 

Vienna,  1,738        -< SW 


CONTENTS.  9 

Page. 

Sect.    9.  Ensland,   from  the   Accession   of  the  House  of  Hanover, 

1,714,  to  tlie  end  of  tho  Reign  of  George  ide  First,  1,727      2ii2 

Sect.     3.  Austria,  (and  Germanv,)   from  tho  Peace  of  Kastadt,  1,714, 

to  the  Peace  i^fAix-la-Cliapelle,  1,748         -         -         -  868 

Sect.     4.  En_l;'nd.  from   U\v   Accession   of  George  11.  to  the  Throne, 

1.727, io  his  death,  1,760 -       273 

Sect.    -5.  State  of  Eurorie  at  the  Conclusion  of  the  Peace  of  Aix-la- 

Chapelle.  1.74:5 278 

Sect.     6.  Of  the  yeven  Years'  W^ar,  1,755— l,7fi2  .         -         -  2rfl 

Sect.  7.  From  the  Accession  of  CK'ur^e  III.,  I,7'.i0,to  the  Commence- 
ment of  ttie  Disputes  with  America,  1,71)1      "         "         r       ^'^^ 

Sect.     8.  DisDutes  between  Great  Brham  and  her  American  Colonies, 

l',7(i4— 1,7«3 291 

Sect.     9.  France,  from  the  Peace  of  Paris,  1,7G3,  to  tho  Opening  of  the 

Assemhly  of  the  States  General,  1,78'J  -         -         -       297 

Sect.  10.  Austria,  from  the  conclusion  of  the  Seven  Years'  War,  to  the 

death  of  Maria  Tiieresa,  1,7G;^— 1,780         -         -         -  307 

Sect.  11.  Reigns  of  Joseph  II..  Leopold  II  ,  &c.,  from  1,765  to  1^800      309 

Sect.  12.  France,  from  the  OpeniiiV  of  the  Assembly   of  the  States 

General,  1,78'»,  to  the  deaths  of  the  King  and  Queen,  1,793  316 

Sect.  13.  Great  Britain,  from  tlie  conclusion  of  the   American  War, 

1,783,  to  the  Peace  of  Amiens,  1,802      -         -         -         -       322 

Sect.  14.  France,  from  the  death  of  the  King  and  Queen,  and  Over- 
throw of  the  Girondist  or  Brissotine  Party,  1,793,  to  the 
Establishment  of  the  Directory,  1,795  -         -         -  333 

Sect.  15.  France,  ficm  the  Establishment  of  the  i'irectory,  1,795,  to  the 

Peace  of  Amiens     -------  337 

Sect.  16.  France,  from  the  Peace  of  Amiens  to  the  Treaty  of  Tilsit, 

1,807 347 

Sect.  17.  Spain  and  Portugal,  from  1,788  to  1,814  -         -         -  353 

Sect.  18.  France,  from  the  Peace  of  Tilsit,  to  the  Abdication  of  Na- 
poleon, 1,814  ...--.        -         .      359 

Sect.  19.  Poland,  from  the  Commencement  of  the  Eighteenth  Century, 

to  the  Treaty  of  Vienna,  1,815  .         .         -         -  363 

Sect.  20.  Great  Britain,  from  the  Peace  of  Amiens,  1,802,  to  the  death 

of  George  III.,  1,820 -         -       369 

Sect.  21.  France,  from  the  Entrance  of  the  Allies  into  Paris,  March, 
1,814,  to  the  final  Evacuation  of  it  by  the  Foreign  Troops, 
1,818 375 

Sect.  22.  Northern  States  of  Europe,  from  the  Close  of  the  Seven- 
teenth Century 379 

Sect.  23.  Southern  States  of  Europe,  from  the  Close  of  the  Seventeenth 

Century  387 

Sect.  24.  Of  India,  or  Hindoostan  ..--..      391 

State  of  Arts,  Sciences,  Religion,  Laws,  Government,  «fee.     -        ••  398 

Botany  ...  402 

Electricity  --.-......  405 

Mineralogy  and  Geology  -        -        •        -        -        -        .-  407 

Geography  '-         -         -         -         -         .         .-  409 

Discoveries  and  Inventions       ...  .  ,  419 

Relio-ion -  -  420 

History,  Polite  Literature,  Fine  Arts,  &c.  .-  422 

Treaty  of  Vienna,  1,815        ....  433 

2 


1 
19  CONTENTS.  i 

PART  FOURTH. 

THE  UNITED  STATES. 

■j 

Pag*       I 
Sect.  1.  Discovery  of  America         .-.--,.      434      J 

Sect.  2.  Discoveries  by  tlie  English.     Settlement  of  Virginia.       •  427       i 

Sect.  3.  Settlement  of  Massachusetts,  Rhode-Island,  Connecticut,  New-  ' 

Hampshire,  Maine,  Maryland,  North  and  South  Carolina,  1 

New-York,   New-Jersey,    Pennsylvania,    Delaware,    and 
Georgia  ........  431 

Sect.  4.  War  with  France,  and  Conquest  of  Canada.     Disputes  with 

Great  Britain,  and  War  of  the  Revolution      ...       438 

Sect.  5.  Establishment  of  the  State  and  National  Governments.    Wars 

with  Tripoli  asd  the  Indians,  &c.       ....  44$ 

Sect.  6.  War  with  Great  Britain,  &c.       -.--*.      451 


A  Tfible  of  Chronology  * *      4«l 

CtiHFARATlVE  VIEW  OF  AkCIEKT  AND  MoDERK  GEOGRAPHY  '  4t>9 


INTRODUCTION. 


-'•^•••4«-' 


1.  THE  value  of  any  science  is  to  be  estimated  accordin*  to  its  tenden- 
cy to  promote  improvement,  either  in  private  virtue,  or  in  those  qualities 
which  render  man  extensively  useful  in  society.  Some  objects  ol'  pursuit 
have  a  secondary  utility  ;  in  furnishing  rational  amusement,  which,  re- 
lievin*  the  mind  at  intervals  from  the  fatigue  of  serious  occupation,  in- 
vigorates and  prepares  it  for  fresh  exertion.  It  is  the  pt  rfectiou  of  any 
science,  to  unite  these  advantages,  to  promote  the  advancement  of  public 
and  private  virtue,  and  to  supply  such  a  degree  of  amusement,  as  to  super- 
sede the  necessity  of  recurring  to  frivolous  pursuits  for  the  sake  of  relaxa- 
tion.    Under  this  description  falls  the  science  of  history. 

2.  History,  says  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus,  is  ■■  philosophy  teaching 
by  examples."  The  superior  efficacy  of  example  to  precept  is  universally 
ackuowledgea  All  the  laws  of  morality  and  rules  oi  conduct  are  veri- 
fied by  experience,  and  are  constantly  submitted  to  its  test  and  examina- 
tion. History,  which  adds  to  our  own  experience  an  immense  trt;asure  of 
the  experience  of  others,  furnishes  innumerable  proofs,  by  which  we  may 
verify  all  the  precepts  of  morality  and  of  prudence. 

3.  History,  beside  its  general  advantages,  has  a  distinct  species  of  util- 
ity to  diderent  men,  according  to  their  several  ranks  in  society,  and  occu- 
pations in  life. 

4.  In  this  country  it  is  an  indispensable  duty  of  every  man  of  liberal 
birth,  to  be  acquainted,  in  a  certain  degree,  with  the  science  of-  politics  ; 
and  history  is  the  school  of  politics.  It  opens  to  us  the  springs  of  human 
affairs ;  the  causes  of  the  rise,  grandeur,  revolutions,  and  fail  of  empires ; 
it  points  out  the  reciprocal  influence  of  government  and  of  national  man- 
ners ;  it  dissipates  prejudices,  nourishes  the  love  of  our  country,  and  di- 
rects to  the  best  means  of  its  improvt  ment ;  it  illustrates  equally  the  bless- 
ings of  political  union,  and  the  miseries  of  faction  ;  the  danger,  on  one 
hand,  of  anarchy,  and,  on  the  other,  the  debasing  influence  of  despotic 
power. 

5.  It  is  necessary  that  the  study  of  history  should  be  prosecuted  accord- 
ing to  a  regular  plan  ;  for  this  science,  more  perhaps  than  any  other,  is 
liable  to  perversion  from  its  proper  use.  With  some  it  is  no  better  than 
an  idle  amusement ;  with  others  it  is  the  food  of  vanity  ;  with  a  third 
class  it  fosters  the  prejudices  of  party,  and  leads  to  political  bigotry.  It 
is  dangerous  for  those  who,  even  with  the  best  intentions,  seek  for  histori- 
cal knowle<lge,  to  pursue  the  study  without  a  guide  ;  for  no  science  haa 
been  so  little  methodized.  The  sources  of  prejudice  are  infinite  ;  and  the 
mind  of  youth  should  not  be  left  undirecire4  amidst  the  erring,  the  partial, 
and  contradictory  representations  of  historians.  Besides  the  importance  of 
being  able  to  discriminate  truth  from  falsehood,  the  attention  ought  to  be 
directed  only  to  useful  truths.  Much  danger  arises  from  the  perusal  of 
memoirs,  collections  of  anecdotes,  &;c. ;  for  many  of  those  works  exnibit 
the  most  dejjfaved  pictures,  weaken  our  confidence  in  virtue,  aud  presoat 
the  most  unfavourable  views  of  human  natures 


1:2  INTRODUCTION. 

6.  There  are  many  difficulties  which  attend  the  attempt  of  formin*  a 
proptr  plan  of  study,  and  giving  an  instructive  view  of  general  history. 
Ltility  is  to  be  reconciled  with  amusement,  prejudices  are  to  be  encoun- 
tered, variety  of  taste  to  be  consulted,  political  opinions  balanced,  judg- 
ment and  decision  exercised  on  topics  ketnly  controverted.  The  proposer 
of  such  a  plan  ought  thi  refore  to  be  possessed  equally  of  firmness  ol  mind 
and  U!oderatic«i  of  sentiment.  In  many  cases  he  must  abandon  jiopuLarity 
for  the  caliTi  approbation  of  his  own  conscience.  Disregarding  every 
partial  and  inferior  consideration,  he  must  direct  his  view  solely  to 
the  proper  end  of  all  education,  the  forming  of  good  men,  and  oi  good 
citizens. 

7.  The  object  and  general  purpose  of  the  following  course,  is  to  exhibit  a 
progressive  view  of  the  state  of  mankind,  from  the  earJiv  st  ages  of  which 
we  have  any  authentic  accounts,  down  to  the  close  of  the  17th  century  ; 
to  delineate  the  origin  of  states  and  of  empires,  the  great  outlii^es  of  their 
history,  the  revolutions  which  they  have  undergc-iie,  the  causes  which 
have  contributed  to  their  rise  and  grandeur,  and  operated  to  their  decline 
an''  extinction.  For  these  purposes  it  is  necessary  to  bestow  particular 
attention  on  the  manners  of  nations,  thtir  laws,  the  nature  of  their  gorern- 
ments.  their  religion,  their  intellectual  improvements,  and  their  progress 
in  the  arts  and  sciences. 


PLAN  OF  THE  COURSE. 


TWO  opposite  methods  have  been  followed  in  givin*  academical  lecturet 
on  the  study  of  history  :  one  exhibiting;  a  strict  chronological  arrangement 
of  evi  nts,  upon  the  plan  of  Turselline''s  Epitome  ;  the  other,  a  series  of  dis- 
quisitions on  the  various  heads  or  titles  o(  public  law,  and  the  doctrines  of 
politics  ;  illustrated  by  examples  drawn  from  ancient  and  modern  history. 
Objections  occur  to  both  these  methods  :  the  former  furnishes  only  a  dry 
chronicle  of  events,  which  nothing  connects  together  but  the  order  of 
time  ;  the  latter  is  insufficient  for  the  most  important  purposes  of  history, 
the  tracing  of  events  to  their  causes,  the  detection  of  the  springs  of  hu- 
man actions,  the  display  of  the  progress  of  society,  and  of  the  rise  and  fall 
of  states  anfi  empires  ;  finally,  by  confining  history  to  the  exemplificatioa 
of  the  doctrines  of  politics,  we  lose  its  eflect  as  a  sciiool  of  morals. 

In  the  following  lectures  we  hold  a  middle  course  between  these  ex- 
tremes, and  endeavour,  by  remedying  the  imperfection  of  each,  to  unite, 
if  possible,  the  advantages  of  both. 

While  so  much  regard  is  had  to  chronology  as  is  necessary  for  showin* 
the  progress  of  mankind  in  society,  and  communicating  just  ideas  of  the 
state  of  the  world  in  all  the  different  ages  to  which  authentic  history  ex- 
tends, we  shall,  in  the  delineation  of  the  rise  and  fall  of  empires  and  their 
revolutions,  pay  more  attention  to  the  connexion  of  subject  than  that  of 
time. 

In  this  view  we  must  reject  the  common  method  of  arranging  general 
history  according  to  epochs,  or  aeras. 

When  the  world  is  viewed  at  any  period  either  of  ancient  or  of  modem 
history,  we  generally  observe  one  nation  or  empire  predominant,  to  whom 
all  the  rest  bear,  as  it  were,  an  under  part,  and  to  whose  history  we  find 
that  the  principal  events  in  the  annals  of  other  nations  may  be  referred 
from  some  natural  connexion.  This  predominant  empire  or  state  it  is  pro* 
posed  to  exhibit  to  view  as  the  principal  object,  whose  history  therefore 
is  to  be  more  fully  delineated,  while  the  rest  are  only  incidentally  touch- 
ed when  they  come  to  have  a  natural  connexion  with  the  principal. 

The  Jewish  history,  belonging  to  a  different  department  of  academical 
education,  enters  not  into  the  plan  of  these  lectures  ;  though  we  often  re- 
sort to  the  sacred  writings  for  detached  facts  illustrative  of  the  mannerg 
of  ancient  nations.     See  appendix. 

In  the  ancient  world,  among  the  profane  nations,  the  Greeks  are  the 
earliest  people  who  make  a  distinguished  figure,  and  whose  history  is  at 
the  same  time  authentic. 

The  Greeks  owed  their  civilization  to  the  Egyptians  and  PhoenicianB. 
The  Grecian  history  is  therefore  properly  introduced  by  a  short  account 
of  these  nations,  and  of  the  Assyriaiu,  their  rivals,  conquered  at  one  tiiiM 
by  the  Egyptians,  and  conquerors  afterwards  of  them  in  their  turn. 

Rise  of  the  independent  states  of  Greece,  and  singular  constitution  etf 
the  two  great  republics  of  Sparta  and  Athens. 

The  war  of  Greece  with  Persia  induces  a  short  account  of  the  preceding 
periods  of  the  history  of  that  nation,  the  rise  of  the  Persian  mooarchr,  tlu* 
nature  of  its  governmsnt,  manners,  and  religion. 


14  PLAN  OF  THE  COURSE. 

^  The  Grecian  history  is  pursued  throug^h  all  the  revolutions  of  the  na- 
tion, till  Greece  becomes  a  province  of  the  Roman  empire. 

Political  reflections  applicable  to  the  history  of  the  states  of  Greece. — 
Progress  of  the  Greeks  in  the  arts.— Of  the  Greek  poets, — historians,— 
philosophers.         •  ' 

Rome,  after  the  conquest  of  Greece,  becomes  the  leading  object  of  at- 
tention. 

Origin  of  the  Romans. — Nature  of  their  government  under  the  kings. — 
Easy  substitution  of  the  consular  for  the  regal  dignity. — Subsequent 
changes  in  the  constitution. — Progress  to  a  democracy. — Extension  of  the 
Roman  arms. — Conquest  of  Italy. — AA  ars  with  foreign   nations. 

The  Punic  wars  open  a  collateral  view  to  the  history  of  Carthage  and 
of  Sicily.  * 

Success  of  the  Roman  arms  in  Asia,  Macedonia,  and  Greece. — Opu- 
lence of  the  republic  from  her  conquests,  and  corruption  of  her  manners. — 
The  civil  wars,  and  ruin  of  the  commonwealth. 

Particulars  which  mark  the  gen.us  and  national  spirit  of  the  -Romans  : — 
education, — laws, — literary  cliaracter, — art  of  war, — public  and  private 
manners. 

Rome  under  the  emperors. — Artful  policy  by  which  the  first  emperors 
disguised  their  absolute  authority. — Decline  ol'  the  ambitious  character 
of  the  Romans. — Easy  submission  to  the  loss  of  civil  liberty. — The  military- 
spirit  purposely  abased  by  the  emperors. — The  empire  divided  becomes 
a  languid  body,  without  internal  vigour. — The  Gothic  nations  pour  down 
Jrom  the  north. — Italy  conquered  successively  by  the  Heruli,  Ostrogoths, 
and  Lombards. — Extinction  ol'  the  western  empire. 

The  manners,  genius,  laws,  and  government  of  the  Gothic  nations,  form 
an  important  object  of  inquiry,  from  their  influence  on  the  manners  and 
policy  ol  the  modern  European  kingdoms. 

In  the  delineation  of  modern  history  the  leading  objects  of  attention  are 
more  various  ;  the  scene  is  oftener  changed  :  nations,  which  for  a  while 
occupy  the  chief  attention,  become  for  a  time  subordinate,  and  afterwards 
re-assume  their  rank  as  principal  ;  yet  the  same  plan  is  pursued  a^  in  the 
department  of  ancient  history  :  the  picture  is  occupied  only  by  one  great 
object  at  a  time,  to  which  all  the  rest  hold  an  inferior  rank,  and  are 
taken  notice  of  only  when  connected  with  the  principal. 

Upon  the  fall  of  the  western  empire,  the  Saracens  are  the  first  who  dis- 
tinguish themselves  by  the  extension  of  their  conquests,  and  the  splen- 
dour of  their  dominion. 

While  the  Saracens  extend  their  arms  in  the  east  and  in  Africa,  a  new 
empire  of  the  west  is  founded  by  Charlsmagne. — The  rise  and  progress  of 
the  monarchy  of  the  Franks. — The  origin  of  the  feudal  system. — State  of 
the  European  manners  in  the  age  of  Chai'lemagne. — Government,  arts 
and  sciences,  literature. 

As  collateral  objects  of  attention,  we  survey  the  remains  of  the  Roman 
empire  in  the  east ;  the  conquests  and  settlements  of  the  Normans  ;  the 
foundation  and  progress  of  the  temporal  dominion  of  the  church  of  Rome  ; 
the  conquest  of  Spain  by  the  Saracens. 

The  conquest  of  England  by  the  Normans  solicits  our  attention  to  the 
history  of  Britain.  Retrospective  view  of  the  British  history,  from  its  ear- 
liest period  to  the  end  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  government  in  England. — Ob- 
servations on  the  government,  laws,  and  manners,  of  the  Anglo-Saxons. 

Collateral  view  of  the  state  of  the  continental  kingdoms  of  Europe, 
during  the  ninth,  tenth,  and  eleventh  centurii  s. — France  under  the  Ca- 
petian  race  of  monarchs. — Conquests  of  the  Normans  in  Italy  and  Sicily.— 
State  of  the  nortliern  kingdom*  of  Europe.  The  eastern  empire. — Empire 
•fGermanj'.— Disputes  of  sopremacy  betweea  the  popes  and  the  emperort. 


PLAN  OF  THE  COURSE.  15 

The  history  of  Britain  still  the  principal  object  of  attention. — England 
under  the  kings  of  the  Norman  line,  and  the  first  princes  of  the  Plantage- 
net  branch. — The  conquest  of  Ireland,  under  Henry  II.,  introduces  an  an- 
ticipated progressive  view  of  the  political  connexion  between  England 
and  Ireland  down  to  the  present  time.  As  we  proceed  in  the  delineatioa 
of  the  British  history,  we  note  particularly  those  circumstances  which 
mark  the  growth  of  the  English  constitution. 

At  this  period  all  the  kingdoms  of  Europe  join  in  the  crusades. — A  brief 
account  is  given  of  those  enterprises. — Moral  and  political  effects  of  the 
crusades  on  the  nations  of  Europe. — Origin  of  chivalry,  and  rise  of  roman- 
tic fiction. 

Short  connected  sketch  of  the  state  of  the  European  nations  after  the 
crusades. — Rise  of  the  house  of  Austria. — Decline  of  the  feudal  govern- 
ment in  France. — Establishment  of  the  Swiss  republics. — Disorders  in  the 
popedom. — Council  ot  Constance. 

The  history  of  Britain  resumed. — England  under  Henry  III.  and  Ed- 
ward I. — The  conquest  of  \V'ales. — The  history  of  Scotland  at  this  period 
intimately  coimected  witli  that  of  England. — \'iew  of  the  Scottish  history 
from  Malcolm  Canmore  to  Robert  Bruce. — State  of  both  kingdonis  during 
the  reigns  of  Edward  II.  and  HI. — The  history  of  France  connected  with 
that  of  Britain. — France  itself  won  by  Henry  V. 

The  state  of  the  east  at  this  period  affords  the  most  interesting  object  of 
attention. — The  progress  of  the  Ottoman  arms  retarded  for  a  while  by  the 
conquests  of  Tamerlane  and  of  Scandtrlx'g. — I'he  Turks  prosecute  their 
victories  under  Mahomet  the  gieat,  to  the  total  extinction  of  the  Constan- 
tinopolitan  empire. — The  constitution  and  policy  of  the  Turkish  empire. 

France,  in  this  age,  emancipates  herself  from  the  feudal  servitude  ;  and 
Spain,  from  the  union  of  Arragon  and  Castile,  and  the  fall  of  the  kingdom 
of  the  Moors    liecomes  one  monarchy  under  Ferdinand  and  Isabella. 

I'he  history  of  Britain  is  resumed. — Sketch  of  the  history  of  England 
down  to  the  rtign  of  Henry  VIII.  ;  of  Scotlaod,  during  the  reigns  of  the 
five  .Jameses. — Delineation  of  the  ancient  constitution  of  the  Scottish  gov- 
ernment. 

'i'he  end  cf  the  fifteenth  century  is  a  remarkable  a:ra  in  the  history  of 
Eur.-ipe.  Learning  and  the  sciences  underwent  at  that  time  a  very  rapid 
improvement;  and,  after  ages  of  darkne3s,~s>hone  out  at  once  with  sur- 
prising lustre. — A  connected  view  is  presented  of  the  progress  of  literature 
in  Europe,  fro.u  its  revival  down  to  this  period. — in  the  same  age  the  ad- 
vancement of  navigation,  and  the  course  to  India  by  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  explored  by  the  Portuguese,  affect  the  commerce  of  all  the  Europe- 
an 1  iugdoms. 

The  age  of  v.  harles  V.  unites  in  one  connected  view  the  affairs  of  Ger- 
many, of  Spain,  of  1  rauce,  of  England,  and  of  Italy.  The  discovery  of 
the  new  world,  the  relormation  m  Germany  and  England,  and  the  splen- 
dour of  the  line  arts  under  the  pontificate  of  Leo  X.,  render  this  period  ©ne 
of  tlie  most  interesting  in  the  annals  of  mankind. 

The  paciiication  of  Europe,  by  the  treaty  of  Catteau  Cambresis,  allows 
us  for  a  while  to  turn  our  attention  to  the  state  of  Asia.  A  short  sketch  is 
given  of  the  modern  history  of  I'ersia,  and  the  state  of  the  other  kingdoms 
of  vsia,  in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries  ;  the  history  of  India  • 
the  manners,  laws,  arts,  and  sciences,  and  religion  of  the  Hindoos  ;  the 
history  of  China  and  Japan;  the  antiquity  of  the  Chinese  empire,  its 
manners,  laws,  government,  and  attainments  in  the  arts  and  sciences. 

Returning  to  Europe,  the  attention  is  directed  to  the  state  of  the  conti- 
nental kingdoms  in  the  age  of  Philip  II.  Spain,  the  Netherlands,  France, 
and  England,  present  a  various  and  animated  picture. 

England  under  Elizabeth.  The  progress  of  the  reformation  in  Scot- 
Jand. — Xlie  distracted  reign  of  Mary,   queen  of  Scots. — Tfae  hiatotj  of 


1«  PLAN  OF  THE  COURSE. 

Britain  pursued  without  interruption  down  to  the  revolution,  and  hereclos* 
ed  by  a  »ketch  <;f  tbt-  progress  of  the  English  constitution,  and  an  exam- 
ination of  its  natiuv  .it  this  period,  when  it  became  fixed  and  detenriiiH  d. 

The  history  of  the  southern  continental  kingfdoins  is  brought  down  to 
the  end  of  the  n  ijii  of  Louis  XIV.  ;  of  the  northern,  to  the  conclusion  oi 
the  reigns  of  Chailes  XII.  of  Sweden,  and  of  Peter  the  great,  czar  of  JVius- 
cory. 

We  finish  this  view  of  universal  history,  by  a  survey  of  the  state  of  the 
arts  and  sciences,  and  of  the  progress  of  literature  in  Europe,  during  the 
•Ixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries. 

Thf    chronolos^y  observed  in  this  View  of   Universal  History  is  that  of 
arehbi'hop  Ushtr^  which  is  founded  on  tht  Hehrexi-  text  of  the  Sacred  Writ- 
ings.     4  short  Table  of  Chronology  is  subjoined  to  these  headt,for  the 
Kue  Qj  'he  itudtnt. 


PART  FIRST. 
ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


SECTION  I. 


EARLIEST  AUTHENTIC  ACCOUNTS  OF  THE  HISTORY  OF 
THE  WORLD. 

It  is  a  difficult  task  to  delineate  the  state  of  mankind  in  the  ear- 
liest  ages  of  the  world.  We  want  information  sutficient  to  give  us 
positive  ideas  on  the  subject ;  but  as  man  advances  in  civilization, 
an,l  in  proportion  as  history  becomes  useful  and  important,  its  cer 
tainty  increases,  and  its  materials  ara  more  abundant. 

Various  notions  have  been  formed  with  respect  to  the  population 
of  the  antediluvian  world  and  its  physical  appearance ;  but  as  these 
are  rather  matters  of  theory  than  of  fact,  they  scarcely  fail  with- 
in the  province  of  history ;  and  they  are  of  the  less  consequence, 
because  we  are  certain  that  tha  state  of  those  antediluvian  ages 
could  have  had  no  material  intiuence  on  the  times  which  succeeded 
(hem. 

The  books  of  Moses  afford  the  earliest  authentic  history  of  the 
ages  immsdiately  foUowing  the  deluge. 

About  15U  years  afccr  that  event,  Nimrod  (the  Belus  of  profane 
historians)  buiit  Babylon  and  Assur  built  Nineveh,  which  became  the 
capital  of  the  Assyrian  empire. 

•  Ninas  the  son  of  Beius,  and  his  queen  Semiramis,  are  said  to  have 
raised  the  empire  of  Assyria  to  a  higher  degree  of  splendour. 

From  the  death  of  Ninias  the  son  of  Ninus,  down  to  the  revolt  ol 
the  Medes  under  Sardanapalus,  a  period  of  800  years,  there  is  a 
chasm  in  the  history  of  Assyria  and  Babylon.  Thio  is  to  be  supplied 
onlv  from  conjecture. 

The  earliest  periods  of  the  Egyptian  history  are  equally  uncer- 
tain with  those  of  the  Assvdan.  Menes  is  supposed  the  first  king  of 
Egypt ;  probably  the  Misraim  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  the  grandson 
of  iNoah,  or,  as  otiiers  conjecture,  tbe  Oziris  of  Egypt,  the  inventor 
of  arts,  and  the  civiiizer  of  a  great  part  of  the  eastern  worlA 

After  Menes  or  Oziris,  E^ypt  appears  to  have  been  divided  into 
four  dynasties,  Thebes.  Thin,  Memphis,  and  Tanis ;  ard  the  people 
to  have  attained  a  c^'usiderable  degree  of  civiUz^t"'^'  but  a  period 
of  barbarism  .sncceeded  under  the  shepherd-kiiv=5  subsisting  for  the 
space  of  »oaie  centuries,  down  to  the  age  of  -sesostris  (1650  A.  C), 
who  iHuted  the  separate  principalities  Into  one  kingdom,  regulated 
its  policy  with  admirable  skill,  and  disuoguisbed  hjmself  equally  by 
his  foreign  conquests,  and  by  his  dotnestic  administration. 
B2  3    , 


l»'  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


SECTION  II. 

CONSIDERATIONS  ON  THE  NATURE  OF  THE  FIRST  GOVERN- 
MENTS, AND  ON  THE  LAWS,  CUSTOMS,  ARTS,  AND 
SCIENCES  OF  THE  EARLY  AGES. 

^  1.  The  earliest  government  is  the  patriarchal,  which  subsists  in 
the  rudest  periods  ofsociety. 

This  has  an  easy  progress  to  the  monarchical. 

The  first  monarchies  must  have  been  very  weak,  and  their  terri- 
tory extremely  limited.  The  idea  of  security  precedes  that  of 
conquest.  In  torming  our  notions  of  the  extent  of  the  first  monar- 
chies, we  are  deceived  by  the  word  king,  which  according  to  modem 
ideas,  is  connected  with  an  extent  of -territory,  and  a  proportional 
power.  The  kings  in  scripture  are  no  more  than  the  chiefs  of  tribes. 
There  were  five  Kings  in  the  vale  of  Sodom.  Joshua  defeated  in  his 
wars  thirty-one  kings,  and  Adonizedec  threescore  and  ten. 

When  families  grew  into  nations,  the  transition  from  patriarchal  to 
regal  government,  was  easy;  the  kingly  office,  probably  passed  by 
descent  from  father  to  son,  and  the  sovereign  ruled  bis  tribe  or  na- 
tion, as  the  patriarch  his  family,  by  the  right  of  birth. 

The  first  ideas  of  conquest  must  have  proceeded  from  a  people  in 
fte  state  of  shepherds,  ^vho,  necessarily  changing  their,  pastures, 
would  probably  make  incursions  on  the  appropriated  territory  of 
their  neighbours.  Such  were  the  Arabian  or  rhoenician  invaders, 
who,  under  the  name  of  shepherd-kings,  conquered  Egypt.  But 
kingdoms  so  founded  could  have  little  duration.  Laws  and  good 
policy,  essential  to  the  stability  of  kingdoms,  are  the  fruit  of  intellec- 
tual refinement,  and  arise  only  in  a  state  of  society  considerably  ad- 
vanced in  civilization. 

The  progress  from  barbarism  to  civilization  is  slow,  because  every 
step  in  the  progress  is  the  result  of  necessity,  after  the  experience 
of  an  error,  or  the  strong  feeling  of  a  want. 

§  2.  Origin  of  Laws.  Certain  political  writers  have  supposed 
tfiat  in  the  infancy  of  society  penal  laAvs  must  have  been  extremely 
mild.  We  presume  the  contrary  to  have  been  rather  the  case,  as 
the  more  barbarous  the  people,  the  stronger  must  be  the  bonds  to 
restrain  them :  and  history  confirms  the  supposition  in  the  ancient 
laws  of  the  Jews,  Egyptians,  Greeks,  Romans,  and  Gauls. 

Among  the  earliest  laws  of  all  states  are  those  regarding  marriage  ; 
for  the  institution  of  marriage  is  coeval  with  the  formation  ofsociety. 
The  first  sovereigns  of  all  states  are  said  to  ha?e  instituted  marriage ; 
and  the  earliest  laws  provided  encouragements  to  matrimony. 

Among  the  ancient  nations  the  husband  purchased  his  wife  by 
money,  or  personal  services.  Among  the  Assyrian*  the  marriageable 
women  were  put  up  at  auction,  and  "the  price  obtained  for  the  more 
beautiful  w«s  assigned  as  a  dowry  to  ttio  more  homely. 

The  laws  *f  succession  are  next  in  oid^^r  to  those  of  marriage. 
The  father  had  tbe  absolute  power  in  the  I'.ivision  of  his  estate* 
But  primogeniture  w<is  understood  to  confer  certaiu  rights. 

Laws  arise  necessary  and  imperceptibly  from  the  condition  of 
gociety ;  and  each  particuW  law  may  be  traced  from  the  state  ol 
■janners,  or  the  political  emergency  which  gave  it  birth.  Hence 
wc  perc«i?e  the  intiiTMte  ctmuexioQ  between  nistory  and  jvuisjpni* 


ANCIENT  HISTOR If.  19 

dence,  and  the  light  which  they  must  necessarily  throw  upon  each 
othar.  Tne  laws  of?  country  are  best  interpreted  from  its  history ; 
and  its  uncertivin  history  is  best  elucidated  by  its  ancient  laws. 

ij  X  Earliest  Metluxis  of  autlienticating  Contracts.  Before  the  inven- 
tion of  writing,  contracts,  testaments,  sales,  marriages,  and  the  like, 
were  transacted  in  public.  The  Jewish  and  the  Grecian  histories  fur- 
nish examples.  Some  barbarous  nations  authenticate  their  bargains 
by  exchanging  symbols  or  tallies. — The  Pernyians  accomplished  most 
of  the  purposes  of  writing  by  knotted  cords  of  various  colours,  termed 
quip(>s.  The  Mexicans  communicated  intelligence  to  a  distance  by 
paiiiling.  Other  nations  used  an  abridged  mode  of  painting,  or  hi- 
eroglyphics. Before  wiUing  the  Egyptians  used  hieroglyphics  for 
transmitting  and  recording  knowledge :  after  writing,  they  employ- 
ed it  for  veiling  or  concealing  knowledge  from  the  vuigar. 

§  4.  Methods  for  recording  Historical  Facts,  and  publishing  Laws. 
Poetry  and  song  were  the  tirst  vehicles  of  history,  and  the  earliest 
mode  of  promulgating  laws.  The  songs  of  the  bards,  record  a  great 
deal  of  ancient  history ;  and  the  laws  of  many  of  the  ancient  nations 
were  composed  in  verse. 

Stones,  rude  and  sculptured,  tumuli  and  mounds  of  earth,  are  the 
monuments  of  history  among  a  barbarous  people;  and  columns,  tri- 
umphal arciies,  coins,  and  medals,  among  a  more  refined.  These 
likewise  illustrate  the  progress  of  manners  and  of  the  arts. 

§  5.  Religious  Listitutions.  Among  the  earliest  institutions  of  all 
cations,  are  those  which  regard  religious  worship.  The  sentiment 
of  rehgion  is  deeply  rooted  in  the  human  mind.  An  uninstructed 
savage  will  infer  the  existence  of  a  God,  and  his  attributes,  from  the 
general  order  and  mechanism  of  nature ;  and  even  the  temporary 
irregularities  of  nature  lead  to  religious  venei-ation  of  the  unknown 
power  which  conducts  it. 

Before  conceiving  the  idea  of  a  Being  utterly  imperceptible  to  his 
senses,  a  savage  would  naturally  seek  that  Being  in  the  most  striking 
objects  of  sense  to  which  he  owed  his  most  apparent  benefits.  Tii8 
sun,  extending  his  beneficial  influence  over  all  nature,  was  aniong 
the  earliest  oojects  of  worship.  The  fire  presented  a  symbol  of  the 
sua.  The  other  celestial  bodies  naturally  attracted  their  share  of 
veneration.* 

The  symbolical  mode  of  writing  led  to  many  peculiarities  of  the 
idolatrous  worship  of  the  ancient  nations.  Animals,  symbolical  of  the 
attrioules  of  deity,  oecame  gods  themselves.  The  same  God,  repie- 
sented  by  different  animais,  was  supposed  to  have  changed  himself 
into  different  forms.  The  gratitude  and  veneration  for  men  whose 
lives  had  been  eminently  useful,  joined  to  the  belief  of  the  souPs  im- 
mortcdity,  led  to  the  apotheosis  ot  heroes.  Many  excellent  reflections 
on  itlolatry  and  polytheism  are  found  in  the  book  called  I'fie  Wisdotn 
(f  .joloinon. 

TuL  priesthood  was  anciently  exercised  by  the  chief  or  monarch} 

•  It  is  a  theory,  supported  by  many  facts,  that  in  the  beginning,  aH  reli- 
gious truth  was  made  known  to  man  by  direct  levelation.  In  succeed- 
ing ages,  intellectual  perception  was  gradually  clouded  by  the  sensual 
and  gross  nature  of  man,  until  his  mind  could  not  contemplate  Deity,  but 
through  the  veil  of  His  works.  Thus  the  heavenly  were  perhaps,  at  first 
"Worshipped  as  representative  of  their  maker,  but  gradually  became  objects 
of  direct  adoration,  and  finally  every  element  was  peopled  with  deities ; 
and  mountains,  foregta,  streams,  aad  aaimala,  were  coasecr&ted  and  wor- 
«luppe<i> 


JO  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

but  as  an  empire  became  extensive,  the  monarch  exercised  this  office 
by  his  delegates :  vuid  hence  an  atitiitionai  source  of  veneration  for  the 
priesthood.  The  priests  were  the  framers  and  the  administrators  oi 
the  laws. 

§  6.  Arts  and  Scietices  of  Hic  Ancient  J\/'atio7is.  The  nseful  arts  are 
the  offspring  of  necessity;  the  sciences  are  the  fruit  of  ease  and 
leisure.  The  construction  of  huts,  of  weapons  of  war,  and  of  hnnt- 
ing,  are  the  earUest  arts.  Agriculture  is  not  practised  till  the  tribe 
becomes  stationary,  and  property  is  (letiiied  and  secured. 

The  sciences  arise  in  a  cultivated  society,  where  individuals  enjoy 
that  leisure  which  invites  to  study  and  speculation.  The  priests 
maintained  in  that  condition  by  the  monarch  were  ihe  evirliest  cul- 
tivators of  science.  The  Egyptian  science  w:is  contined  to  the 
priests.  Ast^-onomy,  which  is  among  the  earliest  of  the  sciences, 
owed  its  origin  probably  to  superstition.  Medicine  was  among  tlie 
early  sciences.  All  rude  nations  have  a  pharmacy  of  their  own, 
equal  in  general  to  their  wants.  Luxury,  creating  new  and  more 
complex  diseases,  requires  a  profounder  knowledge  of  medicine,  and 
of  the  animal  economy. 


SECTION  111. 

OF  THE  EGYPTIANS. 

1.  A  GREAT  portion  of  the  knowledge  and  attainments  of  the  ancient 
nations,  and  by  consequence  of  those  of  the  modems,  is  to  be  traced  to 
Egypt.  The  Egyptians  instructed  the  Greeks  ;  the  Greeks  perform- 
ed the  same  office  to  the  Romans ;  and  the  latter  have  transmitted 
much  of  that  knowledge  to  the  world,  of  which  we  are  in  possession 
at  this  day.* 

2.  The  antiquity  of  this  empire,  though  we  give  no  credit  to  the 
chronicles  of  Manetho,  must  be  allowed  to  be  very  great.  The  Mo- 
saic writings  represent  Egypt,  about  430  years  after  the  flood,  as  a 
flourishing  and  well  regulated  kingdom.  The  nature  of  the  country 
itself  affords  a  presumption  of  the  great  antiquity  of  the  empire,  and 
its  early  civilization.  From  the  feriiiizing  effects  of  the  waters  of 
the  Nile,  it  is  probable  that  agricuiture  would  be  more  early  prac- 
tised there,  than  in  regions  less  favoured  by  nature.  The  periodical 
inundations  of  the  Nile  are  perhaps  owing  to  the  vapours  of  the 
Mediterranean  condensed  on  the  mountains  of  Ethiopia. 

3.  The  government  of  Egypt  was  a  hereditary  monarchy.  The 
powers  of  the  monarch  were  limited  by  constitutional  laws;  yet  in 
many  respects  his  authoritv  was  extremely  despotical.  The  func- 
tions of  the  sovereign  were  partly  civil  and  partly  religious.— -The 
king  had  the  chief  regulation  of  all  that  regarded  tlie  worship  of  the 
gods;  and  the  priests,  considered  as  his  deputies,  filled  all  the  of- 
fices of  state.  They  were  both  the  legislators  and  the  civil  judges ; 
they  imposed  and  levied  the  taxes,  and  regulated  weights  and  meas- 
ures. The  great  national  tribunal  was  composed  of  thirty  judges, 
chosen  from  the  three  principal  departments  of  the  empire.  The 
administration  of  justice  was  defrayed  by  the  sovereign,  and,  as  par- 
ties were  their  own  advocates,  was  no  burden  upon  the  people, 
The  penal  laws  of  Egypt  were  uncommonly  severe.    Female  cha»- 

*  F«r  tk«  supposed  or%in  of  Egyptian  •cience,  se*  Part  II.  S«ct.  ^. 


ANCIENT  HISTORY.  91 

tity  waa  most  rigidly  protected.  Funeral  rites  were  not  conferred 
till  after  a  scrutiny  into  the  life  of  the  deceased,  and  by  a  judicial 
decree  approving  his  character.  The  characters  even  of  the  sove- 
reigns were  subjected  to  tliis  inquiry. 

There  was  an  extraordinary  regulation  in  Egypt  regarding  the 
borrowing  of  money.  The  borrower  gave  in  pledge  the  body  of 
his  fataer,  and  it  was  deprived  of  funeral  rites  if  he  failed  to  re- 
deem it. 

Population  was  encouraged  by  law  ;  and  every  man  was  bound  to 
maintain  and  educate  the  children  born  to  him  of  his  slaves. 

4.  The  manners  of  the  Egyptians  were  vei'y  early  formed.  They 
had  a  singular  attachment  to  ancient  usages  ;  a  dislike  to  innovation; 
a  jealousy  and  abhorrence  of  strangers. 

5.  They  preceded  most  of  the  ancient  nations  in  the  knowledge 
of  the  useful  arts,  and  in  the  cultivation  of  the  sciences.  Architecture 
was  early  brought  to  great  perfection.  Their  buildings,  the  pyra- 
mids, obelisks,  kc.^  have,  from  the  mildness  of  the  climate,  suffered 
little  injury  from  time.  Pliny  describes  the  contrivance  for  trans- 
porting tha  obelisks.  The  whole  country  abounds  with  the  remains 
of  ancient  magnificence.  Thebes,  in  Upper  Egypt,  was  one  of  the 
most  splendid  cities  in  the  world. 

The  pyramids  arc  sypposed  by  some  writers  to  have  been  erected 
about  900  years  A.  C.  They  were  probably  the  sepulchral  monu- 
ments of  the  sovereigns.  The  Egyptians  believed  that  death  did 
not  separate  the  soul  from  the  body  ;  and  hence  their  extreme  care 
to  preserve  the  body  entire,  by  embalming,  concealing  it  in  caves  and 
catacombs,  and  guarding  it  by  such  stupendous  structures.  Mr. 
Bruce  supposes  the  pyramids  to  be  rocks  hewn  into  a  pyramidal 
form,  and  encrusted,  where  necessary,  with  mason-work.* 

The  remains  of  art  in  Egypt,  though  venerable  for  their  great  an- 
tiquity, are  extremely  deficient  in  beauty  and  elegance.  The  Egyp- 
tians, were  ignorant  of  the  construction  of  an  arcn.  The  remains  of 
painting  and  sculpture  evince  but  a  slender  proficiency  in  those  arts. 

6.  The  Egyptians  possessed  considerable  knowledge  of  geometiy, 
mechanics,  and  astronomy.  They  had  divided  the  zodiac  into  twelve 
signs ;  they  calculated  eclipses ;  and  seem  to  have  had  an  idea  of 
the  motion  of  the  earth. 

7.  The  morality  taught  by  the  priests  was  pure  and  refined  j 
but  it  had  little  innuence  on  the  manners  of  the  people. 

8.  So  likewise  the  theology  and  secret  doctrines  of  the  priests 
were  rational  and  sublime  ;  but  the  worship  of  the  people  Was  de- 
based by  the  most  absurd  and  contemptible  superstition. 

9.  Notwithstanding  the  early  civilization  and  the  great  attainments 
of  this  people,  their  national  character  was  extremely  low  and  des- 
picable among  the  contemporary  nations  of  antiquity.  The  reason 
of  this  is,  they  were  a  people  who  chose  to  sequester  themselves 
from  the  rest  of  mankind ;  they  were  not  known  to  other  nations  by 
their  conquests ;  they  had  little  connexion  with  them  by  commerce ; 
and  they  had  an  antipathy  to  the  persons  and  manners  of  strangers. 

10.  There  were  likewise  many  circumstances  of  their  own  man-- 
ners  which  tended  to  degrade  them  in  the  opinion  of  other  nations. 
All  professions  were  hereditary  in  Egypt,  and  the  rank  of  each  was 
scrupulously  settled;  the  objects  of  the  religious  worship  were  dif^ 
ferent  in  different  parts  of  the  kingdom,  a  fertile  source  of  division 

*  Recoat  travellers  have  almpst  demonstrated  this  supposition* 


«  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

and  controversy ;  their  peculiar  superstitions  were  of  the  most  ab- 
surd and  debasing  nature ;  and  the  manners  of  the  people  were  ex- 
k-enaely  loose  and  profligate. 


SECTION  IV. 

OF  THE  PH(ENICIANS. 

1.  The  Phoenicians  were  among  the  most  early  civilized  nations 
©f  the  east.  We  are  indebted  to  them  for  the  invention  of  wiiling, 
and  for  the  tii-st  attempts  at  commercial  navigation.  The  fragments 
of  iSanchoniatho  are  the  most  ancient  monuments  of  writing  after 
the  boolis  of  Moses.  Sanchoniatho  was  contemporary  with  J  oshua, 
about  1440  A.  C.  and  500  before  the  cities  of  Attica  were  united  by 
Theseus. 

2.  Tlie  Phoenicians,  (the  Canaanites  of  scripture),  were  a  com- 
mercial people  in  the  days  of  Abraham.  In  the  time  of  the  Hebrew 
judges  they  bad  begun  to  colonize.  Their  first  settlements  were 
Cyprus  and  Rhodes ;  thence  thev  passed  into  Greece,  Sicily,  Sardinia, 
and  Spain ;  and  formed  establishments  likewise  on  the  western  coast 
of  Africa.  The"  Sidonians  carried  on  an  exteusive  commerce  at  th« 
Ume  of  the  Trojan  war. 


SECTION  V. 

THE  HISTORY  OF  GREECE. 

1.  Greece  being  indebted  for  the  first  rudiments  of  civilization  to 
the  I.gyptiiit^s  and  Phoenicians,  its  history  improperly  introduced  by 
an  accoiiut  of  those  uicre  ancient  nations. 

ii.  The  early  an'.Kibiiies  of  this  country  are  disguised  by  fafcle; 
but  from  the  time  when  it  becomes  important,  it  has  been  treated  of 
by  eminent  wriiers. 

3.  The  ancient  inhabitants  of  Greece,  the  Pelasgi,  Hiantes,  Lele- 
ges,  were  extremely  barharous ;  but  a  dawning  of  civilization  arose 
under  the  Titaii**,  a  Phoenician  or  Lgyptian  colony,  who  settle  J  in 
the  country  about  the  time  of  IVioses.  Tlie  Titans  gave  the  Greeks 
the  first  idcns  of  religion,  an  I  introduced  the  worsnip  of  their  own 
gods,  haturn,  Jupiter,  Ceres,  &,c.  Succeeding  ages  ccnJbunded  those 
Titans  themselves  wiih  the  gods,  and  hence  sprung  numberless  fables. 

4.*  Inachus,  the  last  of  the  Titans,  foundecl  the  kingdom  v{  Argos, 
1856  A.  C. ;  and  Egialtes,  one  of  his  sons,  the  kingdoni  of  Sicyon. 

5.  In  the  following  centui-y  happened  the  deluge  of  Cgyges,  Pi 96 
A.  C.     Then  followed  a  period  of  barbarism  for  above  £00  years. 

6.  Cecrops,  the  leader  of  another  colony  from  Egypt,  landed  in 
Attica,  1 582  A.  C. ;  and,  connecting  himself  with  the  last  king,  suc- 
ceeded, on  his  death,  to  the  sovereignty.  He  built  twelve  cities, 
and  was  eminent,  both  as  a  lawgiver  and  politician. 

7.  The  Grecian  history  derives  some  authenticity  at  this  period 
from  the  Chronicle  of  Paros,^  presented  among  the  Arundelian  mai:- 
bles  at  Oxj^tord.  The  authority  of  this  chronicle  has  Bi^nx[Uf  sli'nea 
of  liitc,  and  many  argum^  nts  adduced  presumptive  of  its  being  a 
fbriv,  ry  ;  but,  on  a  review  of  the  whole  controversy,  we  judge  the  ar- 
guments for  its  authenticity  to  preponderate.    It  fixes  the  dates  of  tbe 


ANCIENT  HISTORY.  23 

most  remarkable  events  in  the  history  of  Greece,  from  the  time  of 
Cecrops  down  to  the  age  of  Alexander  the  great. 

8.  Cranaus  succeeded  Cecrops,  in  whose  time  happened  two  re- 
markable events  recorded  in  the  Chronicle  of  Paros  :  the  judgment 
of  the  areopagus  between  Mars  and  Neptune,  two  princes  of  Thessa- 
ly ;  and  the  deluge  of  Deucalion.  The  court  of  areopagus,  at  Athens, 
was  instituted  by  Cecrops.  The  number  of  its  judges  varied  at  differ- 
ent periods,  fi'om  nine  to  tifty-one.  The  deluge  of  Deucalion,  magni- 
fied and  disguised  by  the  poets,  was  probably  only  a  partial  inundation, 

9.  Amphyction,  the  contemporary  of  Cranaus,  if  the  founder  of 
the  amphyctionic  council,  must  have  possessed  extensive  views  of 
policy.  This  council,  from  a  league  of"+svelve  cities,  became  a 
representative  assembly  of  the  states  of  Greece,  and  had  the  most 
admirable  political  effects  in  uniting  the  nation,  and  giving  it  a  com- 
nson  interest. 

10.  Cadmus,  about  1519.  A.  C,  introduced  alphabetic  writing  into 
Greece,  from  Phoenicia.  'I'he  alphabet  then  had  only  sixteen  letters ; 
and  the  mode  of  writing  (termed  homtrophedon)^  was  alternately  from 
right  to  left  and  left  to  right.  From  this  period  the  Greeks  made 
rapid  advances  in  civilization. 

SECTION  VI. 

REFLECTIONS  ON  THE  FIRST  AND  RUDEST  PERIODS  OF 
THE  GRECIAN  HISTORY. 

1.  The  country  of  Greece  presents  a  large,  irregular  peninsula, 
intersected  by  many  chains  of  mountains,  separating  its  different 
districts,  and  opposing  natural  impediments  to  general  intercourse, 
and  therefore  to  rapid  civilization.  The  extreme  barbarism  of  the 
Pelasgi,  who  are  said  to  have  been  cannibals,  and  ignorant  of  the 
use  of  tire,  has  its  parallel  in  modem  barbarous  nations.  There 
were  many  circumstances  that  retarded  the  progress  of  the  Greeks 
to  refinement.  The  introduction  of  a  national  religion  was  best  fit- 
ted to  remove  those  obstacles.  Receiving  this  new  system  of  theolo- 
gy from  strangers,  and  entertaining  at  first  very  confused  ideas  of  it, 
they  wovdd  naturally  blend  its  doctrines  and  worship  with  the  notions 
of  religion  which  they  formerly  possessed ;  and  hence  we  observe 
only  partial  coincidences  of  the  Grecian  with  the  Egyptian  and 
Phoenician  mythologies.  It  has  been  a  vain  and  wearisome  labour  of 
modern  mythological  writers,  to  attempt  to  trace  all  the  fables  of  anti- 
quity, and  the  various  systems  of  pagan  theology,  up  to  one  common 
source.  The  difficulty  of  this  is  best  shown,  by  comparing  the  differ- 
ent and  most  contradictory  solutions  of  the  same  fable  given  by  differ- 
ent mythologists ;  as,  for  example,  lord  Bacon  and  the  abbe  Banier. 
Some  authors,  with  much  indiscretion,  have  attempted  to  deduce  all 
the  Pagan  mythologies  from  the  holy  scriptures.  Such  researches 
are  unprofitable,  sometimes  mischievous. 

2.  Superstition,  in  the  early  periods,  was  a  predominant  charac- 
teristic of  the  Greeks.  To  this  age,  and  to  this  character  of  the 
people,  we  refer  the  origin  of  the  Grecian  oracles,  and  the  institu- 
tion of  the  public  games  in  honour  of  the  gods. 

The  desire  of  penetrating  into  futurity,  and  the  superstition  com- 
mon to  rude  nations,  gave  rise  to  the  oracles  of  Delphi,  Dodonn.  &,c, 

The  resort  of  strangers  to  these  oracles  on  particular  occasional, 
led  to  the  celebration  of  a  festival,  and  to  public  games. 


S4  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

The  four  solemn  games  of  the  Greeks,  particularly  termed  iepot. 
were  the  Olympic,  the  Pythian,  the  Nemean,  and  the  Isthmian.; 
They  consisted  principally  in  contests  of  skiil  in  all  the  athletic  ex-« 
ercises,  and  the  prizes  were  chiefly  honorary  marks  of  distioction. ' 
Archbishop  Potter,  in  his  Archmiogm  Grosca,  fully  details  their  par- 
ticular nature.  These  games  had  excellent  political  effects,  in  pro-  i 
moling  national  union,  indiifusing  the  love  of  glory,  and  training  the  '• 
youth  to  martial  exercises.  Tliey  cherished  at  once  a  heroical  and  ! 
superstitious  spirit,  which  led  to  the  formation  of  extraordinary  and 
hazardous  enterprises. 


SECTION  VIL  ; 

I 

EARLY   PERIOD    OF   THE  GRECIAN   HISTORY.      THE  ARGO-  ■ 
JVAUTIC  EXPEDITION.     WARS  OF  THEBES  AND  OF  TROY.     : 

1.  The  history  ol  Greece,  for  a  period  of  300  years  preceding 
the  Trojan  war,  is  intermixed  with  fables;  but  contains,  at  the  same'! 
time,  many  facts  entitled  to  credit,  as  authentic.  Erectheus,  or  Erich-*^ 
thonius,  either  a  Greek  who  had  visited  Egypt,  or  the  leader  of  a  ' 
new  Egyptian  colony,  cultivated  the  plains  of  Eleusis,  and  instituted  i 
the  Eleusinian  mysteries,  in  imitation  of  the  Egyptian  games  of  Isis.  ; 
Thesemysteries  were  of  a  religious  and  moral  nature,  conveying  the 
doctrines  of  the  unity  of  God,  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  and  a  .' 
fiiture  state  of  reward  and  punishment.  Cicero  speaks  of  them  >. 
with  high  encomium.  But  the  ceremonies  connected  with  them  ; 
seem  to  be  childish  and  ridiculous. 

2.  Theseus  laid  the  foundation  of  the  grandeur  of  Attica,  by  unit-  , 
ing  its  twelve  cities,  and  giving  them  a  common  constitution,  1257  ^ 
A.  C. 

3.  The  first  great  enterprise  of  the  Greeks  was  the  Argonautic  ^ 
expedition,  1263  A.  C.  (Usher),  and  937  A.  C.  (sir  1.  iVewton).  . 
This  is  supposed  to  have  been  both  a  military  and  a  mercantile  ad-  ' 
venture,  and  was  singularly  bold  for  the  times  in  which  it  was  under-  i 
taken.  The  object  was,  to  open  the  commerce  of  the  Euxine  sea,  ! 
and  to  secure  some  estabiishmcnls  on  its  coasts.  The  astronomer  ] 
Chiron  directed  the  plan  of  the  voyage,  and  iormed,  for  the  use  of 
the  mariners,  a  scheme  of  the  constellations,  fixing  with  accuracy  ', 
the  solstitial  and  equinoctial  points.  Sir  Isaac  Newton  has  lounded 
his  emendation  of  the  ancient  chronology  on  a  calculation  of  the  ; 
regular  procession  of  the  equinoxes  from  this  period  to  tlie  present,  * 
as  well  as  on  an  estimate  of  the  medium  length  of  human  genera-  . 
tions.  \ 

4.  The  strife  of  the  military  art  at  this  time  in  Greece  may  be  ; 
estimated  from  an  account  of  the  sieges  of  Thebes  and  Troy. 

In  these  enterprises  the  arts  of  attack  and  defence  were  very  rude  ; 

and  imperfect.    The  siege  was  entirely  of  the  nature  of  blockade,  and  i 
therefore  necessarily  of  long  duration.    A  dispute  for  the  divided 

sovereignty  of  Thebes  between  the  brothers  Eteocles  and  Polynices^  '■ 

gave  rise  to  the  war,  which  was  terminated  by  single  combat,  in  | 

which  both  were  killed.  j 

5.  The  sons  of  the  commanders  slain  in  this  war  renewed  the  | 
quarrel  of  their  fathers,  and  occasioned  the  war  of  the  Epigonoi,  a  : 
•ubject  en  which  Homer  is  said  to  have  written  a  poem,  now  lost, 
•qual  to  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey. 


ANCIENT  HISTORY.  Sft 

6.  The  detail  of  the  war  of  Troj  rests  chiefly  on  the  authority 
of  Homer,  and  ougat  not,  in  spite  of  modern  scepticism,  to  be  refus- 
ed, ia  its  principal  iacts,  the  credit  of  a  true  history.  After  a  block- 
ade of  ten  years  Troy  was  taiten,  either  by  storm  or  surprise,  1 184 
A.  C,  and  being  set  on  lire  in  the  night,  was  burnt  to  tlie  ground, 
not  a  vestige  of  its  ruins  existing  at  the  present  day.  The  empire  fell 
from  tnat  moment.  The  Greeks  settled  a  colony  near  tlie  spot,  and 
the  rest  of  the  kingdom  was  occupied  by  the  Lydians. 

7.  Military  expeditions  at  this  time  were  carried  on  only  in  the 
spring  and  summer.  In  a  tedious  siege  the  winter  w;is  a  season  of 
armistice.  The  science  of  militai'y  tactics  was  then  utterly  unknown, 
every  battle  being  a  multitude  of  single  com!>at5.  The  soldier  had 
no  pay  but  his  share  of  the  booty,  divided  by  the  chiefs.  Tne 
weapons  of  war  were  the  sword,  the  bow,  the  javelin,  the  club,  the 
hatchet,  and  the  sling.  A  helmet  of  brass,  an  enormous  shield,  a 
CBirass,  and  buskins,  were  the  weapons  of  defence. 


SECTION  VIII. 

ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  GREEK   COLONIES. 

1.  About  eighty  years  after  the  taking  of  Troy,  beganlhe  war  of 
the  Heraclidse.  Hercules,  the  son  ot  Amphitryon,  sovereign  of 
Mycenae,  was  banished  from  his  country  with  all  his  family,  while 
tlie  crown  was  possessed  by  a  usurper.  His  descendants,  after  the  • 
period  of  a  century,  retanied  to  Peloponnesus,  and  subduing  all 
their  enemies,  took  possession  of  the  states  ol'  Mycenae,  Argos,  and 
Lacedaemon. 

2.  A  long  period  of  civil  war  and  bloodshed  succeeded,  and  Greece, 
divided  among  a  number  of  petty  tyrants,  suffered  equally  the  mis- 
eries of  oppression  and  anarchy. 

Codrus,  king  of  Athens,  showed  a  singular  example  of  patriotism, 
m  devoting  himself  to  death  for  his  country;  yet  the  Athenians, 
weary  of  monarchy,  determined  to  make  the  experiment  of  a  popu- 
lar constitution.  Medon,  the  son  of  Codrus.  was  elected  chief  magis- 
trrite,  with  the  title  of  archon.  This  is  tne  commencement  of  th/ej 
Athenian  republic,  about  1068  A.  C. 

d.  It  was  at  this  time  that  the  Greeks  began  to  colonize.  The 
oppression  which  they  sutiered  at  home  forced  many  of  them  to 
abandon  their  country,  and  seek  refuge  in  other  lauds.  A  large  body 
of  iEoiians  from  Pel'Jponnesus  founded  twelve  cities  in  the  Lesser 
Asia,  of  which  Smyrna  was  the  most  considerable.  A  troop  of 
lonim  exiles  built  Lphesus,  Colophon,  Clazoraene,  and  other  towns; 
giving  to  their  new  settlements  the  name  of  their  native  country, 
ionia.  The  Dorians  sent  off  colonies  to  Italy  and  Sicily,  founding,  m 
the  former,  Tarentum  and  Locri,  and  in  the  latter,  Syracuse  and 
Arigentum.  The  mother  country  considered  its  colonies  as  emai>- 
cipated  children.  These  speedily  attained  to  eminence  and  splen- 
dour, rivalling  and  surpassing  their  parent  states :  and  the  example 
of  their  prosperity,  which  was  attributed  to  the  freedom  of  their 
governments,  incited  the  states  of  Greece,  oppressed  by  a  number  of 
petty  despots,  to  put  an  end  to  the  regal  government,  and  try  the 
experiment  of  a  pooular  constitution.  Athens  and  Thebes  gave  the 
first  examples,  whic  ■  vere  soon  followed  by  all  the  rest 

4.  Tliese  infant  republics  demandfid  new  law* ;  and  it  was  nece» 


26  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

«ary  that  some  enlightened  citizen  should  arise,  who  had  discernment 
to  perceive  what  system  of  legislation  was  most  adapted  to  the  char- 
acter oJ'  his  native  state ;  who  had  abilities  to  compile  such  a  system, 
and  sufficient  authority  with  his  countrymen  to  recommend  and  en- 
force it.  Such  men  were  the  Spartan  Lycurgus  and  the  Athenian 
Solon. 

SEJTION  IX. 
THE  REPUBLIC  OF  SPARTA. 

1.  The  origin  of  this  political  system  has  given  rise  to  much  inge 
nious  disquisiiion  among  the  moderns,  and  affords  a  remarkable  in- 
stance of  the  passion  for  systematizing.  It  is  a  prevailing  propensity 
with  modem  philosopheis  to  reduce  every  thing  to  general  princi- 
ples. Man,  say  they,  is  always  the  same  animal,  and,  when  placed 
in  similar  situations,  will  always  exhibit  a  similar  appearance.  His 
manners,  his  improvements,  the  government  and  laws  under  which 
he  lives,  arise  necessarily  from  the  situation  in  which  we  find  him ; 
and  all  is  the  result  of  a  few  general  laws  of  nature,  which  operate 
universally  on  the  human  species.  But  in  the  ardour  of  this  passion 
for  generalizing,  these  philosophers  often  forget,  that  it  is  the  knowl- 
edge of  facts  wtiich  can  alone  lead  to  the  discovery  of  general  laws: 
a  knowledge  not  limited  to  the  history  of  a  single  age  or  nation,  but 
extended  to  that  of  the  whole  species  in  every  age  and  climate. 
Antecedently  to  such  knowledge,  all  historical  system  is  mere  ro- 
mance. 

2.  Of  this  nature  is  a  late  theory  of  the  constitution  of  Sparta,  first 
started  by  Mr.  Browne,  in  his  Essay  on  Civil  Liberty ;  and  from  him 
adopted  by  later  writere.  It  thus  accounts  for  the  origin  of  the  Spar- 
tiin  constitution.*  "  The  army  of  the  Heraclidse,  when  they  came  to 
recover  the  dominion  of  their  ancestoi-s,  was  composed  of  Dorians 
from  Thessaly,  the  most  barbarous  of  ail  the  Greek  tribes.  The 
Achaeans,  the  ancient  inhiibitants  of  Laconia,  were  compelled  to  seek 
new  habitations,  while  the  barbarians  of  Thessaly  took  possession  of 
their  coimtry.  Of  all  the  nations  which  are  the  subject  of  historical 
record,  this  people  bore  the  nearest  resemblance  to  the  rude  Ameri- 
cans. An  American  tribe  where  a  chief  presides,  where  the  council 
of  the  aged  deliberate,  and  the  assembly  of  the  people  gives  their 
voice,  is  on  the  eve  of  such  a  political  establishment  as  the  Spartaa 
constitution."'  The  Dorians  or  Tbessalitms  settled  in  Lacedsmon, 
manifested,  it  is  said,  the  same  manners  with  all  other  nations  in  a 
barbarous  state.  Lycurgus  did  no  more  than  arrest  them  in  that  state, 
by  forming  their  usages  into  laws.  He  checked  them  at  once  in  the 
first  stage  of  their  improvement.  "  He  put  forth  a  bold  hand  to  that 
spring  which  is  in  society,  and  stopt  its  motion." 

3.  This  theory,  however  ingenious,  is  confuted  by  facts.  All  an- 
cient authors  agree,  tliat  Lycurgus  operated  a  total  change  on  the 
Spartan  manners,  and  on  the  constitution  of  his  counti'y ;  while  the 
moderns  have  discovered  that  he  made  no  change  on  either.  The 
most  striking  features  of  the  mannprs  and  constitution  of  Sparta  had 
not  the  smallest  resemblance  to  those  of  any  rude  nations  with  which 
we  are  acquainted.  The  communion  of  slaves  and  of  many  other 
species  of  property,  the  right  of  the  state  in  the  children  of  all  the 

•  Lofan'i  Philosophy  of  History,  &c. 


ANCIENT  HISTORY.  »7 

eitizeas,  their  common  education,  the  public  tables,  the  equal  divi 
sioQ  of  lands,  the  oiith  of  goveroinent  between  the  kings  and  people, 
have  no  parallel  in  the  history  of  any  biirbarous  nation. 

4.  The  real  history  of  Sparta  and  its  constitution  is  therefore  not 
to  be  found  in  modern  tlieory,  but  in  the  writings  of  the  Greek  hi*, 
torians,  and  these  are  our  sole  authorities  worthy  of  credit. 

After  the  return  of  the  Heraciidae,  Sparta  was  divided  between 
the  two  sons  of  Aristodemus,  Eurysthenes,  and  Frocies,  who  jointly 
reigned;  and  this  double  monarcliy,  transmitlod  to  the  descendant* 
of  each,  continued  in  the  separate  branches  for  near  900  years.  A 
radical  principle  of  disunion,  and  consequent  anarchy,  made  the  w;mt 
of  constitutional  laws  be  severely  felt.  Lycurgus,  brother  of  Foly- 
dectes,  one  of  the  kings  of  Sparta,  a  man  distinguished  ahke  by  his 
abilities  and  virtues,  Was  invested,  by  the  concurring  voice  of  the 
sovereigns  and  people,  with  the  important  duty  of  reforming  and  new- 
modelling  the  constitution  of  his  country,  884  A.  C. 

5.  Lycurgus  instituted  a  senate,  elective,  of  twenty-eight  mem- 
bers ;  whose  office  was  to  preserve  a  just  balance  between  the  pow- 
er of  the  kings  and  that  of  the  people.  Nothing  could  come  before 
the  assembly  of  the  people  which  had  not  received  tie  previous  con- 
sent of  the  senate  ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  no  judgment  of  the  sen- 
ate was  effectual  without  the  simction  of  the  people.  The  kings  pre 
sided  in  the  senate ;  they  were  the  generals  of  the  republic :  but 
they  could  plan  no  enterprise  without  the  consent  of  a  council  of  the 
citizens. 

6.  Lycurgus  bent  his  attention  most  particularly  to  the  regulation 
of  manners ;  and  one  great  principle  pervaded  his  whole  system  : 
Luxury  is  the  bane  of  society. 

He  divided  the  territory  ot  the  republic  into  39,000  equal  portions, 
among  the  whole  of  its  free  citizens. 

He  substituted  iron  money  for  gold  and  silver,  prohibited  the  prac- 
tice of  conwnerce,  abolished  all  useless  arts,  and  allowed  even  those 
necessary  to  life  to  be  practised  only  by  the  slaves. 

The  whole  citizens  made  their  principal  repast  at  the  public  ta- 
bles. The  meals  were  coarse  and  parsimonious ;  the  conversation 
was  fitted  to  improve  the  youth  in  virtue,  and  cultivate  the  patriotic 
spirit. 

The  Spartan  education  rejected  all  embellishments  of  the  under- 
standing. It  nourished  only  the  severer  virtues.  It  taught  the  du- 
ties of  religion,  obedience  to  the  laws,  respect  for  parents,  reverence 
for  old  age,  indexible  honour,  undaunted  courage,  contempt  of  dan- 
ger and  of  death  ;  above  all,  the  love  of  glory  and  of  their  country. 

7.  But  the  general  excellence  of  the  institutions  of  Lycurgus  wag 
impaired  by  many  blemishes.  The  manners  oi  the  Lacedaemonian 
women  were  shamefully  loose.  They  frequented  the  baths,  and 
fought  naked  in  the  patestra  promiscuously  with  the  men.  Theft 
was  a  part  of  Spartan  education.  The  youth  were  taught  to  subdue 
the  feelings  of  humanity ;  the  slaves  were  treated  with  tlie  most  bar- 
barous rigour,  and  often  massacred  lor  spoit.  The  institutions  oi 
Lycurgus  had  no  other  end  than  to  form  a  nation  of  soldiers. 

8.  A  faulty  part  of  the  constitution  of  Sparta  was  the  otfice  of  the 
ephori :  magistrates  elected  by  the  people,  whose  power,  though  in 
some  respects  subordinate,  was  in  others  paramouDt  to  that  of  tbe 
kings  £ma  senate. 


88  AUCIEWT  HISTORY. 

SECTION  X 
THE  REPUBLIC  OF  ATHENS. 

1.  On  the  abolition  of  the  regal  office  at  Athens,  the  change  of 
the  constitution  was  more  nominal  than  real.  The  archonship  was, 
during  three  centuries,  a  perpetual  and  hereditary  magistracy.  In 
754  A.  C.  this  othce  became  decennial.  In  b48  the  archons  were 
annually  elected,  and  were  nine  in  number,  with  equal  authorily. 
Under  all  these  changes  the  state  was  convulsed,  and  tiie  condition  ot 
the  people  miserable. 

2.  Draco,  elevated  to  the  archonship  624  A.  C,  projected  a  reform 
in  the  constitution  of  his  counti-y,  and  thought  to  repress  disordei"s  by 
the  extreme  severity  of  penal  laws.  But  his  talents  were  unequal 
to  the  task  he  had  undertaken. 

3.  Solon,  an  illustrioas  Athenitm,  of  the  race  of  Codrus,  attained 
the  dignity  of  archon  594  A.  C,  and  was  entrusted  with  the  care  of 
framing  lor  his  country  a  new  form  of  government,  and  a  new  sys- 
tem of  laws.  He  possessed  extensive  knowledge,  but  wanted  tliat 
intrej^idity  of  mind  which  is  necessary  to  the  character  of  a  great 
statesman.  His  <lisposition  was  mild  and  temporizing ;  and,  without 
attempting  to  reform  the  manners  of  his  countrymen,  he  accommo- 
dated nis  system  to  their  prevailing  habits  and  passions. 

4.  The  people  claimed  the  sovereign  power,  and  they  received 
it ;  the  rich  demanded  ofhces  and  digjiities :  the  system  of  Solon 
accommodated  them  to  the  utmost  of  their  wishes.  He  divided  the 
citizens  into  four  chisses,  according  to  the  measure  of  their  wealth. 
To  the  three  lirst,  the  richer  citizens,  belonged  all  the  offices  of  the 
commonwealth.  The  fourth,  the  poorer  class,  more  Bumerous  than 
all  the  other  three,  had  an  equal  right  of  sufirage  with  them  in  the 
public  assembly,  wnere  all  laws  were  framed,  and  measures  of  state 
decreed.  Consequently  the  weight  of  tlie  latter  decided  every  ques- 
tion. 

5.  To  regulate  in  some  degree  the  proceedings  of  those  assenv 
blies,  and  balance  the  weight  of  the  popular  interest,  Solon  instituted 
a  senate  of  400  members  (afterwards  enlarged  to  500  and  600), 
with  whom  it  was  necessary  that  every  measure  should  originate, 
before  it  became  the  subject  of  discussion  in  the  assembly  of  the 
people. 

6.  To  the  court  of  areopagus  he  committed  the  guardianship  of 
the  laws,  and  the  power  of  enforcing  them;  with  the  supreme 
administration  of  justice.  To  this  tribunal  belonged  likewise  the 
custody  of  the  treasures  of  the  state,  the  care  of  religion,  and  a 
tutorial  power  over  all  the  youth  of  the  republic.  The  number  of 
fts  judges  was  various  at  different  periods,  and  the  most  immaculate 
purity  of  character  was  essential  to  that  high  office. 

7.  The  authority  of  the  senate  and  areopagus  imposed  some  check 
©n  the  popular  assemblies;  but  as  these  possessed  the  ultimate  right 
of  decision,  it  was  always  in  the  power  of  ambitious  demagogues  to 
sway  them  to  the  worst  of  purposes.    Continual  factions  divided  the 

eople,  and  corruption  pervaded  every  department  of  the  state. 
iTie  public  measures,  the  result  of  the  interesjipd  schemes  of  indi- 
viduals, were  often  equally  absurd  as  they  were  profligate.  Athens 
•ften  saw  her  best  patriots,  the  wisest  and  most  virtuous  of  her  citi- 
sens,  shamefully  sacriticed  to  the  most  depraved  and  moat  abftP^OQ^d^ 


T 


ANCIENT  HISl'OllY.  -  ^9 

8.  The  particular  lawsof  the  Athenian  state  are  more  dt!^^inS^^^ 
encomium  than  its  form  of  government.  The  laws  relating  to  deui- 
ors  were  mild  imd  equitable,  as  were  those  which  regulated  the 
treatment  of  slavss.  cut  the  vassalage  of  women,  or  their  abso- 
lute subjection  to  the  conirol  of  their  nearest  relations,  approached 
too  near  to  a  state  of  servitude.  The  proposer  of  a  law  found  on 
experience  impolitic  was  liable  to  punishment;  an  enactment  ap- 
parently rigorous,  but  probably  necessary  in  a  popular  government 

9.  One  most  iniquitous  and  absurd  peculiarity  ot  the  Athenian,  and 
some  other  governments  of  Greece,  was  the  practice  of  the  ostra- 
cisia,  a  ballot  of  all  the  citizens,  in  ^vhich  each  wrote  down  the  name 
of  the  person  in  his  opinion  most  obnoxious  to  censure ;  and  he  who 
was  thus  marked  out  by  the  greatest  number  of  voices,  though  un- 
impeached  of  any  crime,  was  banished  for  ten  years  from  his  coun- 
try. Tnis  barbarous  and  disgraceful  institution,  ever  capable  of  the 
grossest  abuse,  and  generally  subservient  to  the  worst  of  purposes, 
has  stained  the  character  of  Athens  with  many  flagrant  instances 
of  public  ingratitude. 

1 ;  >.  The  manners  of  the  Athenians  formed  the  most  striking  con- 
trast to  those  of  the  Lacedaemonians.  At  Athens  the  arts  were  in 
the  highest  esteem.  The  Lacetiatmonlans  despised  the  arts,  and  all 
who  cultivated  them.  At  Athens  peace  was  the  natural  state  of  the 
republic,  and  the  rehned  enjoyment  of  life  the  aim  of  all  its  subjects. 
Sparta  was  entirely  a  military  establishment ;  and  her  subjects,  when 
unengaged  in  war,  were  totally  unoccupied.  Luxury  was  the  char- 
acter ot  the  Athenian,  as  frugality  of  the  Spartan.  Thev  were 
equally  jealous  of  their  liberty,  and  equally  brave  in  war.  The 
courage  of  the  Spartans  sprang  from  constitutional  ferocity,  that  of 
the  Athenian  from  the  principle  of  honour. 

11.  The  Spartan  government  had  acquired  sohdity,  while  all  the 
rest  of  Greece  was  torn  by  domestic  dissensions.  Athens,  a  prey  to 
faction  and  civil  disorder,  surrendered  her  iibertiesto  Pisistratus,  550 
A.  C. ;  who,  after  various  turns  of  fortune,  established  himself  firm- 
ly in  the  sovereignty,  exercised  a  splendid  and  munificent  dominion, 
coiUjjietely  gaineii  the  aflections  of  tlie  people,  and  transmitted  a 
peaceable  crown  to  his  sons  Hippias  and  iTipparclius, 

12.  Hermodias  and  Aristog-iton  uudei-took  to  restore  the  democra- 
cy ;  and  succeeded  in  the  attempt.  Hipparchus  was  put  to  death ; 
and  Hippias,  dethroned,  solicited  a  foreign  aid  to  replace  him  in  the 
sovereigtity.  Dariu>,  the  son  of  Hystaspes,  meditjited  at  this  time 
the  conquest  of  Greece.  Hippias  took  advantage  of  the  views  of 
an  enemy  against  his  native  country,  and  Greece  was  now  involved 
in  a  war  with  Persia. 


SECTION  XL 

OF  THE  STATE  OF  THE  PERSIAN  EMPIRE,  AND  ITS  HISTOR  f 
DOWN  TO  THE  WAR  WITH  GREECE. 

\.  The  first  empire  of  the  Assyrians  ended  under  Sardanapalus,  and 
three  monarchies  arose  upon  its  ruins,  Nineveh,  Babylon,  and  the 
kingdom  of  the  Medes. 

2.  The  history  of  Babylon  and  of  Nineveh  is  very  imperfectly 
known.  The  Medes,  hitherto  independent  tribes,  were  united  under 
a  mouaicby  by  Dejoces.  His  son  Piiraoites  coDquered  Persia,  b^rt  ».^w 
C  2 


3ft  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

himself  vanquished  by  Nabuchodonosor  1.,  king  ofAssyria,  and  put 
to  death.  NaDuchodonosor  [1.  led  the  Jews  into  captivity,  took  Je- 
rusalem and  Tyre,  and  subdued  Egypt. 

3.  The  history  of  Cyrus  is  involved  in  great  uncertainty ;  nor  is 
ft  possible  to  reconcile  or  apply  to  one  man  the  different  accounts 
given  of  him  by  Herodotus,  Ctesias,  and  Xenophon.  Succeeding 
his  lather  Cambyses  in  the  throne  of  Persia,  and  his  uncle  Cyaxares 
in  the  sovereignty  of  the  Medes,  he  united  these  empires,  vanquish- 
ed the  Babylonians  and  Lydians,  subjected  the  greatest  part  of  the 
Lesser  Asia,  and  made  himself  master  of  Syria  and  Arabia. 

4.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Cambyses,  distinguished  only  as 
a  tyrant  and  a  madman. 

5.  After  the  death  of  Cambyses,  Darius,  the  son  of  Hystaspes. 
was  elected  sovereign  of  Persia,  a  prince  of  great  enterprise  and 
ambition.  Unfortunate  in  a  rash  expedition  against  the  Scythians, 
he  projected  and  achieved  the  conquest  of  India.  Inflated  with  suc- 
cess, lie  now  meditated  an  invasion  of  Greece,  and  cordially  entered 
into  the  views  of  Hippias,  who  sought  by  his  means  to  regain  the 
•overeignty  of  Athens. 

6.  Govemmenl^  Manners,  Larvs,  6,-c.  of  the  Ancient  Persians.  The 
government  of  Persia  was  an  absolute  monarchy  ;  the  will  of  the  sov- 
ereign being  subject  to  no  control,  and  his  person  revered  as  sacred: 
yet  the  education  bestowed  by  those  monarchs  on  their  children  was 
calculated  to  inspire  every  valuable  quality  of  a  sovereign. 

The  ancient  Persians  in  general  bestowed  the  utmost  attention  on 
the  education  of  youth.  Children  at  the  age  of  five  were  committed 
to  the  care  of  the  magi,  for  the  improvement  of  their  mind  and 
morals.  They  were  trained  at  the  same  time  to  every  manly  exercise 
The  sacred  books  of  the  Zemlavesia  promised  to  every  worthy  parent 
the  imputed  merit  and  reward  of  all  the  good  actions  of  his  chil- 
dren. 

7.  Luxurious  as  they  were  in  after  times,  the  early  Persians  were 
distinguished  for  their  temperance,  bravery,  and  virtuous  simplicity 
of  manners.  They  were  all  trained  to  the  use  of  arms,  and  display- 
ed great  intrepidity  in  war.  The  custom  of  the  women  following 
their  armies  to  the  field,  erroneotisly  attributed  to  effeminacy,  was 
a  remnant  of  barbarous  manners. 

8.  The  kingdom  of  Persia  was  divided  into  several  provinces^  each 
under  a  govemof  or  satnip,  who  was  accountable  to  the  sovereign 
for  tt»e  whole  of  his  conduct.  The  prince,  at  stated  times,  visited 
his  provinces  in  person,  correcting  all  abuses,  easing  the  burdens 
©f  the  oppressed,  and  encouraging  agriculture  and  the  practice  of 
the  useful  arts.  The  laws  of  Persia  were  mild  and  equitable,  and 
the  utmost  purity  was  observed  in  the  administration  of  justice. 

9.  The  religion  of  the  ancient  Persians  is  of  great  antiquity.  It 
is  conjectured  that  there  were  two^Zoroasters ;  the  first,  the  founder 
of  this  ancient  religion,  and  of  whom  are  recorded  miracles  and 
prophecies ;  the  second,  a  reformer  of  that  religion,  contemporary 
with  Darius  the  son  of  Hystaspes.  The  Zendavesta^  or  sacred  book, 
compiled  by  the  former,  was  improved  and  purified  by  the  latter. 
It  has  been  lately  translated  into  French  by  M.  Anquetil,  and  appears 
to  contain,  amidst  a  mass  of  absurdity,  some  sublime  truths,  and  ex- 
cellent precepts  of  morality.  The  theology  of  the  Zendavesia  is 
founded  on  the  doctrine  of  two  opposite  principles,  a  good  and  an 
evil,  Ormusd  and  Ahriman,  eternal  beings,  who  divide  between  them 
the  goTenuneut  of  the  ooiverse,  and  whose  warfare  most  eadura  tiU 


ANCIENT  HISTORY.  Si 

the  end  of  12,000  years,  when  Uie  good  will  finally  prevail  over  the 
evil.  A  seuiiratioii  will  ensue  of  llie  votaries  of  eaci :  the  yj^t  shall 
be  H(imitted  to  the  iiBjnediale  enjoyment  of  Paradise ;  the  wickeil, 
after  a  limited  puriricaiion  hy  fire,  shail  ultimately  be  allowed  to  par- 
take in  the  blessings  of  eterniiy.  Orma»d  is  to  be  adored  through 
the  medium  of  his  greatest  works,  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars.  Tne 
fire,  the  symbol  of  tlia  sua,  the  air,  the  earth,  the  water,  have  tlieir 
«ubor(Unate  worslii^. 

The  morality  ol  the  Ztmlavesla  is  best  known  from  its  abri'lg- 
ment,  the  Sadder^  complied  about  three  centuries  ago  by  the  modem 
Guebres.  it  inculcates  a  chastened  species  of  epicurism ;  allowing 
a  free  indulgence  of  the  passions,  while  consistent  with  the  w^lfire 
of  society.  It  prohibits  equally  intemperance  and  asciitic  mortilica- 
tion.  it  recommends,  as  precepts  of  religion,  the  cultivation  of  the 
earth,  the  planting  of  fruit-trees,  the  destruction  of  noxious  anim;ds, 
the  bringing  water  to  a  barren  land. 

10.  Such  were  the  ancient  Persians.  But  their  character  had  un- 
dergone a  great  change  bet'ore  the  period  of  the  war  with  Greece. 
At  tnis  time  they  were  a  degenerate  and  corrupted  people.  Athens 
had  recently  thrown  off  the  yoke  of  the  Pisi?tratidag,  and  highly  val- 
ued her  new  liberty.  Sparta,  in  the  ardour  of  patriotism,  torgot  all 
jealousy  of  her  rival  state,  and  cordially  united  in  the  detence  of 
their  common  country.  The  Persians,  in  this  contest,  had  no  other 
advantage  than  that  of  numbers,  an  unequal  match  tor  superior  hero- 
ism ;md  military  skill. 


SECTION  XII. 

THE  WAR  BETWEEN  GREECE  AND  PERSIA. 

1 .  The  ambition  of  Darius,  the  son  of  Hystaspes,  heightened  by  the 
passion  of  revenge,  gave  rise  to  the  project  oi  that  monarch  for  the 
Invasion  of  Greece.  The  Athenians  had  aided  the  people  of  Ionia  in 
an  attempt  to  throw  off  the  yoke  of  Persia,  ?ind  burnt  and  ravaged 
Sardis,  the  capital  of  Lydia.  Darius  speedily  reduced  the  lonians  to 
submission, and  then  turned  his  arms  against  the  Greeks, their  allies; 
the  exile  Hippias  eagerly  prom}>ting  tne  expedition. 

2.  Aftei'an  insolent  demand  of  submission,  which  the  Greeks  scorn- 
fully refused,  Darius  began  a  hostile  attack  both  by  sea  and  laud. 
The  tirst  Persian  fleet  was  wrecked  in  doubling  the  promontory  of 
Athos;  a  second,  of  600  sail,  ravaged  the  Grecian  islands;  while  an 
immense  army  landing  in  Eubcea,  poured  down  with  impetuosity  on 
Attica.  The  Athenians  met  them  on  the  plain  of  Marathon,  and, 
headed  by  Miltiades,  defeated  them  with  prodigious  slaughter,  490 
A.  C.  The  loss  of  the  Persians  in  this  battle  was  6,300,  and  that  ot 
the  Athenians  190.^ 

3.  The  merit  of  Miltiades,  signally  dispkiyed  in  this  great  battle, 
was  repaid  by  his  country  with  the  most  shocking  ingratitude.  Ac- 
cused of  treason  for  an  unsuccessful  attack  on  the  isle  of  Paros,  hi* 
sentence  of  death  was  commuted  into  a  tine  of  fifty  talents ;  which 
being  unable  to  pay  he  was  thrown  into  prison,  and  there  died  of  hit 
wounds. 

4.  The  glory  of  ungrateful  Athens  was  yet  nobly  sustained  in  th« 
Persian  war  by  Themistocles  and  Aristides.  Darius  dying  was  suc- 
ceeded by  bi9  soQ  Xei:xee,tb€  heir  of  hia  father's  aiabiiioD,  but  not  of 


32  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

his  abilities.  He  armed,  as  is  said,  tive  millions  of  men,  for  tihe  con* 
que?i  of  Greece;  1,200  ships  of  Avar,  and  3^000  ships  of  burden. 
Landing  in  Thessaly  he  proceeded,  by  rapid  marches,  to  Thermop- 
ylae, a  narrow  deiile  on  the  Sinus  Maliacus.  The  Athenians  and 
Spartans,  aided  only  by  the  Thespians,  Plataeans,  and  Eguietes,  de- 
termined to  withstand  the  invader.  Leonidas,  king  of  Sparta,  was 
ehosen  to  defend  this  important  pass  with  6,000  men.  Xerxes,  after 
a  weak  attempt  to  corrupt  him,  imperiously  summoned  him  to  lay 
down  his  arms.  Let  him  come,  said  Leonidas,  and  take  tliem.  For  two 
days  the  Persians  in  vain  strove  to  force  their  way,  and  were  repeat- 
edly repulsed  with  great  slaughter.  An  unguarded  trt;ck  being  at 
length  discovered,  the  defence  of  the  pass  became  a  fruitless  attempt 
on  the  part  of  the  Greeks.  Leonidas,  tbreseeing  certain  destruction, 
commanded  all  to  retire  but  300  of  his  countrymen.  His  motive  was 
to  give  the  Persians  a  just  idea  of  the  spirit  of  that  fie  wj:)om  they 
had  to  encounter.  He,  with  his  brave  Spartans,  were  al!  cut  orTlo  a 
man,  480  A.  C.  A  monument,  erected  on  tV.e  spot,  bore  this  n^tjle 
inscription,  written  by  Siaioiiides  :  O  stranger  I  ttll  it  at  iMcedcemon^ 
tfutt  we  died  here  in  obedience  to  her  laocs. 

5.  The  Persians  poured  down  upon  Attica.  The  inhabitants  of 
Athens,  after  conveying  their  women  and  children  to  the  islands  for 
security,  betook  themselves  to  their  tleet,  abaiidoning  the  city,  which 
the  Persians  pillaged  and  bnrnt.  The  fleet  of  the  Greeks,  consisting 
of  380  sail,  was  attacked  in  the  stn  its  of  Sal  .r.ii*  by  that  of  the  Per- 
sians, amounting  to  1.200  ships.  Xerxes  himceif  beifeld  from  an  em- 
inence on  the  coast  tne  tot.d  discomfiture  of  his  squadron.  He  then 
tied  with  precipitation  across  the  Hellespont.  A  second  overthrow 
awaited  his  army  by  hind  :  for  Mardouius,  at  the  head  of  300,000 
Persians,  was  totally  defeated  at  Piatoea  by  the  combined  army  of  the 
Athenians  and  Laceda-nionians,  479  A.  C.  On  the  same  day  the 
Greeks  engaged  and  destroyed  the  remains  of  the^  Persian  fleet  at 
Mycale.  Prom  that  day  the  ambitious  schemes  of  Xerxes  were  at 
an  end  ;  and  his  inglorious  lite  was  goon  aft  ^r  terminated  by  assassina- 
tion. He  wa.s  succeeded  in  the  tlu'one  of  Persia  by  his  son  Artaxerxes 
Longimanus,  464  A.  C. 

6.  At  this  time  tiie  national  character  of  the  Greeks  was  at  its  highest 
elevation.  Tiie  conimon  danger  had  annihilated  all  partial  jcaiousies 
between  tfe  states,  and  given  tliem  union  as  a  nation.  But  with  the 
cessation  of  danger  those  jealousies  recommended.  Sparta  meanly 
opposed  the  rebuilding  of  deserted  Athens.  Atbens,  rising  again  into 
splendour,  saw  with  pleasure  tiie  depopulation  of  Sparta  by  an  earth- 
quake, and  hesitated  to  give  her  aid  ia  that  juncture  of  calamity 
against  a  rebellion  of  her  »ilavei. 

7.  Cimon,  the  son  of  MilUades,  after  expelling  the  Persians  trom 
Thrace,  attacked  and  destroyed  their  fleet  on  the  coast  ot  Pam.phyiia, 
and,  landing  his  troo]56,  gained  a  sijnal  victory  over  their  army  the 
same  day.  Supplanted  in  the  public  favour  by  the  arts  ol  his  rival 
Pericles,  he  suflered  a  temporary  exile,  to  return  only  with  higher 
popularity,  and  to  signalize  himself  slill  more  in  the  service  of  his 
ungrateful  country.  He  attacked  and  totaUy  destroyed  the  Persian 
fleet  of  300  sail,  and,  landing  in  Cilicia,  completed  his  triumph,  by 
defeating  300,000  Persians  under  Megabyzes,  460  A.  C.  Artaxerxes 
now  had  the  prudence  to  sue  for  peace,  which  was  granted  by  the 
Greeks,  on  terms  most  honourable  to  the  nation.  They^stipulated 
for  the  freedom  of  ail  the  Grecian  cities  ot  Asia,  and  that  the  fleets  ot 
?er8ia  should  not  approach  their  coasts  from  the  £uxine  to  the  «- 


ANGIEISTT  HIST(5RY.  3S 

afeme  Tboundary  of  Pamphylia.    The  last  fifty  years  were  the  period 
of  the  highest  glory  of  the  Greeks ;  and  they  owed  their  prosperity 
entirely  to  their  union.    The  peace  with  Persia,  dissolving  that  con 
nexion,  brought  back  the  jealousies  between  the  predominant  stateSi 
the  intestine  disordei'S  of  each,  and  the  national  weakness. 

8.  The  martial  and  the  patriotic  spirit  began  visibly  to  decline  in 
Athens.  An  acquaintance  with  Asia,  and  an  importation  of  hr-^r 
wealth,  introduced  a  relish  for  Asiatic  manners  and  luxuries.  With 
the  Athenians,  however,  this  luxurious  spirit  was  under  the  guidance 
of  taste  and  genius.  It  led  to  the  cultivation  of  the  finer  aits ;  and 
the  age  of  Pericles,  though  the  national  glory  was  in  its  wane,  is  the 
aera  of  the  highest  internal  splendour  and  magnificence  of  Greece. 


SECTION  XIll. 
AGE  OF  PERICLES. 

1.  Repiiblics,  equally  with  monarchies,  are  generally  regulated 
biy  a  single  will :  only,  in  the  former  there  is  a  more  frequent  change 
of  masters.  Pericles  ruled  Athens  with  little  less  than  arbitrary 
9-way ;  and  Athens  pretended  at  this  time  to  the  command  of  Greece. 
She  held  the  allied  states  in  the  most  absolute  subjection,  and  lavished 
their  subsidies,  bestowed  for  the  national  defence,  in  magnificent 
buildings,  games,  and  festivals,  for  her  own  citizens.  The  tributary 
states  loudly  complained,  bnt  durst  not  call  this  domineering  republic 
to  account ;  and  the  war  of  Peloponnesus,  dividing  the  nation  into 
two  great  parties,  bound  the  less  cities  to  the  strictest  subordination 
on  the  predominant  powers. 

2.  The  state  of  Corinth  had  been  included  in  the  last  treaty  be- 
tween Athens  and  Sparta.  The  Corinthians  waging  war  with  the 
people  of  Corcyra,  an  ancient  colony  of  their  own,  both  parties  so- 
licited the  aid  of  Athens,  which  took  part  with  the  latter:  a  measure 
which  the  Corinthians  complained  of,  not  only  as  an  infraction  of  the 
treaty  with  Sparta,  but  as  a  breach  of  a  general  rule  of  the  national 
policy,  that  no  foreign  power  should  interfere  in  the  disputes  between 
»  colony  and  its  parent  state.  War  was  proclaimed  on  this  ground 
between  Athens  and  Lacedasmon,  each  supported  by  its  respective 
allies.  The  detail  of  the  war,  which  continued  for  twenty-eight 
yepjs,  with  various  and  alternate  success,  is  to  be  ibund  in  Tnucyd- 
ides.  Pericles  died  before  its  termination ;  a  splendid  ornament  of 
his  country,  but  a  corrupter  of  its  manners.  Alcibiades  ran  a  similar 
career,  with  equal  talents,  equal  ambition,  and  still  less  purity  ot 
moral  principle.  In  the  interval  of  a  truce  with  Sparta  he  inconsid- 
erately projected  the  conquest  of  Sicily  ;  and,  failing  in  the  attempt, 
was,  on  bis  return  to  Athens,  condemned  to  death  lor  treason.  He 
hesitated  not  to  wreak  his  vengeance  against  his  country,  by  selling 
his  services,  first  to  Sparta,  and  afterwards  to  Persia.  Finally,  he 
purchased  his  peace  with  his  country,  by  betraying  the  power 
which  protected  him^  and  returned  to  Athens  the  idlol  of  a  populace 
fi9  versatile  as  worthless. 

3.  A  fatal  defeat  of  the  Athenian  fleet  at  ^Egos  Potaraos,  by  Ly- 
sander,  reduced  .\thens  to  the  last  extremity ;  and  the  Lacedaemonians 
blockaded  the  city  by  land  and  sea.  The  war  was  ended  by  the 
absolute  submission  of  the  Athenians,  who  agreed  to  demolish  their 
port,  to  limit  their  fleet  to  twelve  ships,  and  undertake  for  the  future 

5 


34  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

no  military  enterprise,  but  iinder  command  of  the  LacedsBmonkuaa, 
405  A.  C. 

4.  To  the  same  Lysander,  who  terminated  the  Peloponnesian  war 
so  gloriously  for  Lacedaemon,  history  ascribes  the  fii-st  great  breach 
©f  the  constitution  of  his  country,  by  the  introduction  of  gold  into 
that  republic.  Lysander,  after  the  reduction  of  Athens,  abolished 
the  popular  government  in  that  state,  and  substituted  in  its  place 
thirty  tyrants,  whose  power  was  absolute.  The  most  eminent  of 
the  citizens  tied  from  their  country  ;  but  a  band  of  patriots,  headed 
by  Thrasybulus,  attacked,  vanquished,  and  expelled  the  usurpers, 
and  once  more  re-established  the  democracy, 

5.  One  event,  which  happenedat  this  time,  reflected  more  disgrace 
on  the  Athenian  name  than  their  national  humiiiation :  this  was  the  per- 
secution and  death  of  Socrates,  a  philosopher  who  was  himself  the 

f)attem  of  every  virtue  which  he  taught.  T'he  sophists,  whose  futile 
ogic  he  derided  and  exposed,  represented  him  as  an  enemy  to  the 
raiigion  of  his  country,  because,  without  regard  to  the  popular  su- 
perstitions, he  led  the  n)ind  to  the  knowledge  of  a  Supreme  Being,  • 
the  creator  and  ruler  of  the  universe,  and  to  the  belief  of  a  future 
state  of  retribution.  He  made  his  defence  with  the  manly  fortitude  of 
conscious  innocence  ;  but  in  vain :  his  judges  were  his  personal  ene- 
mies, and  he  was  condemned  to  die  by  poison,  397  A.  C.  (See  Sec- 
tion XXIII,  §  5.) 

6.  On  the  death  of  Darius  Nothus,  his  eldest  son  Artaxenses  Mne- 
mon  succeeded  to  the  empire  of  Persia.  His  younger  brother  Cyrus 
formed  the  project  of  dethroning  him,  and  with  the  aid  of  13,000 
Greeks  engaged  him  near  Babylon,  but  was  defeated  and  slain ;  a 
just  reward  of  his  most  culpable  enterprise.  The  remainder  of  the 
Grecian  army,  to  the  amount  of  10,000,  under  the  command  of  Xen« 
•phon,  made  a  most  amazing  retreat,  traversing  a  hostile  country  of 
1,600  miles  in  extent,  from  Babylon  to  the  banks  of  the  Euxine  Xen- 
ophon  has  beautifully  written  the  history  of  this  expedition  :  but  has 
painted  the  character  of  Cyrus  in  too  Mattering  colours,  and  without 
the  smallest  censure  of  his  criminal  am,bition. 

7.  The  Greek  cities  of  Asia  had  taken  part  with  Cjrus.  Sparta 
was  engaged  to  defend  her  countrymen,  and  consequently  was  in 
volved  in  a  war  with  Pei-sia.  Had  Athens  added  her  strength,  the 
Greeks  might  have  once  more  defied  the  power  of  Asia;  but  jealousy 
kept  the  states  divided,  and  even  hostile  to  each  other;  and  the  gold 
©f  Artaxerxes  excited  a  general  league  in  Greece  against  Lacedae- 
mon. Agesilaus,  king  of  Sparta,  sustained  for  a  time  the  honour  of 
his  country,  and  won  some  important  battles  in  Asia;  but  others  were 
lost  in  Greece ;  and  a  naval  defeat  near  Cnidos  utterly  destroyed  the 
Lacedaemonian  fleet.  Finally,  to  escape  total  destruction,  the  Spartans 
sued  fbr  peace,  and  obtained  it  by  the  sacrifice  to  Persia  of  all  the 
Asiatic  colonies,  387  A.  C.  Artaxerxes  further  demanded,  and  obtain- 
ed for  his  allies  the  Athenians,  the  islands  of  Scyros,  Lenmos,  and  Im- 
bros  :  a  disgraceful  treaty;  a  mortifying  picture  of  the  humiliation  of 
the  Greeks. 


ANCIENT  HISTORY.  » 

SECTION  XIV. 

THE  REPUBLIC  OF  THEBES. 

1.  While  Athens  and  Sparta  were  thus  visibly  tending  to  decline, 
(the  Tneban  repuolic  tmerged  from  obscurity,  and  rose  for  a  time 
to  a  degree  of  splendo'ur  eclipsing  all  its  coDtemporary  slaces.  Tiie 
repuoiic  was  divided  by  fiction,  one  party  supporting  its  ancient  de- 
mocracy, and  the  other  aimxng  at  the  estabiisiimeiii  of  an  oligarchy. 
Tlie  latter  courted  the  aid  of  the  Spartaiis,  who  embraced  that  occa- 
sion to  take  possession  of  the  citadel.  Four  hundred  of  the  exiled 
Thehans  lied  for  protection  to  Athens.  Among  tnese  was  Felopidas, 
who  planned  and  accomplished  tiie  deliverance  of  his  countiy.  Dis- 
guising liimself  and  twelve  of  his  friends  as  peasants,  he  entered 
Thebes  in  tne  evening,  and  joining  a  patriotic  party  of  the  citizens, 
they  surprised  the  heads  of  the  usurpation  amid  the  tumult  of  a  feast, 
and  put  them  all  to  death.  Epaminondas,  the  friend  of  i^elopidas, 
shared  with  him  in  the  glory  ot  this  enterprise  ;  and  attackuig,  with 
the  aid  of  5,000  Athenians,  the  Lacedaemoaian  garrison,  drove  thena 
entirely  out  of  the  The  ban  territory. 

2.  A  war  necessariiy  eiisued  between  Thebes  and  Sparta,  in  which 
the  former  had  the  aid  of  Athens.  ;  This,  however,  was  but  for  asf^i- 
son.  Tliebes  singly  opposed  the  power  of  Sparta,  and  the  league  of 
Greece:  hut' Epaminondas  and  Peiopidas  were  her  generals.  The 
latter,  amidst  a  career  of  glory,  perished  in  an  expedition  against 
the  tyrant  of  Fherasa.  Epaminondas,  triumphant  at  Leuctra  and  Man- 
tinea,  fell  in  that  last  engagement,  and  with  him  expired  the  glory  of 
his  country,  363  A.  C.  Athens  and  Sparta  were  humbled  at  the  battle 
of  Mantinea.  Thebes  was  victorious  ;  bul  siie  was  undone  by  the  death 
of  Epaminondas.  Ah  parties  were  tired  ot  ttie  war  ;  and  Artaxerxes, 
more  powerful  among  those  infatuated  states  than  in  his  own  domia 
ions,  dictated  the  terms  of  the  treaty,  it  was  stipulated  that  each 
power  should  retain  what  it  possessed ;  and  ttiat  the  less  states,  now 
tiree  from  the  yoke  of  tiie  greater,  should  remain  so. 

SECTION  XV. 
PHILIP  OF  MACEDON. 

1.  Greece  was  now  in  the  most  abject  situation.  The  spirit  of 
patriotism  appeared  utterly  extinct,  and  military  glory  at  an  end. 
Athens  seemed  to  have  lost  all  ambition ;  the  pleasures  of  luxury  had 
entirely  supplanted  heroic  virtue  ;  poeis,  musicians,  sculptors,  and 
comedians,  were  now  the  only  great  men  of  Aliica.  Sparta,  no  less 
changed  from  the  simplicity  of  its  ancient  manners,  and  its  power 
abridged  by  the  new  independency  of  the  states  of  Feiopouuc.-sus, 
was  in  no  capacity  to  attempt  a  recovery  of  its  former  greahiess.  la 
this  situation  PMhp  of  Macedon,  formed  the  ambitious  project  of  bring- 
ing under  his  dominion  the  whole  of  Greece. 

2.  He  had  mounted  the  throne  of  Macedon  by  popular  choice,  iu 
violation  of  the  natural  right  of  the  nearer  heir's  to  the  crown ;  and 
he  secured  his  power  by  the  success  of  his  arras  against  the  lilyriaos, 
PsBonians,  and  Athenians,  who  espoused  the  interest  of  his  competitors. 
UnitiDg  to  great  military  talents  the  most  coosummate  artitice  aud  ad- 


36  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

dress,  he  had  his  pensionaries  in  all  the  states  of  Greece,  who  direct- 
ed to  his  advantage  every  public  measure.  The  miserable  policy 
of  these  states,  embroiled  in  perpetual  quarrels,  co-operated  with  his 
designs.  A  sacrilegious  attempt  of  the  Fhocians  to  plunder  the  ten> 
pie  of  Delphos  excite^  the  sacred  toar,  in  which  almost' all  the  repub- 
lics took  a  part  Phiiip's  aid  being  courted  by  the  Thebans  and 
Thessalians,  he  began  hostilities  by  invading  Phocis,  the  key  to  the 
territory  of  Attica,  ^schinesj  the  orator,  bribed  to  his  interest,  at- 
tempted to  quiet  the  alarms  oi  the  Athenians,  by  ascribing  to  Phiiip 
a  design  only  of  punishing  sacrilege,  and  vindicating  the  cause  of 
Apollo.  Demosthenes,  wilh  true  patriotism,  exposed  the  artful  de- 
signs of  the  invader,  and  with  the  most  animated  eloquence  roused 
his  countrymen  to  a  vigorous  effort  for  the  preservation  ot  their  nat- 
■ral  libeTties.  But  the  event  was  unsuccessful  <rhe  battle  of  Che- 
ronasa,  fought  337  A.  C,  decided  the  fate  of  Greece,  and  subjected  all 
the  states  to  the  dominion  of  the  king  of  Macedon.  But  it  was  not 
his  policy  to  treat  them  as  a  conquered  people.  They  retained  their 
separate  and  independent  governments,  while  he  controlled  and  direct- 
ed all  the  national  measures.  Convoking  a  general  council  ollhe  states, 
Philip  was  appointed  commander  in  chief  of  the  forces  of  the  nation; 
and  he  laid  before  them  his  project  for  the  conquest  of  Persia,  ap- 
pointing each  republic  to  furnish  its  proportional  subsidies.  On  the 
eve  of  this  great  enterprise  Phiiip  was  assassinated  by  Pausanias.  a 
captain  of  his  guards,  in  revenge  ol  a  private  injury,  336  A.  C.  Tne 
Athenians,  on  the  death  of  Philip,  meanly  expressed  the  most  tumul- 
tuous joy,  in  the  hope  of  a  recovery  of  their  liberty ;  but  this  vision- 
ary prospect  was  never  realized.  The  spirit  of  the  nation  was  gone  • 
and  in  their  subsequent  revolutions  they  only  cjianged  their  mastert. 


SECTION  XVI. 

ALEXANDER  THE  GREAT. 

1.  Alexander,  the  son  of  Philip,  succeeded  at  the  age  of  twenty  to 
the  throne  of  Macedon,  and,  after  a  few  successful  battles  against  the 
revolted  states,  to  the  command  of  Greece.  Assembling  the  deputies 
of  the  nation  at  Corinth,  he  commiinlcated  to  them  his  resolution  of 
prosecuting  the  designs  of  his  father  for  the  conquest  of  Persia. 

2.  With  an  army  of  30,000  foot,  and  5,000  horse,  the  sum  of  70  tal- 
ents, and  provisions  only  for  a  single  month,  he  crossed  the  Hellespont, 
and  in  traversing  Phrygia  visited  the  tomb  of  Achilles.  'J)arius  Co- 
domanus,  resolved  to  crush  at  once  this  inconsiderate  youth,  met  him 
©n  the  blanks  of  the  Granicus  with  100,000  foot  and  10,000  horse., 
The  Greeks  swam  the  river,  their  king  leading  the  van,  and,  attack- 
ing the  astonished  Persians,  left  20,000  dead  upon  the  field,  and  put  to 
flight  their  whole  army.  Drawing  from  his  first  *iccess  a  presage 
ef  continued  victory,  Alexander  now  sent  home  his  fleet,  leaving  to 
his  army  the  sole  alternative,  that  they  must  subdue  Asia  or  perish. 
Prosecuting  their  course  for  some  time  without  resistance,  the  Greeks 
were  attacked  by  the  Persians  in  a  narrow  valley  of  Cilicia,  near  the 
town  of  Issus.  The  Persian  host  amounted  to  400,000  ;  but  their  sit- 
uation was  such  that  only  a  small  part  could  come  into  action,  and 
tliey  were  defeated  with  prodigious  slaughter.  /I'he  loss  of  the  Per- 
sians in  this  battle  was  1 10,000 ;  that  (rf  the  Greeks  (accoxding  to  Q. 
Csrtius)  onl^  450. 


ANCIENT  HISTORY.  37 

3.  The  history  of  Alexander  by  Quintus  Curtius,  though  a  moat 
elegiuit  composition,  is  extremely  suspicious  on  the  score  of  authen- 
tic information.     Arriim  is  the  best  authority. 

4.  The  generosity  of  Alexander  was  displayed  after  the  battle  oi 
IssuSj  in  his  attention  to  his  noble  prisoners,  the  mother,  the  wife, 
and  tamily  of  l)arius.  To  the  credit  of  Alexander  it  must  be  owned 
that  humanity,  however  overpowered,  and  at  times  extinguished  by 
his  passions,  certainly  formed  a  pare  of  his  natural  character. 

6.  Tiie  consayaeiice  of  the  battle  of  Issus  was  the  submission  of 
all  6y lia.  Damascus,  where  Darius  had  deposited  his  chief  treasures, 
was  betrayed  and  given  up  by  its  governor.     The  Phcenicians  were 

{)leased  losee  themsjlves  thus  avenged  for  the  oppression  which  they 
lad  suiTered  under  the  yoke  of  Persia. 

li.  Alexander  had  hitJierio  borne  his  good  fortune  with  moderation. 
FeliXf  says  Curtius,  ni  luic  coatinentia  ad  uUimuui  vitce  perseverare  pot' 
uis^et ;  aed  tu/iuliun  Furl  una  se  atwno  ejus  inj'julerat.*  He  directed  his 
course  towards  Tyre,  and  desired  admittiince  to  perform  a  sacrilice 
to  Hercules.  The  Tyrians  shut  their  gales,  and  maintained  for  seven 
moatiis  a  noble  defence.  The  city  was  at  length  taken  by  storm, 
and  the  victor  glutted  his  revenge  by  the  inhuman  massacre  of  8,000 
of  the  inliabitants.  The  hie  of  Gaza,  gloriously  defended  by  Betis,  was 
equally  deplorable  to  its  citizens,  and  more  disgraceful  to  the  con- 
queror, lea  thousand  of  the  foimer  were  sold  into  slavery,  and  its 
brave  defender  dragged  at  the  wheels  of  the  victor''s  chariot :  Gl&n- 
aaie  regc^  Achilleia^  aqioo  genus  ipse  deduceret^  ivdtaium  se  esse^  pcena 
in  husiem  capienda.]    Curtius. 

7.  The  taking  of  Gaza  opened  Egypt  to  Alexander,  and  the  whole 
country  submitted  without  opposition.  The  coui-se  he  now  pursued 
demonstrated  that  in  his  conq^uests  he  followed  no  determined  plan. 
Amidst  the  most  incredible  latigues,  he  led  his  army  through  the 
deserts  of  Lybia,  to  visit  ttie  temple  of  his  father,  Jupiter  Aimnon.  On 
his  return  he  built  Alexandria,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Nile,  afterwards  the 
capital  of  the  Lower  Egypt,  and  one  of  the  most  flourishing  cities  in 
the  world.  Twenty  otner  cities  of  the  same  name  were  reared  by 
him  in  the  course  of  his  conquests.  It  is  such  works  as  these  that 
justly  entitle  the  Macedonitio  to  the  epithet  of  Great  By  rearing 
in  the  midst  of  deserts  those  nurseries  of  population  and  of  industry, 
he  repaired  the  waste  and  havoc  of  his  conquests.  Except  for  those 
monuments  of  his  glory,  he  would  have  merited  no  other  epithet 
tlian  that  assigned  him  hy  the  brahmins  of  India,  Tfie  Mighty  Murderer. 

8.  Returning  from  Egypt,  Alexander  traversed  Assyria,  and  was 
met  at  Arbela  by  Darius,  at  the  head  of  700,000  men.  The  Persian 
had  proffered  peace,  consenting  to  yield  the  whole  country  from  the 
Euphrates  to  the  Hellespont,  to  give  Alexander  his  daughter  in  mar- 
riage, and  the  iimmease  sum  of  10,000  talents.  But  these  terms 
were  haughtily  rejected,  and  peace  offered  only  upon  the  unqualihed 
submission  of  his  enemy.  Ihe  Persians  were  defeated  at  Arbela, 
with  the  loss  of  300,000  men.  Dai  ins  fled  from  province  to  province. 
At  length  betrayed  by  Bessus,  one  of  his  own  satraps,  he  was  cruelly 
murdered;  and  the  Persian  empire,  which  had  subsisted  for  !^06 
years  from  the  time  of  Cyrus  the  great,  submitted  to  the  conqueror, 
330  A.  C.  -1  » 

•  Happy  if  he  could  have  persevered  in  this  temperance  to  the  ead  of 
his  life,  but  Fortune  had  not  yet  poisoned  his  mind. 

t  The  kin°f  boastings  that  he  imitated  Achilles,  from  whom  he  sTipposeA 
biauelf  descended,  in  the  infliction  of  this  punitiluuent  upon  bia  eo(Mny« 


3S  ANCIENT  HISTOKY. 

9.  Alexander  how  projected  the  conquest  of  India,  firmly  persuad- 
ed that  the  gods  had  decreed  him  the  sovereignty  of  the  whole  hab- 
itable globe.  He  penetrated  to  the  Ganges,  and  would  have  pro- 
ceeded to  the  eastern  ocean,  if  the  spirit  of  his  army  had  kept  pace 
with  his  ambition.  But  bis  troops,  seeing  no  end  to  their  toils,  refus- 
ed to  proceed.  He  returned  to  ti^ie  hidus,  whence  sending  round  his 
fleet  to  the  Persian  gulf  under  Nearchus,  he  marched  his  army 
across  the  desert  to  Persepolis. 

10.  Indignant  that  he  had  found  a  limit  to  his  conquests,  he  abandoned 
himself  to  every  excess  of  luxury  and  debauchery.  The  arrogance 
of  his  nature,  and  the  ardour  of  his  passions,  heightened  by  continual 
intemperance,  broke  out  into  the  most  outrngeous  excesses  of  cruelty, 
for  wnich,  in  the  few  intervals  of  sober  retlection,  his  ingenuous 
mind  suffered  the  keenest  remorse.  From  Persepolis  be  returned 
to  Babylon,  and  there  died  hi  a  tit  of  debauch,  in  the  thirty-third  year 
of  his  age,  and  thirteenth  of  his  reign,  3^4  A.  C. 

11.  Ot  the  character  of  Alexander  the  most  opposite  and  contra- 
dictory estimates  have  been  formed.  While  by  some  he  is  esteemed 
nothing  better  than  a  ibrtunaie  nmdmaii,  he  is  by  others  celebrated 
tor  the  grandeur,  wisdom,  and  solidity  of  his  political  views.  Truth 
is  rarely  to  be  louud  in  extreme  censure  or  applause.  We  may  al- 
low to  Alexander  the  spirit  and  the  talents  of  a  great  military  genius, 
without  combining  with  these  the  sober  plans  of  a  profound  politician. 
Li  a  moral  view  of  his  character,  we  see  an  excellent  and  ingenuous 
nature  corrupted  at  lengtli  by  an  unvaryhig  current  of  success,  and  a 
•tiiking  example  of  the  lata!  violence  of  the  passions,  when  eminence 
of  fortune  removes  all  restraint,  and  flattery  stimulates  to  their  un- 
C(Hitrolled  indulgence. 


SECTION  XVII. 

SUCCESSORS  OF  ALEXANDER. 

1.  Alexander,  on  his  death-bed,  name^  no  successor,  but  gave  his 
pjng  to  Perdiccas,  one  of  his  officers.  W  nen  his  courtiers  asked  him 
to  whom  he  wished  the  empire  to  devolve  upon  his  death,  he  replied, 
**  To  the  most  worthy ;"  and  he  is  said  to  have  added,  that  he  fore- 
taw  this  legacy  woukI  prepare  for  him  very  extraordinary  fimeral 
rites ;  a  prediction  which  was  fully  verified. 

2.  Perdiccas,  sensible  that  his  pretensions  would  not  justify  a  di- 
rect assumption  of  the  government  of  this  vast  empire,  brought  about 
a  division  of  the  whole  among  thirty-three  of  the  principal  officers; 
and  trusting  to  their  inevitable  dissensions,  he  proposed  by  that  means 
to  reduce  all  of  them  under  his  own  authority.  Hence  arose  a  series 
of  wars  and  intrigues,  of  which  the  detail  is  barren  both  of  amuse- 
ment and  useful  imormation.  It  is  sufficient  to  say,  that  their  conse- 
quence was  a  total  extirpation  of  the  family  of  Alexander,  and  a  new 
partition  of  the  empire  into  four  great  monarchies,  the  shares  of 
rtolemy.  Lysimachus,  Cassander,  and  Seleucus.  Of  these  the  most 
powerful  were  that  of  Syria  under  Seleucus  and  his  descendants,  and 
that  of  Egypt  the  Ptolemies. 

"  We  cannot  (says  Condillac)  fix  our  attention  on  the  history  of 
the  successors  of  Alexander,  though  a  great  theatre  is  opened  to  our 
Tiew,  a  yariety  of  scenes,  and  multiplied  catastrophes.  A  picture  is 
aftwi  displeasing  ^om  the  vex^  ciicufflstance  of  its  greatuess.    We 


ANCIENT  HISTORY.  30 

lose  the  connexion  of  its  parts,  because  the  eye  cannot  take  them  in 
at  once.  Still  less  will  a  large  picture  give  us  pleasure,  if  every  part 
of  it  presents  a  different  scene,  each  unconnected  with  the  other." 
Such  is  the  history  of  the  successors  of  Alexander. 


SECTION  XVIII. 


FALL  AND  CONQUEST  OF  GREECE. 

1.  Nor  is  the  history  of  Greece  from  the  period  of  the  death  of  Al- 
exander any  longer  an  interesting  or  pleasing  object  of  contemplation. 
Demosthenes  once  more  made  a  noble  attempt  to  vindicate  the  nation- 
al freedom,  and  to  rouse  his  countrymen,  the  Athenians,  to  shake  ofl 
the  yoke  of  Macedon.  But  it  was  too  late.  The  pacific  counsels  of 
Phocion  suited  better  the  languid  spirit  of  this  once  illustrious  people. 

2.  The  history  of  the  different  republics  present  from  this  time 
notbiRg  but  a  disgusting  series  of  uninteresting  revolutions ;  with  th« 
exception  only  of  that  last  effort  made  by  tbp  Achaean  states  to  re- 
vive the  expiring  lili'^ny  of  their  country.  The  republic  of  Achaia 
was  a  league  of  a  few  of  the  smaller  states  to  vindicate  their  freedom 
against  the  domineering  spirit  of  the  greater.  They  committed  the 
government  of  the  league  to  Aratus  of  Sicyon,  with  the  title  of  prae- 
tor, a  young  man  of  high  ambition,  who  immediately  conceived  the 
more  extensive  project  of  rescuing  the  whole  of  Greece  from  the 
dominion  of  Macedon-  But  the  jealousy  of  the  greater  states  render- 
ed this  scheme  abortive.  Sparta  refused  to  arrange  itself  under  th« 
guidance  of  the  praetor  of  Achaia  :  and  Aratus,  forgetting  his  patriotic 
designs,  sought  only  now  to  wreak  his  vengeance  against  the  Lace- 
daemonians. For  this  purpose,  with  the  most  inconsistent  policy,  he 
courted  the  aid  even  of  the  Macedonians :  the  very  tyrants  who  had 
enslaved  his  country. 

3.  The  period  was  now  come  for  the  intervention  of  a  foreign 
power,  which  was  to  reduce  all  under  its  wide-spreading  dominion. 
The  Romans  were  at  this  time  the  most  powerful  of  all  the  contem- 
porary nations.  The  people  of  Etolia,  attacked  by  the  Macedonians, 
with  a  rash  policy  besought  the  aid  of  the  Romans,  who,  eager  to 
add  to  their  dominion  this  devoted  country,  cheerfully  obeyed  the 
summons,  and  speedily  accomplished  the  reduction  of  Macedonia. 
Perseus,  its  last  sovereign,  was  led  captive  to  Rome,  and  graced  the 
triumph  of  Paulus  Jilmilius,  167  A.  C.  From  that  period  the  Ro- 
mans were  hastily  advancing  to  the  dominion  of  all  Greece  ;  a  prog- 
ress in  which  their  art  was  more  conspicuous  than  their  virtue. 
They  gained  their  end  by  fostering  dissensions  between  the  states, 
which  they  directed  to  their  own  advantage,  corrupting  their  princi- 
pal citizens,  and  using,  in  fine,  every  art  of  the  most  insidious  policy. 
A  pretext  was  only  wanting  to  unsheath  the  sword,  and  this  was 
furnished  bv  the  Achasan  states,  who  insulted  the  deputies  of  impeiv 
al  Rome.  This  drew  on  them  at  once  the  resentment  of  the  Romans. 
Metellus  marched  his  legions  into  Greece,  gave  them  battle,  and  en- 
tirely defeated  them.  Mumnnius  the  consul  terminated  tlie  work, 
and  made  an  easy  conquest  of  the  whole  of  Greece,  which  from  that 
period  became  a  Roman  province,  under  the  name  of  Achaia,  146  A.  C 

4.  Rome  had  acq[u}red  from  her  conquests  a  flood  of  wealth,  and 
began  mw  tQ  Pianile^t  a  taste  for  luxury,  andj^  spirit  of  refinem«Dt 


40  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

In  these  poiats  Greece  was  to  its  conquerors  an  instructer  and  a 
model  - 

Gracia  capta  ferum  victorem  cepit,  et  artes 
lutulit  agre&ti  Latjo.* 

Hence,  even  thougli  vanquished,  it  was  regarded  with  a  species  of 
respect  by  its  ruder  masters. 


SECTION  XIX. 

POLITICAL  REFLECTIONS   ARISING  FROM  THE  HISTORY 
OF  THE  SPATES  OF  GREECE. 

1.  The  revolutions  which  the  states  of  Greece  underwent,  and  the 
situations  into  which  they  were  thrown  by  their  connexion  and  ditTer- 
ences  with  each  other,  and  their  wars  with  foreign  nations,  were  so 
various,  that  their  history  is  :i  school  of  instruction  in  pohtical  science. 
The  surest  test  of  the  truth  or  falsehood  of  abstract  principles  of  pol- 
itics, Ls  their  application  lo  actual  experience  and  to  the  history  of 
nations. 

2.  The  oppression  which  the  stales  of  Greece  suffered  under  their 
ancient  despots,  who  were  subject  lo  no  constitutional  control,  was  a 
most  justifiable  motive  for  their  establishing  a  new  form  of  govern- 
ment, which  promised  them  the  enjoyment  of  greater  political  free- 
dom. We  believe  too  that  those  new  lorms  of  government  were  fram- 
ed by  their  virtuous  legislators  in  the  true  spirit  of  patriotism.  But 
as  to  the  real  merits  of  those  political  labrics,  it  is  certain  that  they 
were  very  far  from  corresponding  in  practice  with  what  was  expect- 
ed from  them  in  theory.  We  seek  in  vain,  either  in  the  history  of 
Athens  or  liacedsmon,  for  the  beautiful  idea  ofa  well-orderedcommon- 
wealth.  The  revolutions  of  government  which  they  were  ever  ex- 
periencing, the  eternal  fictions  with  which  they  were  embroiled, 
plainly  demonstrate  tliat  there  was  a  radical  delect  in  the  structure  of 
the  machine,  Avhich  precluded  the  possibility  of  regular  motion.  The 
condition  of  the  people  under  those  governments  v.as  such  as  par- 
took more  of  servitude  and  oppression,  than  that  of  the  subjects  of  tlie 
most  despotic  monarchies.  The  slaves  tomied  the  actual  majority  of 
the  inhabitants  in  all  the  states  of  Greece.  To  these  the  free  citi- 
zens were  rigorous  bond-masters.  Bondage  being  a  consequence  of 
the  contraction  of  debts  even  by  freemen^  a  great  proportion  of  these 
was  subject  to  the  tyrannical  control  ot  their  fellow-citizens.  Nor 
were  the  richer  classes  in  the  actual  enjoyment  of  independence. 
They  were  perpetually  divided  into  factions,  which  servilely  ranked 
themselves  under  the  banners  of  the  contending  chiefs  of  the  repjili- 
iic.  Those  parties  were  kept  together  solely  by  corruption.  The 
whole  was  therefore  a  system  ot"  servility  and  debasement  of  spirit, 
which  left  nothing  ofa  free  or  ingenuous  nature  in  the  condition  of  in-; 
dividuals,  nor  any  thing  that  could  furnish  encomium  to  a  real  advtf?*.^ 
cate  for  the  dignity  of  human  nature. 

Such  was  the  condition  of  the  chief  republics  of  antiquity.  Their 
governments  promised  in  theory,  what  they  never  conferred  in  prac- 
tice, the  political  happiness  of  the  citizens. 

•  For  conquered  Greece  subdued  her  conquering:  foe, 
And  taught  rude  Rome,  the  arts  of  peace  to  kaow. 


ANCIENT  HISTORY.  41 

3.  "  In  democracy  (says  Dr.  Fergusson)  men  must  love  equality ; 
they  must  respect  the  rights  of  their  fellow-citizens ;  they  must  be 
satisfied  with  that  degree  of  consideration  which  they  can  procure  by 
their  abilities  fairly  measured  against  those  of  an  opponent ;  they 
must  labour  for  the  public  without  hope  of  profit ;  they  must  reject 
every  attempt  to  create  a  personal  dependance."  This  is  the  picture 
of  a  republic  in  theory.  If  we  reverse  this  picture  in  every  single 
particular,  and  take  its  direct  opposite,  we  shall  have  the  true  por- 
trait of  a  republican  government  in  practice. 

4.  It  is  the  fundamental  theory  of  Montesquieu''s  Spirit  of  Imws^ 
that  the  three  distinct  forms  of  government,  the  monarchical,  despot 
ical,  and  republican,  are  influenced  by  the  throe  separate  pri;iC2;)les 
of  honour,  fear,  and  virtue ;  and  this  theory  is  the  foundation  on 
which  the  author  builds  a  great  part  of  his  political  doctrines.  That 
each  of  these  principles  is  exclusively  essential  to  its  respective  form 
oi"  government,  but  unnecessary  and  even  prejudicial  in  the  others,  is  a 
po:^ilion  contrary  both  to  reason  and  to  trutli.  No  form  of  govern- 
ment can  subsist  where  every  one  of  those  principles  has  not  its 
operation.  The  admission  of  sucii  a  theory  leads  to  the  most  mis- 
chievous conclusions ;  as,  for  example,  that  in  monarchies  the  state 
dispenses  with  virtue  in  its  olhcers  and  magistrates;  that  public 
employments  ought  to  be  venal;  and  that  crimes,  if  kept  secret,  are 
of  no  consequence. 

6.  It  is  only  in  the  infant  periods  of  the  Grecian  history  that  we 
are  to  look  for  those  splendid  examples  of  patriotism  and  heroic  vir- 
tue, which  the  ardent  mind  of  uncorr«pted  youth  will  ever  delight 
to  contemplate.  The  most  remarkable  circumstimce  ;v'nich  strikes 
us  on  comparing  the  latter  with  the  more  early  periods  of  tlie  1ms- 
tory  of  the  Greeks,  is  the  total  change  in  the  genius  and  spirit  of  tlie 
people.  The  ardour  of  patriotism,  the  thirst  ot"  milit;t/y  giory,  the 
enthusiasm  of  hberty,  decUne  with  the  rising  grandeur  and  opulence 
of  the  nation,  and  ;in  enthusiasm  of  another  species,  and  far  less 
worthy  in  its  aim,  succeeds :  an  admiration  of  the  tine  arts,  a  violeiit 
passion  for  the  objects  of  taste,  and  tor  the  relinements  of  luxury. 
This  leads  us  to  consider  Greece  in  the  light  in  which,  after  the  loss 
of  its  liberty,  it  still  continued  to  attract  the  admiration  of  otlier  jaa- 
liong. 

SECTION  XX. 
STATE  OF  THE  ARTS  IN   GREECE. 

1.  It  Is  not  among  the  Greeks  that  we  are  to  look  for  the  greatest 
improvements  in  the  useful  and  necessary  arts  of  lite.  In  agricul- 
ture, manufactures,  commerce,  they  never  were  greatly  distinguish- 
ed. But  in  those  which  are  termed  %he  fine  arts,  Greece  surpassed 
all  the  contemporary  nations.  The  monuments  of  those  which  yet 
remain  are  the  models  of  imitation,  and  the  confessed  standard  ot 
excellence,  in  the  judgment  of  the  most  polished  nations  of  modern 
times. 

2.  After  the  defeat  of  Xerxes  the  active  spirit  of  the  Athenians, 
which  would  have  otherwise  languished  tor  want  of  an  object,  taking 
a  new  direction  from  luxury,  displayed  itself  signally  in  all  the  worlis 
of  taste  in  the  tine  arts.  The  administration  of  Pericles  was  the  aera 
of  luxury  and  splendour.  The  arts  broke  out  at  once  with  surpris- 
ing lustre ;  and  b^rchitecture,  sculpture,  and  painting,,  were  carried 


42         v^**^  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

to  the  summit  of  perfection.  This  golden  age  of  the  arts  in  Greece 
endured  for  about  a  century,  till  alter  the  death  of  Alexander  the 
great. 

3.  The  Greeks  were  the  parents  of  that  system  of  architecture 
which  is  universally  allowed  to  be  the  most  perfect. 

The  Greek  architecture  consisted  of  three  distinct  orders :  Ahe 
Doric,  the  Ionic,  and  Corinthian.' 

The  Doric  has  a  masculine  grandeur,  and  a  superior  air  of  strength 
to  both  the  others.  It  is  therefore  best  adapted  to  works  of  great 
magnitude,  and  of  a  sublime  character.  The  character  of  sublimity 
is  essentially  connected  wilh  chasteness  and  simplicity.  Of  this  or- 
der is  the  temple  of  Theseus  at  Athens,  built  ten  years  after  the  bat- 
tle of  Marathon,  and  at  this  day  almost  entire. 

The  Ionic  order  is  light  and  elegant.  The  former  has  a  masculine 
grandeur;  the  latter  a  femiiiine  elegance.  The  Ionic  is  likewise 
eimple :  for  simplicity  is  an  essential  requisite  in  true  beauty.  Of 
this  order  were  the  temple  of  Apollo  at  Miletus,  the  temple  of  the 
Delphic  oracle,  and  the  temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus. 

The  Corinthian  marks  an  age  of  luxury  and  magnificence,  when 
pomp  and  splendour  had  become  the  predominant  passion,  but  had  not 
yet  extinguished  the  taste  for  the  sublime  and  beautiful.  It  attempts 
therefore  a  union  of  all  these  charactere,  but  satisfies  not  the  chasten- 
ed judgment,  and  pleases  only  a  corrupted  taste. 

-"  First  unadorned, 


"  And  nobly  plain,  the  manly  Doric  rose  ; 

"  The  Ionic  then,  with  decent  matron  grace, 

"  Her  airy  pillar  heavM  ;  luxuriant  last 

"  The  rich  Corinthian  spread  her  wanton  wreath." 

Thompson's  Liberty^  Part  2. 

4.  The  Tuscan  and  the  Composite  orders  are  of  Italian  origin. 
The  Etruscan  architecture  appears  lo  have  been  nearly  allied  to  the 
Grecian,  but  to  have  possessed  an  inferior  decree  of  elegance.  The 
Trajiin  column  at  Rome  is  of  this  order ;  less  remarkble  for  the 
beauty  of  its  proportions  than  for  the  admirable  sculpture  which 
decorates  it.  The  Composite  order  is  what  its  name  implies ;  it  shows 
that  the  Greeks  had  in  the  three  original  orders  exhausted  all  the 
principles  of  grandeur  and  beauty ;  and  that  it  was  not  possible  to 
frame  a  fourth,  except  by  combining  the  former^ 

5.  The  Gothic  architecture  offere  no  contradiction  to  these  obser- 
vations. The  effect  which  it  produces  cannot  be  altogether  account- 
ed for  from  the  rules  of  symmetry  or  harmony  in  the  proportions  be- 
tween the  several  parts:  but  depends  on  a  certain  idea  of  vastness, 
gloominess,  and  solemnity,  whicn  are  powerful  ingredients  in  the 
sublime. 

6.  Sculpture  was  brought  by  the  Greeks  to  as  high  perfection  as 
architecture.  The  remains  of  Grecian  sculpture  are  at  this  day  the 
most  perfect  models  of  the  art ;  and  the  modem  artists  have  no  means 
of  attaining  to  excellence  so  certain,  as  the  study  of  those  great  mas- 
ter-pieces. 

7.  The  excellence  of  the  Greeks  in  sculpture  may  perhaps  be 
accounted  for  chiefly  from  their  having  the  human  figure  often  before 
their  eyes  quite  naked,  and  in  all  its  various  attitudes,  both  in  the 
paUiiira^  and  in  the  public  games.  The  antique  statues  have  there* 
feve  a  jraodeur  united  with  perfect  simplicity,  because  the  attitude  it 


ANCIENT  HISTORY.  4» 

not  the  result  of  an  artificial  disposition  of  the  figare,  as  in  the  mod- 
ern  academies,  but  is  nature  unconstrained.  Thus,  in  the  Dying 
Gladiator,  when  we  observe  the  relaxation  of  the  muscles,  and  the 
visible  failure  of  strength  and  life,  we  cannot  doubt  that  nature  was 
the  sculptor's  immediate  model  of  imitation.* 

8.'  And  this  nature  was  in  reality  superior  to  what  we  now  see  in 
the  ordinary  race  of  men.  The  constant  practice  of  gymnastic  ex- 
ercises gave  a  finer  conformation  of  body  than  what  is  now  to  be  tound' 
in  the  vitiated  pupils  of  modern  effeminacy,  the  artificial  children  of 
modern  fashion. 

9.  A  secondary  cause  of  the  eminence  of  the  Greeks  in  the  arts  of 
design,  was  their  theology,  which  furnished  an  ample  exercise  for 
the  genius  of  the  sculptor  and  painter. 

10.  We  must  speak  with  more  diffidence  of  the  ability  of  the 
Greeks  in  painting,  than  we  do  of  their  superiority  in  sculpture  ;  be- 
cause the  existing  specimens  of  the  former  arre  extremely  rare,  and 
the  pieces  which  are  preserved  are  probably  not  the  most  excellent. 
But  in  the  want  of  actual  evidence  we  have  every  presumption  that 
the  Greeks  had  attained  to  equal  perfection  in  the  art  of  painting  and 
in  sculpture  ;  for  if  we  find  the  judgment  given  by  ancient  writers  of 
their  excellence  in  sculpture  confirmed  by  the  universal  assent  of  the 
best  critics  a'nong  the  moderns,  we  have  every  reason  to  presume  an 
equal  rectitude  in  the  judgment  which  the  same  ancient  writers  have 
pronounced  upon  their  paintings.  If  Pliny  is  right  in  his  opinion  of 
the  merits  of  those  statues  which  yet  remain,  the  V'enas  of  Praxiteles 
and  the  Laocoonof  Agesander,  Polydorus,  and  Athenodorus,  we  liave 
no  reason  to  suppose  his  taste  to  be  less  iust  when  he  celebrates  the 
merits,  and  critically  characterizes  the  di.flTerent  manners  of  Zeuxis, 
Apelles,  Parrhasius,  Protogenes,  and  Timanthes,  whose  works  have 
perished. 

11.  The  paintings  found  in  Herculaneum,  Pompeii,  the  Seput- 
chrum  Nasonianum  at  Rome,  were  probably  the  work  of  Greek 
artists  ;  for  the  Romans  were  never  eminent  in  any  of  the  arts  de- 
pendent on  design.  These  paintings  exhibit  great  knowledge  of 
proportions,  and  of  the  chiaro-oscuro ;  but  betray  an  ignorance  ol 
the  rules  of  perspective. 

12.'  The  music  of  the  ancients  appears  to  have  been  very  greatly 
inferior  to  that  of  the  moderns.^ 

13.  The  pecuHar  genius  of  the  Greeks  in  the  fine  art?  extended  its 
effects  to  the  revolutions  of  their  states,  and  influenced  their  fate  as  a 
nation. 


SECTION  XXL 

OF  THE  GREEK  POETS. 

1.  The  Greeks  were  the  first  who  reduced  the  athletic  exercise* 
to  a  system,  and  considered  them  as  an  object  of  general  attention  and 
importance.  The  Panathenaean,  and  afterwards  the  Olympic,  the 
Pythian,  Nemaean,  and  Isthmian  games,  were  under  the  regulation 
of  the  laws.  They  contributed  essentially  to  the  improvement  of  the 
nation  ;  and,  while  they  cherished  martial  ardour,  and  promoted  har- 

*  Cresilat  vulneratum  dejicieniem  feeit,  ex  quo  poarit  inteUigi  quantum, 
restet  animi.  Pliu.  lib.  36.  Cresilas  has  represented  a  wounded  man 
fainting,  from  which  Ve  may  perceive  how  nuch  life  rtill  remains. 


44  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

diaess  and  agility  of  body,  they  cultivated  likemse  urbanity  and  po- 
liteness. 

2.  The  games  of  Greece  were  not  confined  to  gymnastic  or  athlet- 
ic exercises.  They  encouraged  competitions  in  genius  and  learning. 
They  were  the  resort  of  the  poets,  the  historians,  and  the  philosophers. 

3.  In  all  nations,\  poetry  is  of  greater  antiquity  than  prose/ composi- 
tion. The  earliest  prose  writers  in  Greece,  Fherscydes  of  Scyros, 
and  Cadmus  of  Miletus,  were  350  years  posterior  to  Homer.  Any 
remains  of  the  more  ancient  poets,  as  Linus,  Orpheus,  &:c.,  are  ex- 
tremely suspicious.     Homer  is  generally  supposed  to  have  nourished 

\  about  907  A.  C.jHo  have  followed  the"  occupation  of  a  wandering 
'minstrel,  and  to  nave  composed  his  poems  in  detached  fragments, 
and  separate  ballads,  and  episodes.  PisistTall]s,^about  540  A.  C,  em- 
ployed som?  learned  men  to  collect  and  methodize  these  fragments; 
and  to  this  we  owe  the  complete  poems  of  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey. 
The  distinguishing  merits  of  Homer  are,  his  profound  knowledge  of 
human  nature,  his  faithful  and  minute  description  of  ancient  man- 
ners, his  genius  for  the  sublime  and  beautiful,  and  the  harmony  of 
his  poetical  numbers.  His  tidelity  as  a  historian  has  been  questioned  ; 
but  the  great  outlines  of  his  narrative  are  probably  authentic. 

4.' Hesiod^was  nearly  contemporary  with  Homer:  we  should  be 
little  sensible  of  his  merits,  if  they  were  not  seen  through  the  medi- 
um of  an  immense  antiquity.  The  poem  of  the  Works  and  Days 
contains  some  judicious  precepts  of  agriculture.  The  Theogony  is 
an  obscure  history  of  the  origin  of  the  gods,  and  the  formation  of  tlie 
universe. 

5.  About  two  centuries  after  Homer  and  Hesiod,  flourished\^Archi- 
lochus^the  inventor  of  Iambic  verse;  Terpander^ equally  eminent 
as  a  poet  and  a  musician ;  'iSappho,,  of  whose  composition  we  have 
two  exquisite  odes;  Alcaeus  and  Simcfides,'  of  whom  there  are  some 
fine  fragments;  and  Pindar  and  Anacreon,  who  have  left  enough  to 
allow  an  accurate  estimate  of  their  merits. 

6.  Pindar  was  esteemed  by  the  ancients  the  chief  of  the  lyric  poets. 
He  possesses  unbounded  fancy,  and  great  sublimity  of  imagery  ;  but 
his  digressions  are  so  rapid  and  so  frequent,  that  we  cannot  discover 
the  chain  of  thought ;  and  his  expression  is  allowed,  even  by  Longinus, 
to  be  often  obscure  and  unintelligible. 

7  Anacreon  is  a  great  contrast  to  Pindar.  His  fancy  suggests  only 
familiar  and  luxurious  pictures.  He  has  no  comprehension  of  the 
sublime,  but  contents  himself  with  the  easy,  the  graceful,  and  the 
wanton.  His  morality  is  loose,  and  his  sentiments  little  else  than  the 
effusions  of  a  voluptuary. 

8.  The  collection  termed  Anthelogia^  which  consists  •hicfly  of  an- 
cient epigrams,  contains  many  valuable  specimens  of  the  taste  and 
poetical  fancy  of  the  Greeks,  and  contributes  materially  to  the  illus- 
tration of  their  manners.  The  best  of  the  modern  epigrams  may  be 
traced  to  this  source. 

9.  The  aera  of  the  origin  of  dramatic  composition  among  the  Greeks 
is  about  590  A.  C.  Thespis  was  contemporary  with  Solon.  Within 
little  more  than  a  century,  the  Greeh.  drama  was  carried  to  its  high- 
est perfection,  for  iEschylus  died  456  A.  C.  .fechylus  wrote  sixty- 
six  tragedies ;  for  thirteen  of  which  he  gained  the  first  prize  of  dra- 
matic poetry  at  the  Olympic  games.  Like  Shakspeare,  his  genius  is 
Bublime,  and  his  imagination  unbounded.    He  disdained  regularity  of 

Elan,  and  all  artificial  restriction;  but  unfortunately  he  disdained 
kewise  the  restraiots  of  decency  and  of  good  morals. 


ANCFENT  HISTORY.  4li 

10.  Euripides  and  Sophocles  flourished  about  fifty  years  after 
yEschylus.  Euripides  is  most  masterly  in  painting  the  passion  of  love, 
both  in  its  tenderest  emotiojis  and  in  its  most  violent  paroxysms:  yet 
the  characters  of  his  women  demonstrate  that  he  had  no  great  opinion 
of  the  virtues  of  the  sex.  Longinus  does  not  rate  high  his  talent  for 
the  sublime.  But  he  possessed  a  much  superior  excellence  :  his  verses, 
with  great  eloquence  and  harmony,  breathe  the  most  admirable  mo- 
rality. There  remain  twenty  tragedies  of  Euripides ;  and  of  these, 
the  Medea  is  deemed  the  best. 

ll.^^ophocles  shared  with  Euripides  the  palm  of  dramatic  poetry; 
and  is  judged  to  have  surpiissed  him  in  tlie  grand  and  the  sublime.  01 
120  tragedies  which  he  composed,  only  seven  remain.  They  display 
great  knowledge  of  the  human  heart,  and  a  general  chastity  and 
simplicity  of  expression,  which  gave  the  greater  force  to  the  occasional 
strokes  of  the  sublime.  The  Oedipus  of  Sophocles  is  esteemed  the 
most  perfect  production  of  the  Greek  stage. 

12.  The  Greek  comedy  is  divided  into  the  ancient^  the  miJ^Ue,  and 
the  netiy.  The  tirst  was  a  licentious  satire  and  mimicry  ot  real  per- 
sonages, exhibited  by  nv.mo  upon  the  stage.  The  laws  repressed  this 
extreme  license. and  gave  birt.ito  the  middle  comedy,  whicli  continued 
the  satirical  delineation  of  real  per^  -..s,  but  under  ticiitious  names. 
The  last  improvement  consisted  in  banishing  all  personal  satire,  and 
confining  comedy^  to  a  delineation  of  manners.  This  was  the  new 
comedy.  Of  the  first  ispecies,  the  ancient,  we  have  no  remains.  The 
dramas  of  Aristophanes  are  an  example  of  the  second  or  middle 
comedy.  The  grossness  of  his  raillery,  and  the  malevolence  which 
frequently  inspired  it,  are  a  reproach  to  the  morals  of  that  people 
which  could  tolerate  it.  Vet  his  works  have  their  value,  as  throwing 
light  upon  ancient  manners. 

13.  Of  the  new  comedy,  Menander  was  the  bright  example  ;  pos- 
sessing a  vein  of  the  most  delicate  wit,  with  the  utmost  purity  of 
moral  sentiment.  Unfortunately  we  have  nothing  of  him  remaining 
but  a  few  fragments  preserved  by  Athenaeus.  We  see  a  great  deal  of 
liis  merits,  however,  in  his  copyist  and  translator,  Terence. 

14.  The  actoi-s,  both  in  the  Greek  and  Roman  theatres,  wore  masks, 
of  which  the  features  were  strongly  painted,  aud  the  mouth  so  con- 
structed as  to  increase  the  power  of  the  voice.  It  is  probable  that  the 
tragedy  and  comedy  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans  wei'e  set  to  music, 
and  sung,  like  the  recitative  in  the  Italian  opera.  Sometimes  one 
person  ^\  ;is  employed  to  recite  or  sing  tiie  part,  and  another  to  per- 
ibrm  the  corresponding  action  or  gesticulation. 

15.  The  mimes  were  burlesque  parodies  on  the  serious  tragedy 
and  comedy.  The  pantomimes  consisted  solely  of  gesticulation,  and 
were  carried  to  great  perfection. 

SECTIOx^  XXII. 

OF  THE  GREEK  HISTORIANS. 

l.jTiTEmost  eminent  of  the  Greek  historians  were  contempora- 
ries/ Herodotus  died  413  A.  C. ;  Thucydides  391  A.  C. ;  and  Xeno- 
phon  was  about  twenty  years  younger  than  Thucydide^J  Herodotus 
writes  the  joint  history  of  the  Greeks  and  Persians,  fronij  the  time  of 
Cyrus,  to  the  battles  of  Plataea  and  Mycale.  He  treats  incidentally 
likewise  of  the  Egyptians,  Assyrians,  Medes,  and  Lydians.  His  vera- 
©ity  is  to  be  depended  on  in  all  matters  that  fell  under  his  own  obser- 


,46  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

valion;  but  he  admits  too  easily  the  reports  of  others,  and  is  in  gen- 
eral fond  of  the  marvellous.  His  style  is  pure,  and  he  has  a  copious 
elocution. 

3.  Thucydides,  himself  an  able  general,  has  written,  with  great  abil- 
ity, the  history  of  the  hrst  twenty-one  years  of  the  Peloponnesian 
war ;  introducing  it  with  a  short  narrative  of  the  preceding  periods 
of  the  history  of  Greece.  He  is  justly  esteemed  for  his  fideuty  and 
candour.  His  style  is  a  contrast  to  the  full  and  flowing  perrod  of 
Herodotus,  possessing  a.  sententious  brevity,  which  is  at  once  lively 
and  eni?rgetic.  The  history  of  the  remaining  six  years  of  the  war 
oi'  Peloponnesus  was  written  by  Theopompus  and  Xenophon. 

3.  Xenophon  commanded  the  Greek  army  in  the  service  of  Cyrus 
the  younger,  in  his  culpable  enterprise  against  his  brother  Artaxerx- 
es.  (See  Sect  XIII,  ^  6.)  After  the  failure  of  this  enterprise,  Xeno- 
phon directed  that  astonishii'g  retreat  from  Babylon  to  the  Euxine, 
of  which  he  has  given  a  splendid  and  faithful  narrative.  He  wrote 
likewise  the  Cyropedia,  or  the  history  of  the  elder  Cyrus,  which 
is  belived  to  be  rather  an  imaginary  delineation  of  an  accomplished 
prince  than  a  real  narration.  He  Sontinued  the  history  of  Thucyd- 
ides, and  has  left  two  excellent  political  tracts  on  the  constitutions  of 
Lacedaemon  and  Athens.  His  '  yle  is  simple  and  energetic ;  but  the 
brevity  of  his  sentences  sometimes  obscures  his  meaning. 

4.  Greece,  in  its  decline,  produced  some  historians  of  great  em- 
inence. Polybius,  a  native  of^  Megalopolis,  wrote  forty  books  of  the 
Roman  and  Greek  history  during  his  own  age ;  that  i«,  from  tlie  be- 
ginning of  the  second  Punic  war  to  the  reduction  of  Macedonia  into 
a  Roman  province ;  but  of  this  great  work,  only  tlie  first  five  books 
are  entire,  with  an  epitome  of  the  following  twelve.  He  merits  less 
the  praise  of  eloquence  than  of  authentic  information,  and  most  judi- 
cious reflection. 

5.  Diodorus  Siculus  flourished  in  the  time  of  Augustus,  and  compos- 
ed, in  forty  books,  a  general  history  of  the  world,  under  the  title  of 
Bibliotheca  Historica.  jN'o  more  remain  than  fifteen  books  ;  of  which 
the  fii'st  tive  treat  of  the  fabulous  periods,  and  the  history  of  the  Egyp- 
tians, Assyrians,  Pei-siaa*,  Greeks,  &.c.  prior  to  the  Trojan -war.  ■  The 
next  five  are  wanting.  Tlie  remainder  brings  down  the  history  from 
the  expedition  of  Xerxes  into  Greece  till  after  the  death  of  Alexander 
the  great.  He  is  taxed  with  chronological  inaccuracy  in  the  earlier 
parts  of  his  work;  but  the  authenticity  and  correctness  of  the  later 
periotis  are  unimpeached. 

6.  Dionysius  of^Halicarnassus,  eminent  both  as  a  hi=;torian  and  rhet- 
orician, flourished  in  the  age  of  Augustus.  His  Roman  Antiquities 
contain  much  valuable  information,  though  his  work  is  too  much 
tinctured  with  the  spirit  of  systematizing. 

7.  Plutarch,  a  native  of  Cheroaea,  in  Bcrotia,  flourished  in  the 
reign  of  Nero.  His  Lives  of  Illustrious  Men  is  one  of  the  most  val- 
uable of  the  literary  works  of  the  ancients;  introduciug  us  to  an 
acquaintance  with  the  private  character  and  manners  of  those  eminent 
persons  whose  public  achievements  are  recorded  by  professed  his- 
torians. His  morality  is  excellent ;  and  his  style,  though  unpolisiied, 
is  clear  and  energetic. 

8.  Arrian  wrote,  in  the  reign  of  Adrian,  seven  books  of  the  wars  of 
Alexander,  with  great  judgment  and  fidelity;  his  narrative  being 
composed  on  the  authority  of  Aristobulus  and  Ptolemy,  two  c« 
Alexander''3  principal  oflicers.  His  style  is  unadorned,  but  chaste, 
perspicuous,  and  manly. 


ANCIENT  HISTORY.  47 


SECTION  XXIII. 

OF  THE  GREEK  PHILOSOPHERS. 

1  After  the  time  of  Homer  and  Hesiod,  the  increasing  relish  for 
poetical  comj^osition  gave  rise  to  a  set  of  men  termed  rhapsodists, 
whose  employment  was  to  recite  at  the  games  and  festivals  the  com- 
positions of  the  older  poets,  and  to  comment  on  th:  u-  merits  and  ex- 
plain their  doctrines,  some  of  these,  founding  schools  of  instruction, 
were  dignified  by  their  pupils  with  the  epithet  of  Sophists,  or  teach- 
ers of  wisdom. 

2.  The  most  ancient  school  of  philosophy  was  that  founded  by 
Thak\s,  6 10  A.  C,  and  termed  the  Ionic.  Tiwles  is  celebrated  for 
bis  kno.vleJge  of  geoaietry  and  astronomy.  His  metaphysical  doc- 
trines are  imperfectly  known.  He  taught  the  belief  of  a  tirst  cause, 
and  an  over-ruiing  providence  ;  but  supposed  the  Divinity  to  animate 
the  universe,  as  the  soul  does  the  body.  The  moral  doctrines  of  the 
Ionic  school  were  pure  and  rational.  Tlie  most  eminent  of  the  dis- 
ciples of  Thales  were  Anaximander  and  Anaxagoras. 

3.  Soon  -.ifter  the  Ionic,  arose  the  Italian  sect,  founded  by  Pythag- 
oras, who  was  born  about  586  A.  C.  He  is  supposed  to  have  derived 
much  of  his  knowledge  from  Egypt ;  and  he  nad,  like  the  Egyptian 
priests,  a  public  doctrine  for  the  people,  and  a  private  for  his  disci- 
pies  ;  the  former  a  good  system  of  morals,  the  latter  probably  unin- 
telligible mystery.  His  notions  of  the  Divinity  were  aJtin  to  those  of 
Tiiales;  but  he  believed  in  the  eternity  of  the  universe,  and  its  co- 
existence with  the  Deity.  He  taught  the  transmigration  of  the  soul 
through  different  bodies.  His  disciples  lived  in  common  ;  abstained 
rigorously  from  the  tiesh  of  animals ;  and  held  music  in  high  estima- 
tion, as  a  corrective  of  the  passions.  Pythagoras  believed  the  earth 
to  be  a  sphere,  the  planets  to  be  inhabited,  and  the  fixed  stars  to  be 
the  suns  and  centres  of  other  systems.  His  most  eminent  followers 
were  Empedocles,  Epicharmus,  Ocellus  Lucanus,  Timaeus,  Archytas. 

4  The  Eleatic  sect  was  founded  by  Xenophanes,  about  500  A.  C. 
Its  chief  supporters  were  Parmenides,  Zeno,  and  Leucippus,  citizens 
of  Elea.  The  metaphysical  notions  of  this  sect  were  utterly  unintel- 
ligible. They  maintained  that  things  had  neither  beginning,  end, 
nor  any  change ;  and  that  all  the  changes  we  perceive  are  in  our 
own  senses.  Yet  Leucippus  taught  the  doctrine  of  atoms,  whence 
he  supposed  all  material  substances  to  be  formed.  Of  this  sect  were 
Democritus  and  Heraclitus. 

5.  The  Socralic  school  arose  from  the  Ionic.  Socrates  died  401 
A.  C,  the  wisest,  the  most  virtuous  of  the  Greeks.  He  exploded  the 
futile  logic  of  the  Sophists,  which  consisted  of  a  set  of  general  argu- 
ments, applicable  to  ail  manner  of  questions,  and  by  which  they  could, 
with  an  appearance  of  plausibility,  maintain  either  side  of  any  prop- 
osition, bocrates  always  brought  his  antagonist  to  particulars ;  be- 
ginning with  a  simple  and  undeniable  position,  which  being  granted, 
another  followed  equally  undeniable,  till  the  disputant  was  conduct- 
ed step  by  step,  by  iiis  own  concessions,  to  that  side  of  the  question 
on  which  lay  the  truth.  His  rivals  lost  all  credit  as  philosophers,  but 
had  influence  to  procure  the  destruction  of  the  man  who  liad  expos- 
ed them.  The  doctrines  of  Socrates  are  to  be  learned  from  Plate 
and  Xenophou.    He  taught  the  belief  of  a  first  cause,  whose  benefh 


48  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

ceuciL  is  equal  to  his  power,  the  Creator  and  Ruler  of  the  universe. 
He  inculcated  the  moral  agency  of  man,  tlie  inunortality  of  the  soul, 
und  a  future  state  of  reward  and  punishment.  He  exploded  the 
polytheistic  superstitions  of  his  country,  and  thence  became  the 
victim  of  an  accusation  of  impiety.     (See  Section  XIU,  §  5.) 

G.  The  morality  of  Socrates  was  successlully  cuitivated  by  the 
(yyrenaic  sect,  but  was  pushed  to  extravagance  by  the  Cynics.  Vir- 
tue, in  their  opinion,  consisted  in  renouncing  all  the  conveniences  of 
life.  They  clothed  themseh  es  in  rags,  slept  and  ate  in  the  streets, 
or  wandered  about  the  country  with  a  stick  and  a  knapsack.  They 
condemned  all  knowledge  as  useless.  They  associated  impudence 
with  ignorance,  and  indulged  themselves  in  scurrility  and  inveciive 
without  restraint. 

7.  The  Megarian  sect  was  the  luippy  inventor  of  logical  syllogism, 
or  the  art  of  quibbling. 

8.  riato  was  the  founder  of  the  Academic  sect :  a  philosopher, 
whose  doctrines  have  had  a  more  extensive  empire  over  the  minds 
of  mankind,  than  those  of  any  other  among  the  ancients.  This  is  in 
part  owing  to  their  intrinsic  merit,  and  in  pari  to  the  eloquence  with 
which  they  have  been  propounded.  Plato  had  the  mosl  subiime 
ideas  of  the  Divinity  and  his  attributes.  He  taught  that  the  human 
6oul  was  a  portion  of  the  Divinity,  and  that  this  alliance  with  (he 
eternal  mind  might  be  improved  into  actual  intercourse  with  the 
Supreme  Being,  by  abstracting  the  soul  from  all  the  coiruptions 
\vhich  it  derives  Irom  the  body :  a  doctrine  highly  tlaltering  to  the 
pride  of  man,  and  generating  that  mystical  enthusiasm  which  has  the 
most  powerful  empire  o\er  a  warm  imagination. 

9.  The  Platonic  philosophy  Ibund  its  chief  opponents  in  four  re- 
markable sects,  the  Peripatetic,  the  Sceptic,  the  Stoic,  and  the  Epi- 
curean. 

10.  Aristotle,  the  founder  of  the  Peripatetic  sect,  was  tlie  tutor  of 
Alexander  the  great,  and  established  his  school  in  the  Lyceum  at 
Athens :  a  philosopher  whose  tenets  have  tbund  more  zealous  parti- 
zand  and  more  rancorous  opponents,  than  those  of  any  other.  His 
Metaphysics,  from  the  sententious  brevity  of  his  expression,  are  ex- 
tremely obscure,  and  have  given  rise  to  numberless  commentaries. 
The  best  analysis  of  his  doctrines  is  given  by  Dr.  Reid,  in  Lord 
Karnes's  Sketches  of  the  History  of  Man.  His  physical  works  are 
the  result  of  great  observation  and  acquaintance  with  nature ;  and  his 
critical  writings,  as  his  Poetics  and  Art  of  Rhetoric,  display  both  taste 
and  judgment.  The  peculiar  passion  of  Aristotle  was  that  of  classi- 
fying, arranging,  and  combining  the  objects  of  his  knowledge,  so  as  to 
reduce  all  to  a  few  principles :  a  veiy  dangerous  propensity  in  phi- 
losophy, tuid  repressive  of  improvement  in  science. 

1 1.  The  Sceptical  sect  wiis  founded  by  Pyrrho.  They  formed  no 
systems  of  their  own,  but  endeavoured  to  weaken  the  foundations  of 
those  of  all  others.  They  inculcated  universal  doubt,  as  the  only  true 
wisdom.  There  was,  in  then-  opinion,  no  essential  difference  be- 
tween vice  and  virtue,  further  than  as  human  compact  had  discrim- 
inated them.  Tranquilhty  of  mind  they  supposed  to  be  the  state  of 
the  greatest  happiness,  and  this  was  to  be  attained  by  absolute  indri- 
ference  to  all  dogmas  or  opinions. 

19.  The  Stoics,  proposing  to  themselves  the  same  end,  tranquillity 
of  mind,  took  a  nobler  path  to  arrive  at  it  They  endeavoured  to 
raise  themselves  above  all  the  passions  and  feelings  of  humanity 
They  believed  all  nature,  and  God  himself,  the  soul  of  the  universe, 


ANCIENT  HISTORY.  49 

to  be  regulated  by  fixed  and  immutable  laws.  The  human  soul  be- 
ing a  portion  of  the  Divinity,  man  cannot  complain  of  being  actuated 
by  that  necessity  which  actuates  the  Divinity  himself.  His  pains  and 
his  pleasures  are  determined  by  the  same  laws  which  determine  his 
existence.  Virtue  consists  in  accommodating  the  disposition  of  the 
mind  to  the  immutable  laws  of  nature ;  vice  in  opposing  those  laws : 
vies  therefore  is  folly,  and  virtue  the  only  trne  wisdom.  A  beautiful 
picture  of  the  Stoical  philosophy  is  found  in  the  Meditations  of  Ai 
Aurelius  Antoninus.     (5)ee  Madan's  Translation.) 

13.  Epicurus  taught  that  man's  supreme  hnpniness  consisted  in 
pleasure.  He  limited  the  term,  so  as  to  make  it  mean  only  the  prac- 
tice of  virtue.  But  if  pleasure  is  allowed  to  be  the  obji^ct,  every 
man  will  draw  it  from  those  sources  which  he  finds  can  best  supply 
it.  It  might  have  been  the  pleasure  of  Epicurus  to  be  chaste  and 
temperate.  We  are  told  that  it  was  so.  But  others  lind  their  pleas- 
ure in  intemperance  and  luxury,  and  such  was  the  taste  of  his  princi- 
pal followers.  Epicurus  held  that  the  Deity  was  indifferent  to  all  the 
actions  of  man.     His  followers  therefore  had  no  other  counsellor 

ban  their  own  conscience,  and  no  other  guide  than  the  instinctive 
Jesire  of  their  own  happiness. 

14.  The  Greek  philosophy,  on  the  whole,  affords  little  more  than 
a  picture  of  ihe  imbecility  and  caprice  of  the  human  mind.  Its 
teachers,  instead  of  experiment  and  observation,  satisfied  themselves 
witn  constructing  theories ;  and  these  wanting  fact  for  their  basis, 
have  only  served  to  perplex  the  understanding,  and  retard  equally 

he  advancement  of  sound  mor.dity  and  the  progress  of  useful  knowt- 
xlge. 

SECTION  XXIV. 
THE  HISTORY  OF  ROME. 

1.  I.v  the  delineation  of  ancient  hi9tory,tRome^  after  the  conquest 

•  f  Greece,  becomes  the  leading  object  of  attention.  The  history  of 
his  empire,  in  its  progress  to  universal  dominion,  and  afterwards  in  its 
decline  and  fall,  involves  a  collateral  account  of  all  the  other  na- 
tions of  antiquity,  which  in  those  periods  are  deserving  of  our  con- 
sideration. 

2.  Though  we  cannot  determine  the  aera  when  Italy  was  first  peo 
pled,  yet  we  have  every  reason  to  believe  that  it  was  inhabited  by 
a-retined  and  cultivated  nation,  many  ages  before  the  Roman  name 
was  known.  These  were  the  \  Etruscans,  of  whom  there  exist  at 
this  day  monuments  in  the  fine  arts,  which  prove  them  to  have  bees 
a  splendid,  luxurious,  and  highly  polished  p.^ople. — Their  alphabet 
resemblir^  the  Phoenician,  disposes  us  to  believe  them  of  eastern 
origin.  The  Roman  historians  mention  them  as  a  powerful  and  opu- 
lent nation  long  before  the  origin  of  Rome;  and  Dionysius  of  Hali- 
carnassus  deduces  most  of  the  religious  rites  of  the  Romans  from 
Etruria. 

3.  The  rest  of  Italy  was  divided  among  a  number  of  independent 
tribes  or  nations,  comparatively  in  a  rude  and  uncultivated  state; 
Umbrians,  Ligurians,  Sabines,  Veientes,  Latins,  ^Equi,  Volsci,  &c 
Latium,  a  territory  of  fifty  miles  in  length  and  sixteen  in  breadthj 
contained  forty-seven  independent  cities  or  states. 

4.  The  origin  of  the  city  and  stivte  of  Rome  is  involved  in  grea< 
uncertamty.    Dionysius  supposes  two  cities  of  that  name  to  tiav* 

E  T 


so  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

existed,  and  to  have  perished  before  the  foundation  of  the  city  built 
by  Romulus.  The  vulgar  account  of  the  latter  is,  that  it  was 
founded  752  A.  C.  by  a  troop  of  shepherds  or  banditti,  who  peo- 
pled their  new  city  by  carrying  ofl'the  wives  and  daughters  of  their 
neighbours,  the  Sabines. 

5.  The  great  outlines  of  the  first  constitution  of  the  Roman  govern- 
ment, though  generally  attributed  to  the  political  abilities  of  Romu- 
lus, seem  to  have  a  natural  foundation  in  the  usages  of  barbarous 
nations.  Other  institutions  bear  the  traces  of  political  skill  and  posi- 
tive enactment. 

6.  Romulus  is  said  to  have  divided  his  people  into  three  tribes,  and 
each  tribe  into  ten  curice.  The  lands  he  distributed  into  three  por- 
tions ;  one  for  the  support  of  the  government,  another  for  the  main- 
tenance of  religion,  and  the  third  for  the  use  of  the  Roman  citizens, 
which  he  divided  into  equal  portions  of  two  acres  to  each  citizen. 
He  iustituted  a  senate  of  lUU  members  (afterwards  increased  to  20U,) 
who  deliberated  on  and  prepared  all  public  measures  for  the  assembly 
of  the  people,  in  whom  was  vested  the  right  of  determination.  The 
partrician  families  were  the  descendants  of  those  centum  patres  {kunr 
dred  fathers). 

7.  The  king  had  the  nomination  of  the  senators,  the  privilege  of 
assembling  the  people,  and  a  ri^ht  of  appeal  in  all  questions  of  im- 
portance. He  had  the  command  of  the  army,  and  the  othce  oi  pon- 
iifex  maxiinus  {high  priest).  He  had,  as  a  guard,  twelve  lictors,  and 
a  troop  of  horsemen  named  cderes^  or  equites^  afterwards  the  distinct 
order  of  Roman  knights.  These  regulations  are  of  positive  institu- 
tion :  othere  arose  naturally  from  the  state  of  society. 

8.  The  patria  potesias  [paternal  authority)  is  of  the  latter  nature,  be- 
ing common  to  all  barbarous  triljes.  Tlie  limitation  of  ail  arts  to  the 
slaves  arose  from  the  constant  employment  of  the  citizens  in  warfare 
or  in  agriculture. 

9.  Tlie  connexion  of  patron  and  client  was  an  admirable  institu- 
tion, which  at  once  united  the  citizens,  and  maintained  a  uselul  sub- 
ordination. 

10.  The  Sabines  were  the  most  formidable  enemy  of  the  early 
Romans ;  and  a  wise  policy  united  for  a  while  the  two  nations  into 
one  stale.  After  the  death  of  Romulus,  who  reigned  thirty-seven 
years,  Numa,  a  Sabine,  was  elected  king.  f*s  disposition  was  pious 
and  pacific,  and  he  endeavoured  to  give  his  people  the  same  charac- 
ter. He  pretended  to  divine  inspiration,  to  give  the  greater  authori- 
ty to  his  laws,  which  in  themselves  were  excellent.  He  multiplied 
the  national  gods,  built  temples,  and  instituted  different  classes  of 
priests,  Jlainines,  sahi,  &c.,  and  a  variety  of  religious  ceremonies. 
The  flamines  ofliciated  each  in  the  service  of  a  particular  deity ;  the 
salii  guarded  the  sacred  bucklers ;  the  vestals  cherished  the  sacred 
fire ;  the  augurs  and  aruspices  divined  future  events  from  the  flight 
of  birds,  and  the  entrails  of  victims.  The  temple  of  Janus  was  open 
in  war,  and  shut  during  peace.  Numa  reiormed  the  calendar,  regu- 
latbg  the  year  at  twelve  lunar  months,  and  distinguished  the  days 
for  civil  occupation  [fasti]  from  those  dedicated  to  religious  rest 
\nefasti).  Agriculture  was  lawful  on  the  latter,  as  a  duty  of  religion. 
Numa  reigned  forty-three  years. 

11.  Tullus  Hostilius,  the  third  king  of  Rome,  of  warlike  disposi- 
tion, subdued  the  Albans,  Fidenates,  and  other  neighbouring  states. 
The  Sabines,  now  disunited  from  the  Romans,  were  among  the  most 
powerftil  of  their  enemies.    TuUus  reigned  thirty  three  years. 


ANCIENT  HISTORY.  51 

12.  Ancus  Martins,  the  grandson  of  Numa,  was  elected  king  on 
the  death  of  TuUus.  He  inherited  the  piety  and  virtues  of  his  grand- 
father, and  joined  to  these  the  talents  of  a  warrior.  He  increased 
the  population  of  Rome,  by  naturalizing  some  of  the  conquered 
states ;  enlarged  and  fortified  the  city,  and  built  the  port  of  Ostia  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Tiber.     He  reigned  gloriously  twenty-four  years. 

13.  Tarquinius  Friscus,  a  citizen  of  Corinth,  popular  from  his 
wealth  and  liberality,  was  elected  to  the  vacant  throne.  He  enlarg- 
ed the  senate  by  100  new  members  from  the  plebeian  families, /latre* 
minomm  geniiuin  {the  fathers  of  the  lessfandlies).  This  body  consisted 
now  of  300,  at  which  number  it  remained  for  some  centuries.  Tar- 
quin  was  victorious  in  his  wars,  and  adorned  and  improved  the  city 
with  works  of  utility  and  magnificence.  Such  were  the  circus  or 
hippodrome,  the  wails  of  hewn  stone  ;  the  capitol ;  the  cloacae,  thosa 
immense  common  sewei-s,  which  lead  to  the  belief  that  the  new 
Rome  had  been  built  on  the  ruins  of  an  ancient  city  of  greater  mag- 
nitude. Tarquinius  was  assassinated  in  the  thirty-eighth  year  of  his 
reign. 

i4.  Servius  TuUius,  who  had  married  the  daughter  of  Tarquinius, 
secured,  by  his  own  address  and  the  intrigues  of  his  mother-in-law, 
his  election  to  the  vacant  throne.  He  courted  popularity  by  acts  of 
munificence  ;  discharging  the  debts  of  the  poor,  dividing  amon^  the 
citizens  his  patrimonial  lands,  improving  the  x:ity  with  useful  edifices, 
and  extending  its  boundaries.  The  new  arrangement  which  he  in- 
troduced in  the  division  of  the  Roman  citizens  is  a  proof  of  much  po- 
litical ability,  and  merits  attention,  as  on  it  depended  many  of  the 
revolutions  of  the  republic. 

1 5.  From  the  time  that  the  Romans  had  admitted  the  Albans  and 
Sabines  to  the  rights  of  citizens,  the  urban  and  rustic  tribes  were 
composed  of  those  three  nations.  Each  tribe  being  divided  into  ten 
cwnte,  and  every  curia  having  an  equal  vote  in  the  coniitia.,  as  each 
individual  had  in  his  tribe,  all  questions  were  decided  by  the  majority 
of  suffrages.  There  was  no  pre-eminence  between  the  curue,  anrl 
the  order  in  which  they  gave  their  votes  was  determined  by  lot. 
This  was  a  reasonable  constitution,  so  long  as  the  fortunes  of  the 
citizens  were  nearly  on  a  par;  but,  when  riches  came  to  be  une- 
qually divided,  it  was  obvious  that  much  inconvenience  must  have 
arisen  from  this  equal  partition  of  power,  as  the  rich  could  easily,  by 
bribery,  command  the  suffrages  of  the  poor.  Besides,  all  the  taxes 
had  hiiiierto  been  levied  by  the  head,  without  any  regard  to  the  in- 
equality of  fortunes.  These  obvious  defects  furnished  to  Servius  a 
just  pretext  for  an  entire  change  of  system.  His  plan  was,  to  remove 
the  poorer  citizens  from  all  share  of  the  government,  while  the 
burdens  attending  its  support  should  fall  solely  on  the  ricn. 

16.  Ail  the  citizens  were  required,  under  a  heavy  penalty,  to  de- 
clare upon  oath  their  names,  dwellings,  number  of  their  children, 
and  amount  of  their  fortune.  After  this  numeration  or  censm^  Ser- 
vius divided  the  whole  citizens,  without  distinction,  into  four  tribes, 
named,  from  the  quarters  where  they  dwelt,  the  Palatine^  Suburran^ 
Collutine,  and  Esquiline.  Beside  this  local  division,  Servius  distribut- 
ed the  whole  people  into  six  classes,  and  each  class  into  several 
centuries  or  portions  of  citizens  so  called,  not  as  actually  consisting 
of  a  hundred,  but  as  being  obliged  to  furnish  and  maintain  100  men 
in  lime  of  war.  In  the  first  class,  which  consisted  of  the  richest  citi- 
zen-?, or  those  who  were  worth  at  least  100  mince  (about  300/.  ster- 
ling), there  were  no  less  than  ninety-eight  centuries.    In  the  second 


52  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

class  (those  worth  75  mince)  there  were  twenty-two  centuries.  In 
the  third  (those  worth  60  mince)  were  twenty  centuries.  In  the 
fourth  (those  worth  25  miiuE)  twenty-two  centuries.  In  the  fifth 
(those  worth  12  mince)  thirty  centuries.  The  sixth,  the  most  nu- 
merous of  the  whole,  comprehending  all  the  poorer  citizens,  fumisii- 
ed  only  one  century.  Thus  the  whole  Roman  people  were  divided 
into  193  centuries,  or  portions  of  citizens,  so  called,  as  furnishing 
each  a  hundred  soldiers.  The  sixth  class  was  declared  exempt  irom 
taxes.  The  other  classes,  according  to  tlie  number  of  centuries  of 
which  they  consisted,  were  rated  tor  the  public  burdens  at  so  much 
for  each  century. 

17.  The  poor  had  no  reason  to  complain  of  this  arrangement;  but 
something  was  wanting  to  compensate  the  rich  for  the  burdens  to 
which  they  were  subjected.  For  this  purpose  Servius  enacted,  that 
henceforth  the  cmnitia  should  give  their  votes  by  centuries  ;  the  first 
class,  consisting  of  nkicty-eight  centuries,  always  voting  first.  Thus, 
though  the  whole  people  were  called  to  the  comiiia^  and  all  seemed 
to  have  an  equal  suffrage,  yet  in  reality  the  richer  classes  deterniin- 
ed  every  question,  the  sufilrage  of  the  poor  being  merely  nominal ; 
for  as  the  whole  people  formed  lOScenturies,  and  the  first  and  second 
classes  contained  120  of  these,  if  they  were  unanimous,  which  gen- 
erally happened  in  questions  of  importance,  a  majority  was  secured. 
Thus,  in  the  comitia  centuriata  {assemblies  in  which  the  people  voted  by 
centuries)^  in  which  the  chief  magistrates  were  elected,  peace  and 
war  decreed,  and  all  other  important  business  discussed,  the  richer 
classes  of  the  citizens  had  the  sole  authority,  the  votes  of  the  poor 
being  of  no  avail.  And  such  was  the  ingenuity  of  this  policy,  that  all 
were  pleased  with  it :  the  rich  paid  their  taxes  with  cheerfulness,  aB 
the  price  of  their  power;  and  the  poor  gladly  exchanged  authority 
for  immunities.  1  he  census,  performed  every  five  years,  was  closed 
by  a  IvMrum,  or  expiatory  sacrifice ;  and  hence  that  period  of  time 
was  called  a  lustrum. 

1 8.  Servius  was  assassinated,  after  a  reign  of  forty-four  years,  by 
his  infamous  daughter  Tullia,  married  to  /Tarquinius,  the  grandson 
of  Priscus,  wlio  thus  paved  the  way  for  his  own  elevation  to  the 
throne.  The  government  of  Tarquin,  sumamed  the  proud,  was  sys- 
tematically tyrannical.  He  ingratiated  himself  with  the  lower  orders, 
to  al)ase  by  their  means  the  power  of  the  higher ;  but,  insolent,  ra- 
pacious, and  cruel,  he  finally  disgusted  all  ranks  of  his  subjects.  A 
rape  committed  by  his  son  Sextus  on  Lucretia,  the  wife  of  Collatinus, 
who,  unable  to  survive  her  dishonour,  stabbed  herself  in  presence  of 
her  husband  and  kindred,  roused  their  vengeance,  and  procured,  by 
their  influence  with  their  countrymen,  the  expulsion  of  the  tyrant, 
and  the  utter  abolition  of  the  regal  dignity  at  Rome,  509  A,  G. 

Rejledions  on  the  Gmemment  and  State  of  Rome  dwing  the  period  if 

the  kings. 

19.  The  whole  structure  of  the  constitution  of  the  Romans  under 
the  monarchy  has  been  by  most  authors  erroneously  attributed  ex- 
clusively to  the  abilities  of  Romulus,  a  youth  of  eighteen,  the  leader 
of  a  troop  of  shepherds  or  banditti.  This  chimerical  idea  we  owe  to 
Dionysius  of  Halicamassus.  The  truth  is,  the  Roman  government, 
like  almost  every  other,  was  the  gradual  result  of  circumstances ; 
the  fruit  of  time,  and  of  political  emergency.  _ 

20.  The  cottstitutjon  of  the  Roman  senate  has  occasioned  consider'- 


ANCIENT  HISTORY.  5> 

able  research,  and  is  not  free  from  obscurity.  It  is  probable  that  the 
kings  had  the  sole  right  of  naming  the  senators,  that  the  consuls  suc- 
ceeded them  in  this  right,  and  afterwards,  when  these  magistrates 
found  too  much  occupation  from  the  frequent  wars  in  which  the  state 
was  engaged,  that  privilege  devolved  on  the  censors.  The  senators 
were  at  tirst  always  chosen  from  the  body  of  the  patricians,  but  after- 
wards the  plebeians  acquired  an  equal  title  to  that  dignity.  In  the 
early  periods  of  the  republic  the  people  could  not  be  assemUed  but 
by  the  senate's  authority  ;  nor  were  the  plebisdta  {decrees  of  the  peo- 
vle)  of  any  weight  till  confirmed  by  their  decree.  Hence  the  early 
constitution  of  the  republic  was  rather  aristocratical  than  democrat- 
ical.  Fiom  this  extensive  power  of  the  senate  the  tirst  diminution 
was  made  by  the  creation  of  the  tribunes  of  the  people ;  and  other 
retrenchments  successively  took  place,  till  the  people  acquired  at 
length  the  predominant  power  in  the  state.  Yet  the  senate,  even 
after  every  usurpation  on  their  authority,  continued  to  have,  in  many 
points,  a  supremacy.  They  regulated  all  matters  regarding  religion ; 
had  tiie  custody  of  the  public  treasure  ;  superintended  the  conduct  of 
all  magistrates ;  gave  audience  to  ambassadors  ;  decided  on  the  fate  of 
vanquished  nations  ;  disposed  of  the  governments  of  the  provinces ; 
and  took  cognizance,  by  appeal,  in  all  crimes  against  the  state.  In 
great  emergencies  they  appointed  a  dictator,  with  absolute  authority. 

21.  At  the  period  of  the  abolition  of  the  regal  government  the  ter- 
ritory of  the  nomans  was  extremely  limited.  The  only  use  which 
they  made  of  their  victories  was  to  naturalize  the  inhabitants  of 
some  of  the  conquered  states,  and  so  increase  their  population.  Thus, 
their  strength  being  always  superior  to  their  enterprise,  they  laid  a 
solid  foundation  for  the  future  extension  of  their  empire. 

22.  In  the  accounts  given  by  historians  of  the  strength  of  the  ar- 
mies, both  of  the  Romans  in  those  early  times,  and  of  the  neighbour- 
ing states,  their  enemies,  we  have  every  reason  to  believe  there  is 
much  exaggeration.  The  tenitories  from  which  those  armies  were 
furnished  were  incapable  of  supplying  them. 

23.  In  the  continual  wars  in  wnich  the  republic  was  engaged  the 
Romans  were  most  commonly  the  aggressors.  The  causes  of  this 
seem  to  have  been  the  ambition  of  the  consuls  to  distinguish  their 
short  administration  by  some  splendid  enterprise,  and  the  wish  of  the 
senate  to  give  the  people  occupation,  to  prevent  intestine  disquiets. 

21.  The  regal  government  subsisted  244  years,  and  in  that  time 
only  seven  kings  reigned,  several  of  whom  died  a  violent  death. 
These  circumstances  throw  doubt  on  the  authenticity  of  this  period 
of  the  Roman  history.  It  is  allowed  that  there  were  no  historians  for 
the  five  first  centuries  after  the  building  of  Rome.  The  first  is 
Fabius  Pictor.  who  lived  during  the  second  Punic  war.  Livy  says 
that  almost  all  the  ancient  records  were  destroyed  when  Rome  was 
taken  by  the  Gauls. 


SECTION  XXV. 

ROME  U^NDER  THE  CONSULS. 

1.  The  regal  government  being  abolished,  it  was  agreed  to  commit 

the  supreme  authority  to  two  magistrates,  who  should  be  annually 

elected  by  the  people  from  the  patrician  order.    To  these  they  gave 

the  names  of  consuks  ;  "  a  modest  title,  (says  Vertot).  which  gave  to 

E  2 


64  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

wnderstand  that  they  were  rather  the  counsellors  of  the  republic  than 
its  sovereigns ;  and  that  the  only  point  which  they  ought  to  have  in 
view  was  its  preservation  and  giory."  But,  in  fact,  their  authority 
differed  scarcely  in  any  thing  from  that  of  the  kings.  They  had 
the  supreme  administration  of  justice,  the  disposal  of  the  public 
money,  the  power  of  convoking  the  senate  and  assembling  the  peo- 
ple, raising  armies^  naming  all  the  officers,  and  the  right  of  making 
peace  and  war.  The  only  difference  was,  that  their  authority  was 
limited  to  a  year. 

2.  The  first  consuls  were  Brutus  and  Collatinus  (the  husband  of 
Lucretia).  Tarquin  was  at  this  time  in  Etruria,  where  he  got  two  of 
the  most  powerful  cities,  Veii  and  Tarquinii,  to  espouse  his  cause. 
He  had  likewise  his  partisans  at  Rome,  and  a  plot  was  formed  to 
open  the  gates  to  receive  him.  It  was  detected,  and  Brutus  had 
the  mortification  to  find  his  two  soas  in  the  number  of  the  conspira- 
tors. He  condemned  them  to  be  beheaded  in  his  presence.  Exuit 
patrein  ut  considem  ageret ;  orbusque  vivere.,  qvam  ftiblicu:  xindicivs  deesse 
maluit.  Val.  Max.  He  ceased  to  be  a  father^  that  he  might  execute  the 
duties  of  a  consul ;  and  chose  to  live  cJiddless  rather  than  to  neglect  the 
public  punishment  of  a  crime. 

3.  The  consul  Valerius,  successful  in  an  engagement  with  the  ex- 
iled Tarquin,  was  the  first  Roman  who  enjoyed  the  splendid  reward 
of  a  triumph.  Arrogant  from  his  recent  honours,  his  popularity  be- 
gan to  decline  ;  and,  in  a  view  of  recovering  it,  he  proposed  the  law, 
termed  from  him  the  Valerian,  which  "  permitted  any  citizen  who 
had  been  condemned  to  death  by  a  magistrate,  or  even  to  banish- 
ment or  scourging,  to  appeal  to  the  people,  and  required  their  con- 
sent previously  to  the  execution  of  the  sentence.""  This  law  gave 
the  first  blow  to  the  aristocracy  in  the  constitution  of  the  Roman  re- 
public. 

4.  For  thirteen  years  after  the  expulsion  of  Tarquin,  the  Romans 
were  involved  in  continual  wars  on  his  account.  Of  these  the  most 
remarkable  was  the  war  with  the  Etrurians,  under  Porsena ;  a  war 
fertile  in  exploits  of  romantic  heroism. 

5.  Soon  after  this  period  began  those  domestic  disorders,  which 
©ontinued  long  to  embroil  the  republic.  Great  complaints  hud  arisen 
among  the  poorer  classes  of  the  citizens,  both  on  account  oi  the  ine- 
quality of  property,  from  the  partial  distribution  of  the  conquered 
lands,  which  the  higher  ranks  generally  contrived  to  engross  to  them- 
selves, and  from  the  harsh  policy  by  which  it  was  in  the  power  of 
creditors  to  reduce  to  a  state  of  slavery  their  insolvent  debtoi¥.  As 
there  was  no  legal  restraint  on  usury,  the  poor,  when  once  reduced 
to  the  necessity  of  contracting  debts,  Avere  left  entirely  at  the  mercy 
of  their  creditors.  These  grievances,  felt  in  comnjon  by  a  large  pro- 
portion of  the  citizens,  excited  mucn  discontent,  which,  from  com- 
plaints long  disregarded,  grew  at  length  into  a  spirit  of  determined 
resistance.  The  wars  required  new  levies,  and  the  plebeians  posi- 
tively refused  to  enrol  thei^  names,  unless  the  senate  should  put  an 
end  to  their  oppression,  by  decreeing  at  once  an  abolition  of  aii  the 
debts  due  by  the  poor  to  the  rich.  The  emergency  was  critical,  as 
the  enemy  was  at  the  gates  of  Rome.  The  consuls  found  iheir  au- 
thority of  no  avail ;  for  the  Valerian  law  had  given  any  citizen  con- 
demned by  them  a  right  of  appeal  to  the  people.  An  extrdiordinary 
measure  was  necessary,  and  a  dictator  was  created  for  tlie  first  lime ; 
a  magistrate  who,  for  the  period  of  six  montlis,  was  invested  with 
rfjsohite   and  unlimited  authority.    Lartias»  aomiaate(i  to  this  high 


ANCIENT  HISTORY.  W 

office,  armed  the  twenty-four  lictors  with  axes,  summoned  the  whole 
people  to  the  comitia,  and  calling  over  the  names,  under  the  penalty 
of  death  to  any  citizen  who  should  dare  to  murmur,  enrolled  all  such 
as  he  judged  most  tit  for  the  service  of  their  country.  This  expedi- 
ent became  hem.eforward  a  frequent  and  certain  resource  in  all  sea- 
sons of  pubUc  danger. 

6.  The  death  of  Tarquin  removed  one  check  against  the  tyranny 
of  the  higher  over  the  lower  orders;  for  the  latter  had  hitherto  kept 
aUve  a  salutary  apprehension,  that,  in  case  of  extreme  oppression, 
they  would  be  under  the  necessity  of  calling  back  their  king.  Wlfe» 
this  fear  was  at  an  end,  the  domineering  spirit  of  the  patricians,  ex- 
ceeding every  bound  botli  of  good  policy  and  humanity,  drove  the 
people  at  length  to  deeds  of  mutiny  and  rebeUion.  An  alarai  frot» 
the  enemy  gave  full  weight  to  their  power,  and  made  the  chirf  magis- 
trates of  the  state  solemnly  engage  their  honour  to  procure  a  re- 
dress of  their  grievances,  as  soon  as  the  public  danger  was  at  an  end. 
The  promise,  either  from  a  failure  of  will  or  of  power,  vv.is  not  ful- 
filled, and  this  violation  of  faith  drove  the  people  at  length  to  ex- 
tremities. Bound  by  their  military  oath  not  to  desert  tiieirstamiards, 
they  carried  them  along  with  them ;  and  the  whole  army,  in  military 
array,  withdrew  ii'om  Rome,  and  deliberately  encamped  on  the  Mens 
Sac^r,  at  three  miles  distance  from  the  city;  and  here  they  were  soon 
joined  by  the  greater  part  ot  the  people.  This  resolute  procedm^e 
had  its  desired  effect.  The  senate  deputed  ten  persoas,  the  most  re- 
spectable of  their  order,  with  plenary  pov/ers;  and  these,  seeing  no 
medium  of  compromise,  granted  to  the  people  all  their  demmids. 
The  debts  were  solemnly  abolished  ;  and,  for  the  security  of  their 
privileges  in  future,  they  were  allo'-ed  the  right  of  choosing  magis- 
trates of  their  own  order,  who  should  have  the  power  of  opposing 
with  effect  every  measure  which  they  fhould  judge  prejudicinl  to 
their  interests.  These  were  the  trUnm-ts  of  the  people,  chosen  annu- 
ally ;  at  first  five  in  number,  and  after- /ards  increased  to  ten.  With- 
out guards  or  tribunal,  and  naving  no  seat  in  the  senate-house,  they 
had  yet  the  power,  by  a  single  veto,  to  suspend  or  annul  the  decrees 
of  the  senate  and  the  sentences  of  the  consuls.  Their  persons  were 
declared  sacredj  but  their  authority  r  "as  confined  to  the  limits  of  a 
mile  from  the  city.  The  tribunes  demanded  and  obtained  two  magis- 
tKites  to  assist  them,  who  were  termed  aadiles,  from  the  charge  com- 
mitted to  them  of  the  buildings  of  the  city. 

7.  From  this  aera  (260  years  from  the  foundation  of  Rome)  we  date 
the  commencement  of  the  populai-  constitution  of  the  Roman  repub- 
lic: a  change  operated  by  the  unwise  policy  of  the  patricians  them- 
selves, who,  by  yielding  to  just  compiamts,  and  humanely  redressing 
flagrant  abuses,  might  have  easily  anticipated  every  ground  of  dis- 
satisfaction. The  first  wish  of  the  people  was  not  power,  but  relief 
from  tyranny  and  oppression ;  and  if  this  had  been  readily  granted 
them  by  abolishing  tne  debts,  or  at  least  by  repressing  enormous 
usji-y,  and  putting  an  end  to  the  inhuman  right  of  corporal  punish- 
ment and  the  bondage  of  debtors,  the  people  would  have  cheerfully 
reimned  to  order  and  submission,  and  tne  Roman  constitution  would 
have  long  remained  aristocratical,  as  we  have  seen  it  was  at  the  com- 
mencement of  tlie  consular  government.  But  the  plebeians  having 
now  obtained  magistrates  of  their  own  order  with  those  high  powers, 
We  shall  see  it  become  the  object  of  those  magistrates  to  incre;ise 
their  authority  by  continual  demands  and  bold  encroachments.  Tae 
people,  regarding  them  as  the  chujnpions  of  tkeir  rights,  are  delight* 


56  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

ed  to  find  themselves  gradually  approaching  to  a  level  with  the 
higher  order ;  and,  no  longer  bounding  their  desires  to  ease  and  se- 
curity, are  soon  equally  influenced  by  ambition  as  their  superiors. 
While  this  people,  borne  down  by  injustice,  seek  no  more  than  the 
redress  of  real  grievances,  we  sympathize  with  their  feelings,  and 
applaud  their  spirited  exertions.  But  when  they  had  at  length  com- 
passed the  end  which  they  wished,  obtained  ease  and  security,  nay, 
power  which  they  had  neither  sought  nor  expected  ;  when  we  see 
them,  after  this,  increasing  in  their  demands,  assuming  that  arrogance 
which  they  justly  blamed  in  their  superiors,  goaded  on  by  the  am- 
bition of  their  leaders  to  tyrannize  in  their  turn ;  we  view  with 
proper  discrimination  the  love  of  Ubcrty  and  its  extreme  hcentious- 
ness ;  and  treat  with  just  detestation  the  authors  of  those  pernicious 
measures,  which  embroiled  the  state  in  endless  faction,  and  paved  the 
way  for  the  total  loss  of  that  liberty,  of  which  this  ceiuded  people 
knew  not  the  value  when  they  actually  possessed  it. 


SECTION   XX\1. 

THE  LAW  OF  VOLERO. 

1.  The  disorders  of  the  ;  ommonwealth,  appeased  by  the  creation 
of  the  ti'ibunei),  were  but  for  a  time  suspended.  It  was  necessary 
that  the  popular  magistrates  should  make  an  experiment  of  their 
powers.  In  an  assembly  of  the  people  one  of  the  consuls,  interrupt- 
ed by  a  tribune,  rashly  said,  that  if  the  tribunes  had  called  that  assem- 
bly, he  would  not  have  interrupted  them.  This  was  a  concession  on 
the  part  of  the  consuls,  that  the  tribunes  had  the  power  of  assem- 
bling the  comitia,  which,  from  that  moment,  they  assumed  as  their 
acknowledged  rignt.  It  was  a  consequence  of  this  right,  that  the 
affairs  of  the  commonwealth  should  be  agitated  in  those  meetings, 
equally  as  in  the  assemblies  held  in  virtue  of  a  consular  summons,  or 
senatorial  decree,  and  thus  there  were,  in  a  manner,  two  disUnct 
legislative  powers  established  in  the  republic. 

2.  The  trial  of  Corioleums  for  inconsiderately  proposing  the  aboli- 
tion of  the  tribunate,  an  offence  interpreted  to  be  treason  against  the 
state,  threw  an  additional  weight  into  the  scale  of  the  people.  The 
proposal  of  an  agrarian  law,  for  the  division  of  the  lancls  acquired  by 
recent  conquests,  resumed  at  intervals,  though  never  canied  into 
execution,  inflamed  the  passions  of  the  rival  orders. 

3.  Publius  Volero,  formerly  a  centurion,  and  a  man  distinguished 
for  his  military  services,  had,  in  the  new  levies,  been  ranked  as  a 
common  soldier.  Complaining  of  this  unmerited  degradation,  he  re- 
fused his  services  in  that  capacity ;  and  the  consuls  having  con- 
demned him  to  corporal  punishment,  he  appealed  from  their  sen- 
tence to  the  people.  The  contest  lasted  till  tlie  annual  term  of  elec- 
tions, when  Volero  himself  was  chosen  a  tribune  of  the  people.  He 
had  an  ample  revenge,  by  procuring  the  enactment  of  a  most  impor- 
tant law.  The  comitia  by  centuries  and  by  curiae  could  be  called 
only  in  virtue  of  a  decree  of  the  senate,  after  consulting  the  auspices ; 
and  in  those  comitia  the  tribunes  had  hitherto  been  elected,  and  the 
most  important  public  aflairs  discussed.  It  was  decreed  by  tlie  law 
of  Volero,  that  the  election  of  the  tribunes  should  be  made,  and  the 
chief  public  business  henceforward  discussed,  in  the  comitia  held  by 
■^ibes.  which  were  uafettered  by  any  of  tkose  restraints.    From  this 


ANCIENT  HISTORY.  57 

period  the  supreme  authority  in  the  Roman  republic  may  be  consid- 
ered as  having  passed  completely  from  the  higher  order  into  the 
hands  of  the  people.  The  Roman  constitution  was  now  plainly  a 
democracy,  471  A.  C. 


SECTION  XXVIl. 

THE  DECEMVIRATE. 

1.  The  Romans  had,  till  this  period,  no  body  of  civil  laws. — Under 
the  regal  government  the  kings  alone  administered  justice ;  the 
consuls  succeeded  them  in  this  high  prerogative,  and  thus  possessed 
without  control  the  absolute  command  of  the  fortunes  and  civil  rights 
of  all  the  citizens.  To  remedy  this  great  defect,  Tereutillus,  a  tri- 
bune, proposed  the  nomination  of  ten  commissioners,  to  frame  and 
digest  a  code  of  laws  for  the  explanation  and  security  of  the  rights 
of  all  orders  of  the  state.  A  measure  so  equitable  ougbt  to  have  met 
with  no  opposition.  It  was,  however,  strenuously  opposed  by  the 
patricians,  who,  by  a  fruitless  contest,  only  exposed  their  own  weak- 
ness. The  decemviri  were  chosen ;  but  the  election  being  made  in 
the  comitia  by  centuries,  the  consul  Appius  Claudius,  with  his  col- 
leaguCj  were  at  the  head  of  this  important  commission.  The  laws 
were  framed,  those  celebrated  statutes  known  by  the  name  of  the 

1  Twelve  Tables,  which  are  the  basis  of  the  great  structure  of  the 
j  Roman  jurisprudence,  451  A.  C. 

2.  An  acquaintance  with  these  ancient  laws  is  therefore  of  impor- 
tance. Even  in  the  most  flourishing  flmes  of  the  republic  they  con- 
tinued to  be  of  the  highest  authority.  They  have  the  encomium  of 
Cicero  himself;  and  we  learn  from  him,  that  to  commit  these  laws 
to  memory  was  an  essential  part  of  a  liberal  education.  From  the 
twelve  tables  the  jurisconsulti  composed  a  system  of  judicial  forms, 
for  the  regulation  of  the  difl'erent  tribunals.  The  number  of  the 
laws  was  likewise  from  time  to  time  increased  by  the  senatuscansulta 
and  plebiscita. 

3.  The  decemvirs  were  invested  with  all  the  powers  of  govern- 
ment, for  the  consulate  had  ceased  on  their  creation.  Each  decem- 
vir by  turn  presided  for  a  day,  and  had  the  sovereign  authority,  with 
its  insignia,  the  fasces.  The  nine  others  ofiiciated  solely  as  judges 
in  the  determination  of  lawsuits,  and  the  correction  of  abuses.  An 
abuse,  however,  of  the  most  tiagrant  nature,  comtnitted  by  the  chief 
of  their  own  number,  was  destined  speedily  to  bring  their  office  to 
its  termination, 

4.  Appius  Claudius,  inflamed  by  lawless  passion  for  the  young 
Virginia,  the  betrothed  spouse  of  Icilius,  formerly  a  tribune  of  the 
people,  employed  a  profligate  dependant  to  claim  the  maiden  as  his 
own  property,  on  the  false  pretence  of  her  being  the  daughter  of 
one  of  his  female  slaves.  The  claim  was  made  to  the  decemvir 
himself  in  judgment,  who  pronounced  an  infamous  decree,  which 
tore  from  her  family  this  helpless  victim,  and  put  her  into  the  hands 
of  his  own  minion.  Her  father,  to  save  the  honour  of  his  child, 
plunged  a  dagger  into  her  breast ;  and  the  people,  witnesses  of  this 
shocking  scene,  would  have  massacred  Appius  on  the  spot,  if  he  had 
not  found  means  to  escape  amidst  the  tumult.  Their  vengeance, 
however,  was  satiated  by  the  instant  abolition  of  this  hated  magis- 
tracy, and  by  the  death  of  Appius,  who  chose  by  his  own  hand  t« 


58  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

prevent  the  stroke  of  the  executioner.  The  decemvirate  had  sub- 
sisted for  three  years.  The  consuls  were  now  restored,  together 
with  the  tribunes  of  the  people,  449  A.  C. 

SECTION  XXVIII. 
INCREASE  OF  THE  POPULAR  POWER. 

1 .  The  scale  of  the  people  was  daily  acquiring  weight,  at  the  ex- 
pense of  that  of  the  highest  order.  Two  barriers,  however,  still 
separated  the  patricians  and  plebeians :  one^  a  law  which  prevented 
their  intermarriage,  and  the  other,  the  constitutional  limitation  of  all 
the  higher  offices  to  the  order  of  the  patricians.  It  was  only  neces- 
sary to  remove  these  restrictions,  and  the  patricians  and  plebeians 
were  on  a  footing  of  perlect  equality.  The  first,  alter  a  long  ]mt 
fruitless  contest,  was  at  length  agreed  to  by  the  senate  ;  and  this 
concession  had  its  usual  effect  of  stimulating  the  people  to  inflexible 
pei-severance  in  their  struggle  for  the  latter.  On  an  emergence  of 
war  the  customary  device  was  practised,  of  refusing  to  enter  the 
rolls,  unless  upon  the  immediate  enactment  of  a  law,  which  should 
admit  their  capacity  of  holding  all  the  offices  of  the  repubUc.  The 
senate  sought  a  palliative,  by  the  creation  of  six  military  tribunes  in 
lieu  of  the  consuls,  three  of  whom  should  be  patricians,  and  three 

Elebeians.     This  measure  satisfied  the  people  for  a  time  :  the  consuls, 
owever,  were  soon  restored. 

2.  The  disorders  of  the  republic,  pnd  frequent  wars,  had  inter- 
rupted the  regular  sui'vey  of  the  citizens.  This  was  remedied  by 
the  creation  of  a  new  magistracy.  Two  officers,  under  the  title  of 
censors,  were  appointed  (437  A.  C),  whose  duty  was  not  only  to 
make  the  cejistis  every  live  years,  out  to  inspect  the  morals,  and 
regulate  the  duties  of  all  the  citizens :  an  office  of  dignity  equal  to 
its  importance,  exercised,  in  the  latter  limes  of  the  republic,  onljr  by 
consular  persons,  and  afterwards  annexed  to  the  supreme  functions 
of  the  emperors. 

3.  The  dissensions  between  the  orders  continued,  with  little  varia- 
tion either  in  their  causes  or  effects.  The  people  generally,  as  the 
last  resource,  refused  to  enrol  themselves,  till  overawed  by  the 
supreme  authority  of  a  dictator.  To  obviate  the  frequent  necessity 
of  this  measure,  which  enforced  at  best  an  unwilling  and  compelled 
obedience,  the  senate  had  recourse  to  a  wise  expedient ;  this  was, 
to  give  a  regular  pay  to  the  troops.  To  defray  this  expense  a  mod- 
enite  tax  was  imposed  in  proportion  to  the  fortunes  of  the  citizens. 
From  this  period  the  Roman  system  of  war  assumed  a  new  aspect. 
The  senate  always  found  soldiers  at  command  ;  the  army  wtis  undci' 
it?;  control ;  the  enterprises  of  the  republic  were  more  extensive, 
and  its  successes  more  signal  and  important.  Veil,  the  proud  rival 
©f  Rome,  and  its  equal  in  extent  and  population,  was  taken  by  Camil- 
lus,  after  a  siege  of  ten  years,  A.  U.  C.  396.  The  art  of  war  was 
improved,  as  it  now  became  a  profession,  instead  of  an  occasional 
occupation.  The  Romans  were,  from  this  circumstance,  an  over- 
matcn  for  all  their  neighbours.  Their  dominion,  hitherto  confined 
to  the  territory  of  a  few  miles,  was  now  rapidly  extended.  It  was 
impossible  but  that  the  detached  states  of  Italy  must  have  given  way 
betbre  a  people  who  were  always  in  arms,  and,  by  a  pei-^everance 
alike  resolute  and  judicious,  were  equal  to  every  attempt  in  which 
Ihey  engaged. 


ANCIENT  HISTORY.  5« 

4.  The  taking  of  Veii  was  succeeded  by  a  war  with  the  Gauls. 
This  people,  a  branch  of  the  great  nation  of  the  Celtse,  had  opened 
to  themselves  a  passage  through  the  Alps  at  tour  ditterent  periods, 
and  were  at  this  time  established  in  tne  .country  between  those 
mountains  and  the  Appenines.  Lnder  the  command  of  Brennus  they 
laid  siege  to  the  Eti-uscan  Clusium;  and  the  people,  of  no  warlike 
turn  themselves,  solicited  the  aid  of  the  Romans.  The  circumstan- 
ces recorded  of  this  war  with  the  Gauls  throw  over  it  a  cloud  of 
feble  and  romance.  The  furmidable  power  of  Rome  is  said  to  have 
been,  in  a  single  campaign,  so  utterly  exhausted,  that  the  Gauls  en- 
tered the  city  without  resistance,  and  burnt  it  to  the  ground,  385  A. 
C.  Though  thus  overpowered,  the  Romans,  in  a  singie  engagement, 
retrieve  all  their  losses,  and  m  one  day's  time  thei'e  is  not  a  Gaul 
left  remaining  withhi  the  Koman  territoiy. 

To  the  burning  of  the  city  by  the  Gauls,  the  Roman  writers  attri- 
bute the  ioss  of  all  the  records  and  monuments  of  their  early  history. 

5.  It  is  singular,  that  most  of  the  Roman  revolutions  should  have 
owed  their  origin  to  women.?  From  this  cause  we  hiye  seen  spring 
the  abolition  of  the  i-egal  ofiice  and  the  decemvirate.  Frcm  this 
cause  arose  the  change  of  the  constitution,  by  which  the  plebeians 
became  capable  of  holding  the  highest  oflices  of  the  commonweal  ih. 
The  younger  daughter  ol  Fabius  Ambuslus,  married  to  a  plebeian, 
envious  of  the  honours  of  her  elder  sister,  ihe  wife  of  a  patrician, 
stimulated  her  father  to  rouse  the  lower  order  to  a  resolute  purpose 
of  asserting  their  equal  right  with  the  patricians  to  all  the  ofhces  and 
digniiies  of  the  state.  After  much  turbulence  and  contest  the  final 
issue  was  the  admission  of  the  plebeians,  first  to  the  consulate,  and 
afterwards  to  the  censorship,  the  praetoiiship,  and  priesthood  (A.  U. 
C.  454,  and  A.  C.  30U)  .  a  change  beneficial  in  the  main,  as  consoli- 
dating the  strength  of  the  republic,  and  cutting  ofi"  the  principal  source 
of  intestine  disorder.  The  factions  of  the  state  had  hitherto  confined 
the  growth  of  its  power,  its  splendour,  and  prosperity ;  for  no  state 
can  at  once  be  prosperous  and  anarchical.  vVe  shall  now  mark  the 
rapid  elevation  of  the  Roman  name  and  empire. 


SECTION  XXIX. 

CONQUEST  OF  ITALY  BY  THE  ROMANS. 

1.  The  war  with  the  Samnites  now  began,  and  was  of  long  contin- 
uance ;  but  its  successful  termination  was  speedily  followed  by  the 
reduction  of  all  the  states  of  Italy.  In  the  course  of  this  important 
war  the  Tarentines,  the  allies  of  the  Samnites,  sought  the  aid  of 
Pyrrhus,  king  of  Epirns.  one  of  the  greatest  generals  of  nis  age.  Fyrr- 
hus  landed  in  Italy  witn  30,000  men  and  a  train  of  elephants,  280  A. 
C.     He  was  at  first  successful,  but  no  longer  so  than  till  a  short  ex 

{)erience  reconciled  the  Romans  to  a  new  mode  of  war.  Sensible  at 
ength  of  the  difficulties  of  his  enterprise,  and  dreading  a  fatal  issue^ 
he  embraced  an  invitation  from  the  Sicilians  to  aid  them  in  a  war 
with  Carthage.  On  this  pretext,  which  at  least  was  not  dishor.ioura- 
ble,  Pyrrhus  withdrew  his  troops  firom  Italy.  In  this  interval  the 
Romans  reduced  to  extremity  the  Samnites,  the  Tarentines,  and  the 
other  allied  states.  Pyrrhus  returned,  and  made  a  last  effort  near 
Beneventum.  He  was  totally  defeated,  lost  26,000  men,  and  aban- 
doning at  once  all  further  views  to  Italy,  returned  with  precipitation 


60  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

to  his  own  dominions,  274  A.  C.  The  hostile  states  submitted  to  the 
victorious  power;  and  Rome,  480  years  from  the  foundation  of  the 
city,  was  now  mistress  of  ail  Italy. 

2.  The  policy  observed  by  the  Romans,  with  respect  to  the  con- 
quered nations,  was  wise  and  judicious.  They  removed  to  Rome 
all  the  leading  men  of  the  principal  conquered  cities,  admitting  them 
into  the  ancient  urban  and  rustic  tribes,  and  thus  soothing  the  pride  of 
the  vanquished,  by  giving  them  an  apparent  share  in  their  own  do- 
mestic government;  while,  in  arranging  the  constitution  of  the  cities, 
they  tilled  their  magistracies  with  illustrious  Romans,  whose  abilities 
and  indue  nee  were  fitted  to  maintain  those  new  provinces  .in  alle- 
giance to  the  Roman  government. 

3.  Sicily  had  long  bees  considered  the  granary  of  Italy.  The 
Carthaginians  at  this  time  possessed  considerable  settlements  in  the 
island,  and  were  ambitious  of  acquiring  its  entire  dominion.  An  ob- 
vious poUcy  led  the  Romans  to  dispute  with  them  this  important  ac- 
quisition, and  gave  rise  to  the  Punic  wars.  This  leads,  by  a  natural 
connexion,  to  a  short  view  of  the  history  of  Carthage  and  of  Sicily. 


SECTION  XXX. 

HISTORY  OF  CARTHAGE. 

1 .  Carthagf,  according  to  the  most  probable  accounts,  was  founded 
by  a  colony  of  Tyrians,  about  seventy  years  before  the  building  of 
Rome.  Tae  colony  had  the  same  language,  the  same  or  nearly 
similar  laws  and  constitution,  the  same  national  character,  with  the 
parent  state.  The  city  of  Carthage  was,  at  the  period  of  the  Punic 
wars,  one  of  the  nwsl  splendid  in  the  world,  and  had  under  its  domin- 
ion 3U0of  the  smaller  cities  of  Africa  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean 
sea. 

2.  The  constitution  of  the  republic  is  celebrated  by  Aristotle  as 
one  of  the  most  perfect  of  the  governments  of  antiquity  ;  but  we 
know  little  more  than  its  general  nature  from  ancient  writers.  Two 
magistrates,  named  suffctes^  annually  chosen,  seem  to  have  possessed 
powers  akin  to  those  of  the  Roman  consuls ;  and  the  Carthaginian 
senate  to  those  of  the  senate  of  Rome ;  with  this  remarkable  differ- 
ence, that,  in  the  former,  unanimity  of  opinion  was  requisite  in  all 
measures  of  importance.  A  divided  senate  transmitted  the  business 
to  the  assembly  of  the  people.  A  tribunal  of  104  judges  took  cog- 
nizance of  military  operations,  and  of  the  conduct  of  their  generals. 
A  superior  council  of  hve  seems  to  have  controled  the  decisions  of 
the  larger  tribunal.  Two  peculiarities  of  the  Carthaginian  policy 
have  been  censured  by  Aristotle.  One  pecuharity  was,  that  the  same 
person  might  hold  several  employments  or  oflices  in  the  state  ;  the 
other  that  the  poor  were  debarred  from  all  othces  of  trust  or  import- 
ance. But  the  former  of  these  is  frequently  both  expedient  and 
necessary,  and  the  latter  seems  agreeable  to  the  soundest  policy ;  for 
in  offices  of  trust  poverty  offei's  too  powerful  an  incitement  to  devia- 
tion from  duty. 

3.  The  first  settlements  made  by  the  Carthaginians  were  entirely 
in  thft  way  of  commerce.  Trading  to  the  coast  of  Spain  for  gold, 
they  built  Carthagena  and  Gades :  and  coasting  along  the  western 
shore  of  Africa,  they  had  estabhshments  for  the  same  purpose  as  far 
a-s  thtt  25th  degree  of  north  latitude.    The  Periplus  of  Hanno  aflfordu 


ANCIENT  HISTORY.  61 

a  proof  of  ardent  enterprise  an  J  policy.  Desirous  of  extending  a 
limited  territory  they  armed  against  the  Mauritanians,  Numidians, 
and  all  the  neighbouring  nations;  employing  mercenary  troops, 
which  they  levied,  not  only  in  Africa,  but  in  Spain,  the  two  Gauls, 
and  Greece. 

4.  The  annals  of  the  Carthaginian  state  are  little  known  till  their  . 
wars  with  the  Romans.     The  first  of  their  wars  mentioned  in  history 
is  that  with  the  Greek  colonies  of  Sicily.     Darius  courted  their  alii 
ance  when  he  meditated  the  conquest  of  Greece ;  and  Xerxes   re 
newed  that  treaty  when  he  followed  out  the  designs  of  his  father. 


SECTION  XXXI. 

HISTORY  OF  SICILY. 

1.  The  early  periods  of  the  history  of  Sicily  are  as  little  known  as 
those  of  Carthage.  The  PhiEnicians  had  sent  colonies  to  Sicily  be 
lore  the  Trojan  war.  The  Greeks,  in  alter  times,  made  considerable 
settlements  in  the  island.  The  Corinthians  founded  Syracuse,  which 
became  the  most  illustrious  of  the  Greek  cities  of  Sicily  ;  and  from 
Syracuse  arose  afterwards  Agrigentum,  Acra,  Casmene,  Camarenej 
and  several  other  Sicilian  towns. 

2.  The  government  of  Syracuse  was  monarchical,  and  might  have 
long  remained  so,  if  all  its  sovereigns  had  inherited  the  abilities  and 
virtues  of  Gelon.  But  his  successors,  exercising  the  worst  of  tyran- 
ny, compelled  their  subjects  at  length  to  abolish  the  regal  govern- 
ment ;  and  their  example  was  speedily  followed  by  aU  the  Grecian 
states  of  Sicily. 

3.  The  monarchy  of  Syracuse,  however,  was  revived  about  sixty 
years  after  in  the  pei'son  of  Dionysius,  a  man  of  obscure  origin,  but 
of  signal  ability.  Twice  expelled  for  a  tyrannical  exercise  ol  domin  ■ 
ion,  he  as  often  found  means  to  overpower  his  enemies,  and  re-estab- 
li-ih  him-«lf  in  the  throne.  At  his  death  the  crown  passed,  without 
opposition,  to  bis  son,  Dionysius  the  younger,  a  weak  and  capricious 
tyrant,  whom  his  subjects  judging  unworthy  to  reign,  dethroned  and 
banished,  357  A.  C.  The  crown  was  conferred  on  Dion,  his  brother- 
in-law,  whose  amiable  character  rendt^red  him  the  delight  of  his 
people.  But  after  a  short  reign  this  prince  ieil  a  victim  to  treason. 
Aided  by  the  distractions  of  Syracuse  consequent  on  this  event,  Dio- 
nysius remounted  the  throne  ten  years  after  his  expulsion ;  but  bis 
tyrannical  disposition,  heightened  by^'liis  misfortunes,  became  at 
length  so  intolerable,  that  he  was  expehed  a  second  time,  and 
banished  to  Corinth,  where  he  ended  his  days  in  poverty  and  obscurity. 
The  author  of  this  revolution  was  the  iiiustrious  Timoleon,  to 
whose  abilities  and  virtues  his  country  owed  equally  its  liberty  and 
its  subsequent  happiness  and  prosperity,  343  A.  C. 

The  signal  opposition  of  national  character  between  the  Romans 
and  the  Carthaginians  may  be  easily  explained,  when  we  attend  to 
the  effects  of  a  commercial  life  on  the  genius  and  manners  of  a  nation. 
The  vices  of  a  commercial  people  are  selfislmess,  cunning,  avarice, 
with  an  absence  of  every  heroic  and  patriotic  virtue.  The  favoura- 
ble effects  of  commerce  are  industry,  frugality,  general  courtesy  at 
manners,  improvement  in  the  useful  arts.  Atteudine  to  these  conaer' 
F 


^t  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

qenceiof  the  prevalence  of  the  commercial  spirit,  we  shall  see  ta^ 
principal  features  of  the  Carthaginian  character  opposed  to  tn« 
noman. 


SECTION  XXXII. 

THE  PUNIC  WARS. 

1.  The  triumph  which  Ihe  Romans  had  obtained  over  Pyrrhui 
seemed  to  give  assurance  of  success  in  any  enterprise  in  which  they 
should  engage.  The  Mam<'rtiaes,  a  people  of  Campania,  obtained 
aid  I'rom  the  Romans  in  an  unjustifiable  attempt  which  they  made  to 
seize  Messina,  a  Sicilian  town  allied  to  Syracuse.  The  Syracusans, 
at  first  assisted  by  the  Carthaginians,  opposed  this  invasion  ;  but  the 
former,  more  alnrmed  by  the  ambitious  encroachments  of  the  Car- 
thaginians on  Sicily,  soon  repented  of  this  rash  alliance,  and  joined 
the  Romans  in  the  purpose  cf  expelling  the  Carthaginians  entirely 
from  the  island.  In  fact  the  bicilians  seem  to  have  had  only  the  des- 
perate choice  of  final  submission  either  to  Rome  or  Carthage. 
They  chose  the  former,  as  the  alternative  least  dishonourable.  The 
Romans  had  ever  been  their  friends,  the  Carthaginians  their  enemies. 

2.  Agrigentum,  possessed  by  the  Carthaginians,  was  taken,  after 
a  long  siege,  by  tne  joint  forces  of  Rome  and  Syracuse.  A  Roman 
fleet,  tbe  tirst  which  they  ever  had,  was  equipped  in  a  few  weeks, 
and  gained  a  complete  victory  over  that  of  Carthage,  at  this  time  the 
greatest  maritime  power  in  the  world,  260  A.  C.  These  successes 
were  followed  by  the  reduction  of  Corsica  and  Sardinia.  In  a  second 
naval  engagement  the  Romans  took  from  the  Carthaginians  sixty  of 
their  ships  of  war,  and  now  resolutely  prepared  for  the  invasion  of 
Africa.  The  consul  Regulus  commanded  the  expedition.  He  ad- 
vanced to  the  gates  of  Carthage  ;  and  such  was  the  general  conster- 
nation that  the  enemy  proposed  a  capitulation.  Inspirited,  however, 
by  a  timely  aid  of  Greek  troops  under  Xantippus,  the  Carthaginians 
inad«;  a  desperate  effort,  and,  defeating  the  Roman  army,  made  Hegu- 
lus  their  prisoner.  But,  repeatedly  defeated  iu  Sicily,  they  were  at 
length  seriously  desirous  of  a  peace ;  and  the  Roman  general  was 
lent  with  their  ambassadors  to  Rome  to  aid  the  negotiation,  under  a 
soleian  oath  to  return  to  Carthage  as  a  prisoner,  if  the  treaty  should 
fail.  It  was  rejected  at  the  urgent  desire  oi  Regulus,  who  thus  sac- 
rificed his  life  to  what  he  judged  the  interest  of  his  country. 

3.  Lilyboeum,  the  strongest  of  the  Sicilian  towns  belonging  to 
Curtlioge,  was  taken  after  a  siege  of  nine  years.  After  some  alter- 
nate mccesses  two  naval  battles  won  by  the  Rcnans  terminated  the 
war,  md  Carthage  at  last  obtained  a  peace  on  the  humiliating  terms 
ol'abvndoning  to  the  Romans  all  her  possessions  in  Sicily,  the  pay- 
ment of  3,200  talents  of  silver,  the  restitution  of  all  prisoners  without 
ransoTi,  and  a  solemn  engagement  never  to  make  war  against  Syra- 
cuse or  her  allies.  The  island  of  Sicily  was  now  declared  a  Roman 
proviace,  though  Syracuse  maintained  its  independent  government, 
A.  U  C.  511,and  A.  C.  241. 

4.  The  peace  between  Rome  and  Carthage  was  of  twenty-three 
yean'  duration.  The  latter  power  was  recruiting  its  strength,  and 
med'^ated  to  revenge  its  losses  and  disgrace.  The  second  Punic  war 
began  on  the  part  of  the  Carthaginians,  who  besieged  Saguntum,  a 
fiity  of  Spain,  in  alliance  with  Uie  Romana     The  youug  HamiibaJ 


ANCIENT  HISTOKX.  63 

took  Saguntum  after  a  siege  of  seven  months ,  u»  ?«?spe*"ate  inhabi 
tants  setting  lire  to  the  town,  and  perishing  anv.d'S'  the  flames.  Han- 
nibal now  formed  the  bold  design  of  carrying  the  war  into  Italy.  He 
provided  against  every  difficulty,  gained  to  liis  interest  a  part  of  the 
Gallic  tribes,  passed  the  Pyrenees,  and  finally  the  Alps,*  in  a  toil- 
some march  of  five  months  and  a  half  from  bis  leaving  Carthagena; 
and  arrived  in  Italy  with  :£(),000  foot  and  G,000  hoi-se. 

5.  In  the  first  engagement  the  Romans  were  defeated.  They  also 
lost  two  other  important  battles  at  Trebia,  and  the  lake  Thrasyme- 
nus.  In  the  latter  of  these  the  consul  Flamiaius  was  killed,  and  hi* 
army  cut  to  pieces.  Hannibal  advanced  to  Cannas  in  Apulia,  where 
tlie  Romans  oppos?d  him  with  thoir  whole  force.  A  memorable 
defeat  ensued,  in  which  40,000  Romans  were  left  dead  upon  the 
field,  and  amdug  these  the  consul  ii^milius,  and  almost  the  whole 
body  of  the  ki)ights.  If  Hannibal  had  taken  advantage  of  this  great 
victory,  by  iii--lantly  ailackiag  Rom?,  the  fate  of  the  republic  was 
inevitable ;  but  he  delijerai.e  J,  and  the  occasion  was  lost.  The 
Romans  concentrated  all  tbeir  strength.  Even  the  ■^liives  armed  in 
the  common  cause,  and  victory  once  more  attended  the  standards  of 
the  repabiic.  Fiiiiip,  king  of  Macedon,  joined  his  forces  to  the 
Carthaginians,  but,  defeated  by  Levinus,  speedily  withdrew  his  as- 
sistance. Hannibal  retreated  before  tne  brave  Marcellus.  Syracuse 
had  now  taken  part  with  Carthage,  and  thus  paved  the  way  for  the 
loss  of  its  own  liberty.  Marcsllus  besieged  the  city,  which  was  long 
defended  by  the  inventive  genius  of  Archimedes;  but  was  taken  in 
the  third  year  by  escalade  in  the  night.  This  event  put  an  end  to 
the  kingdom  of  Syracuse,  Avhich  now  became  a  part  of  the  Roman 
province  of  Sicily,  A.  U.  C.  542,  A.C.  212. 

6.  While  the  war  in  Italy  was  prosperously  conducted  by  the 
great  Fabius,  who,  by  constantly  avoiding  a  general  engagement, 
found  the  true  method  of  weakening  his  enemy,  the  younger  Scipio 
accomplished  the  entire  reduction  of  Spain.  Asdrubal  was  sent 
into  Itt^ly  to  the  aid  of  his  brother  Hannibal,  but  was  defeated  by 
the  consul  Claudius,  and  slain  in  battle.  Scipio,  triumphant  in  Spain, 
passed  over  into  Africa,  and  carried  havoc  and  devastation  to  the 
gates  of  Carthage.  Alarmed  for  the  fate  of  their  enipire  the  Car 
thaginians  h;istiiy  recalled  Hannibal  from  Italy.  The  battle  oi 
Zena  decided  the  fate  of  the  war,  by  the  utter  defeat  of  the  Cartha 
ginians.  They  entreated  a  peace^  which  the  Romans  gave  on  these 
conditions :  that  the  Carthaginians  should  abandon  Spain,  Sicily,  anJ 
all  the  islands;  surrender  all  their  prisoners,  give  up  the  wuole  of 
their  fleet  except  ten  gallies,  pay  10,000  talents,  and,  in  future, 
undertake  no  war  without  consent  of  the  Romans,  A.  U.  C.  552,  A. 
C.  202. 

7.  Every  thing  now  concurred  to  swell  the  pride  of  the  conquer*  , 
ors,  and  to  extend  their  dominion.  A  war  with  Philip  of  Macedon 
was  terminated  by  his  deteat ;  and  his  son  Demetrius  was  sent  to 
Rome  as  a  hostage  for  the  payment  of  a  heavy  tribute  imposed  on 
the  vanquished.  A  war  with  Antiochus,  king  of  Syria,  ended  in 
his  ceding  to  the  Romans  the  whole  of  the  Lesser  Asia.  But  these 
splendid  conquests,  while  they  enlarged  the  empire,  were  fatal  to  its 

*  The  passagre  of  Hannibal  over  the  Alps  has  been  lately  illustrated, 
in  a  most  learned  and  ing'enious  essay,  by  Mr.  Whitaker  (the  celebrated 
historian  of  Manchester,  and  vindicator  of  Queen  Mary),  who  has,  with 
great  acuteness,  traced  every  step  of  the  Carthaginian  general,  from  kis 
crossing  the  Rhone  to  his  final  arrival  ia  Italy. 


64  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

nrtuea,  and  subversive  of  the  pure  and  venerable  simplicity  of 
smcit^nt  tirncs. 

8.  Tiie  third  Punic  war  began  A.  U.  C.  605,  A.  C.  149,  and  ended 
ID  the  ruin  of  Carthage.  An  unsuccessful  war  with  the  Numidians 
had  reduced  the  Cartliaginians  to  great  weakness,  and  the  Romans 
meanly  laid  hold  of  that  opporlunity  to  invade  Africa.  Conscious  of 
their  utter  inability  to  resist  this  formidable  pcwer,  the  Carthaginians 
offered  every  submission,  and  consented  even  to  acknowledge  them- 
selves the  subjects  of  Rome.  The  Romans  demanded  300  hostages, 
for  the  strict  peribrmance  of  every  condition  that  should  be  enjoined 
by  the  senate.  The  hostages  were  given,  and  the  condition  requir- 
«d  was,  that  Carthage  itself  shouki  be.  razed  to  its  foundation.     Les- 

Sair  gave  courage  to  this  miserable  people,  and  they  determined  to 
ie  in  the  defence  of  their  native  city.  But  the  noble  effort  was  in 
vain.  Carthage  was  taken  by  stonn,  its  mhabitants  massacred,  and 
the  city  burnt  to  the  ground,  A.  U.  C.  607,  A.  C,  146. 

9.  The  same  year  was  signalized  by  the  entire  reduction  of 
Greece  under  the  dominion  of  the  Romans.  This  was  the  aera  of 
tiie  dawn  of  luxury  and  taste  at  Rome,  the  natural  fruit  of  foreign 
wealth,  and  an  acquaintance  with  foreign  manners,  in  the  unequal 
distribution  of  this  imported  wealth,  tlie  vices  to  which  it  gave  rise, 
the  corruption  and  venality  of  which  it  became  the  instrument,  we 
iee  the  remoter  causes  of  those  fatal  disorders  to  which  the  republic 
•wed  its  dissolution. 


SECTION  XXXIIl. 

THE  GRACCHI,  AND  THE  CORRUPTION  OF  THE  COMMON- 
WEALTH. 

1.  At  this  period  arose  Tiberius  and  Caiiis  Gracchus,  two  noble 
youths,  whose  zeal  to  reform  the  growing  corruptions  of  the  state, 
precipitated  them  at  length  into  measures  destructive  of  all  govern- 
ment and  social  order.  Tiberius,  the  elder  of  the  brothers,  urged 
the  people  to  assert  by  force  the  revival  of  an  ancient  law,  for  limits 
ing  property  in  land,  and  thus  abridging  the  overgrown  estates  of  the 
patricians.  A  tumult  was  the  consequence,  in  which  Tiberius,  with 
300  of  his  friends,  were  killed  in  the  forum.  This  fatal  example  did 
not  deter  his  brother,  Caius  Gracchus,  from  pursuing  a  similar  career 
of  zeal  or  of  ambition.  After  some  successful  experiments  of  his  pow- 
er, while  in  the  office  of  tribune,  he  directed  his  scrutiny  into  the  cor- 
ruptions of  the  senate,  and  prevailed  in  depriving  that  body  of  its  con- 
stitutional control  over  all  the  inferior  magistrates  of  (he  state.  ¥.m- 
ploying,  like  his  brother,  the  dangerous  engine  of  tumultuary  force, 
he  fell  a  victim  to  it  himself,  with  3,000  of  his  partisans,  who  were 
slaughtered  in  the  streets  of  Rome.  The  tumults  attending  the  se- 
dition of  the  Gracchi  were  the  prelude  to  those  civil  disorders  which 
now  followed  in  quick  succession  to  the  end  of  the  commonwealth. 

2.  The  circumstances  attending  the  war  with  Jugurtha  gave  deci- 
sive proof  of  the  corniption  of  the  Roman  manners.  Jugurtha, 
grandson  of  Masinissa,  sought  to  usurp  the  crown  of  Numidia  by 
destroying  his  cousins,  Hiempsal  and  Adherbal,  the  sons  of  the  last 
king.  He  murdered  the  elder  of  the  brothers;  and  the  younger 
applying  for  aid  to  Rome,  Jugurtha  bribed  the  senate,  who  declared 
him  innocent  of  all  culpable  act  or  design,  and  decreed  to  him  the 


ANCIENT  HISTORY.  66 

sovereignty  oF  half  the  kingdom.  This  operated  only  fts  an  incentive 
to  his  criminal  ambition.  He  declared  open  war  against  his  cousin, 
besieged  him  in  his  capital  of  Cirta.  and  linally  put  him  to  death. 
To.  avert  a  threatened  war  Jugurtha  went  in  person  to  Knmo, 
pleaded  his  own  cause  in  the  senate,  and  once  more  by  bribery 
secured  his  acquittal  from  all  charge  of  criminality.  A  perseverance, 
how.'ver,  in  a  similar  train  of  conduct  tinally  drew  on  him  the  Vi'n- 
geance  of  the  Romans ;  and  being  betrayed  i.ito  their  hands  by  his 
own  father-in-law,  he  was  brought  in  chains  to  Rome,  to  grace  the 
triumph  of  the  consul  Marius,  confined  to  a  dungeon,  and  starved  to 
death,  A.  U.  C.  651,  A.  C.  103. 

3.  The  ambition  of  the  allied  states  of  Italy  to  attain  the  rights 
of  citizenship  produced  the  social  war,  which  ended  in  a  conces- 
sion of  those  rights  to  such  of  the  confederates  as  should  retura 

f>eaceably  to  their  allegiance.  This  war  with  the  allies  was  a  pre- 
ude  to  that  which  followed  between  Rome  and  her  own  citizens. 
Sylla  and  Marius,  rivals,  and  thence  enemies,  were  at  this  time  the 
leaders  of  the  republic.  Sylla,  com  nanding  in  a  war  against  Mithri- 
datas,  was  superseded,  and  recalled  from  Asia.  He  refused  to  obey 
the  mandate,  and  found  his  army  well  disposed  to  support  him. 
"Let  us  march  to  Rome,"  said  they,  with  one  voice;  "lead  us  on 
to  avenge  the  cause  of  oppressed  liberty."  Sylla  accordingly  led 
them  on,  and  they  entered  Rome  sword  in  hand.  Marius  and  his 
partizaos  fled  with  precipitation  from  the  city,  and  Sylla  ruled  for  a 
while  triumphant.  But  the  faction  of  his  rival  soon  recovered 
strength.  Marius  returning  to  Italy,  and  joining  his  forces  to  those 
of  Cinna,  his  zealous  pirtizan,  laid  siege  to  Rome,  and,  while  Sylla 
was  engaged  in  the  Mithridatic  war,  compelled  the  city  to  absolute 
sub:nission.  After  a  horrible  massacre  of  all  whom  they  esteemed 
their  enemies,  Mariu?  and  Cinna  proclaimed  them-^elves  consuls, 
without  the  formaUty  of  an  election;  but  Marius  died  a  few  days 
after  in  a  tit  of  debauch. 

4.  After  a  victorious  campaign  in  Asia,  Sylla  returned  to  Italy, 
and,  joined  by  Cethegus,  Verres,  and  the  young  Pompey,  gave 
battle  to  the  party  of  his  enemies,  and  entirely  defeated  them. 
His  entry  into  Rome  was  signalized  by  a  dreadful  massacre,  and  a 
proscription,  wliich  hai  for  its  object  the  extermination  of  every 
enemy  whom  he  had  in  Italy.  Elected  dictator  for  an  unlimited 
period,  he  was  now  without  a  rival  in  authority,  and  absolute  master 
of  the  government,  which,  of  course,  was  no  longer  a  republic* 
In  the  exercise  of  his  dojiinion  he  deserved  more  praise  than  in 
the  means  of  acquiring  it.  He  restored  the  senate  to  its  judicial 
authority,  regulated  the  election  to  all  the  important  offices  of 
state,  and  enacted  m my  excellent  laws  against  oppression  and  the 
abuse  of  power.  Finally,  he  gave  demonstration,  if  not  of  a  pure 
conscience^  at  least  of  a  magnanimous  intrepidity  of  character,  by 
voluntarily  resigning  all  command,  retiring  to  the  condition  of  a 

Srivate  citizen,  and  offering  publicly  to  give  an  account  of  his  cbtt- 
uct.  He  died  within  a  short  time  after  his  resignation.  He  was 
certainly  a  man  of  great  strength  of  mind,  and  had  some  of  the  qual- 
ities of  a  heroic  character;  but  he  lived  in  evil  times,  when  it  was 
impossible  at  once  to  be  great  and  to  be  virtuous, 

5.  The  death  of  Sylla  renewed  the  civil  war.  Lepidus,  a  man  oi 
no  abilities,  aspired  to  succeed  him  in  power ;  and  Pompey,  with 
superior  talents,  cherished  the  same  ambition.  While  the  fatter  was 
employed  in  the  reduction  of  the  revolted  provinces  of  Asia,  the 

F2  9 


66  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

conspiracy  of  Catiline  threatened  the  entire  destruction  of  Rome. 
It  was  extinguished  by  the  provident  zeal  and  active  patriotism 
of  the  consul  Cicero.  Catiline  and  his  chief  accomplices  were 
attacked  in  the  field,  and  defeated  by  Antonius.  The  traitor  made 
a  desperate  defence,  and  died  a  better  death  than  his  crimes  had 
merited. 

6.  Julius  Cassar  no'.v  rose  into  public  notice.  Sylla  dreaded  his 
abilities  and  ambition,  and  had  numbered  him  among  the  proscribed. 
'*•  There  is  many  a  Marius,"  said  ha,  •'  in  the  person  of  that  young 
man."  He  had  learned  prudence  from  the  danger  of  his  situation, 
and  tacitly  courted  popularity^  without  that  show  of  enterprise 
which  gives  alarm  to  a  rival.  VVhile  Fompey  and  Crassus  contended 
for  the  command  of  the  republic,  Caesar,  who  knew  that,  by  attach- 
ing himself  to  either  rival,  he  infallibly  made  the  other  his  enemy, 
showed  the  reach  of  his  talents  by  reconciling  them,  and  thus 
acquiring  the  friendship  of  both.  From  favour  to  their  mutual  friend 
they  agreed  to  a  partition  of  power;  and  thus  was  formed  the  first 
triumvirate.  Caesar  was  elected  consul.  He  increased  his  popularity 
by  a  division  of  lands  among  t'ne  poorer  citizens,  and  strengthened 
his  interest  with  Pompey  by  giving  him  his  daughter  in  marriage. 
He  had  the  command  of  four  legions,  and  the  government  of  trans- 
alpine Gaul  and  lUyria. 

7.  The  military  glory  of  the  republic,  and  the  reputation  of 
Caesar,  were  nobly  sustained  in  Gaul.  In  the  first  year  of  his  govern- 
ment he  subdued  the  Helvetii,  who,  leaving  their  own  country,  had 
attempted  to  settle   themselves  in  the  better  regions  of  the  Roman 

Krovince.  He  totally  defeated  the  Germans  under  Ariovistus,  who 
ad  attempted  a  similar  invasion.  The  Belgae,  the  Nervii,  the 
Celtic  Gauls,  the  Suevi,  Menapii,  and  other  warlike  nations,  were 
all  successively  brought  under  subjection.  In  the  fourth  year  of  his 
government  he  transported  his  army  into  Britain.  Landing  at  Deal, 
he  was  opposed  by  the  natives  with  equal  courage  and  military  skill. 
He  gained,  however,  several  advantages,  and,  binding  the  Britons  to 
submission,  withdrew  into  Gaul  on  the  approach^  of  winter.  He 
returned  in  the  following;  summer  with  a  greater  force,  and,  prose- 
cuting his  victories,  reduced  a  considera!)le  portion  of  the  island 
under  the  Rom  m  dominion,  A.  C.  54.  But  the  pressure  of  affairs 
in  Italy  suspended  for  a  time  the  progress  of  the  Roman  arms  in 
Brifain. 

8.  Caesar  dreaded  the  abilities  of  Cicero,  who  had  opposed  hhji 
in  his  views  of  ambition.  By  the  machinations  of  his  partizans, 
while  he  was  absent  in  Gaul,  he  procured  the  banishment  of  Cicero, 
and  the  confiscation  of  his  estates,  on  the  pretence  of  illegal  meas- 
ures pursued  in  the  suppression  of  the  consjiiracy  of  Catiline. 
During  an  exile  of  sixteen  months  in  Greece,  Cicero  gave  way  to  a 
despondency  of  mind  utterly  unworthy  of  the  philosopher.  Pom- 
pey had  abandoned  him,  and  this  ungrateful  desertion  bore  most 
heavily  upon  his  mind.  In  the  wane  of  his  reputation  Pompey  soon 
became  desirous  to  prop  his  own  sinking  fortunes  by  tne  abilities  of 
Cicero,  and  eagerly  promoted  his  recal  from  exile.  The  death  of 
Crassus,  in  an  expedition  against  the  Parthians,  now  dissolved  the 
triumvirate  ;  and  Caesar  and  Pompey,  whose  union  had  no  other  bond 
than  interest,  began  each  to  conceive  separately  the  view  of  undivid- 
ed dominion. 


ANCIENT  HISTORY.  67 


SECTION  XXXIV. 


FROGRESS  OF  THE  CIVIE  WARS.     SECOND  TRIUMVIRATE. 
FALL  OF  THE  REPUBLIC. 

1.  The  ambition  of  Caesar  and  of  Poinpey  had  now  evidently  the 
fftme  object ;  and  it  seemed  to  be  the  only  question,  in  those  degen- 
erate times,  to  which  of  these  aspiring  leaders  the  republic  should 
surrender  its  liberties.  The  term  of  Ca?sar's  government  was  near 
expiring.  To  secure  himself  against  a  deprivation  of  power,  he 
procured  a  proposal  to  be  made  in  the  senate  by  one  of  his  partizans, 
which  wore  the  appearance  of  great  moderation,  namely,  that 
C'djsar  and  Pompey  should  either  both  continue  in  their  govern- 
ments, or  both  be  deprived  of  them,  as  they  were  equally  capable 
of  endangering  the  public  liberty  by  an  abuse  of  power.  The  mo- 
tion passed,  and  Caesar  immediately  offered  to  resign,  on  condition 
that  his  rival  should  do  so ;  but  Pompey  rejected  the  accommodation. 
The  term  of  his  government  had  yet  several  years'"  duration,  Jiiid 
he  suspected  the  proposal  to  be  a  snare  laid  for  him  by  Caesar.  He 
resolved  to  maintain  his  right  by  force  of  arms,  and  a  civil  war  was 
the  necessary  consequence.  The  consuls  and  a  great  part  of  the 
senate  were  the  friends  of  Pompey.  Ca?sar  had  on  his  side  a  victo- 
rious army,  consisting  of  ten  legions,  and  the  bod)^  of  the  Roman  cit- 
izens, whom  he  had  won  by  his  liberality.  Mark  Antony  and  Cas- 
sius,  at  that  time  tribunes  of  the  people,  left  Rome,  and  repaired  to 
Caesar's  camp. 

2.  The  senate,  apprehensive  of  his  designs,  pronounced  a  decree, 
branding  with  the  crime  of  parricide  any  commander  who  should 
dare  to  pass  the  Rubicon  (the  boundary  between  Italy  and  the 
Gauls)  with  a  single  cohort,  without  their  penni'isicn.  Caejsar 
infringed  the  prohibition,  and  marched  straight  to  Rome. — Pem|>ey, 
to  whom  the  senate  committed  the  deferxe  of  the  state,  had  no 
army.  He  quitted  Rome,  followed  by  the  consuls  and  a  pai-t  of  the 
senate,  and  endeavoured  hastiiv  to  levy  troops  over  all  Italy  and 
Greece ;  while  Caesar  triumphantly  entered  the  city  amidst  the 
acclamations  of  the  people,  seized  the  public  treasury,  and  possessed 
himself  of  the  supreme  authority  without  opposition.  Having  se- 
cured the  capital  of  the  empire,  he  set  out  to  take  the  field  ag.Just 
her  enemies.  The  lieutenants  of  Pompey  had  possession  of  Spain, 
Caesar  marched  thither,  and  subdued  the  whole  country  in  tlie 
space  of  forty  days.  He  returned  victorious  to  Rome,  whete,  in  his 
absence,  he  had  been  nominated  dictator.  In  the  succeeding  elec- 
tion of  magistrates  he  was  chosen  consul,  and  was  thus  invested,  by 
a  double  title,  with  the  right  of  acting  in  the  name  of  the  republic. 
Pompey  had  by  this  time  raised  a  numerous  army,  and  Caesar  was 
anxious  to  bring  him  to  a  decisive  engagement.  The  two  armies 
met  in  Illyria,  and  the  first  conflict  was  of  doubtful  issue.  Caesar 
led  his  army  into  Macedonia,  where  he  found  a  large  reinforcement. 
He  gave  battle  to  Pompey  in  the  field  of  Pharsalia,  and  entirely 
defeated  him.  Fifteen  tnousand  of  Pompey's  army  were  slain,  and 
24,000  surrendered  themselves  prisoners  to  the  victor,  A.  U.  C.  705, 
A.  C.  49. 

3  The  fate  of  Pompey  was  miserable  in  the  extreme.  Witli  his 
mh  Cornelia,  the  coioeiuiion  of  his  misfortunes,  he  fled  to  Egypt  in 


68  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

a  single  ship,  trusting  to  the  protection  of  Ptolemy,  whose  father 
had  owed  to  him  his  settlement  on  the  throne.  But  the  miMisiei-s  of 
this  young  prince,  dreading  the  power  ot  Caesar,  baseiy  courted  liis 
favour  by  the  murder  of  his  rival.  Pompey  was  brought  ashore  in 
a  small  boat  by  the  guards  of  the  king ;  and  a  Roman  centurion,^ 
who  had  fought  under  his  banners,  stabbed  him,  even  in  the  siglit  of 
Cornelia_,  and  cutting  off  his  head,  threw  the  body  naked  on  the 
sands.  Caesar  pursued  Pompey  to  Alexandria^  where  the  head  of 
that  unhappy  man,  presented  as  a  grateful  oftering,  gave  bin  the 
first  intelligence  of  his  fate.  He  wept,  and  turned  with  horror  from 
the  sight.  He  caused  every  honour  to  be  paid  to  his  memory,  and 
from  that  time  showed  the  utmost  benclicence  to  the  partizans  of 
his  unibrtunate  rival. 

4.  The  sovereignty  of  Egypt  vvas  in  dispute  between  Ptolemy 
and  his  sister  Cleopatra.  The  latter,  though  married  to  her  brother, 
and  joint  heir  by  her  father's  will,  was  ambitious  of  undivided  author- 
ity ;  and  Caesar,  captivated  by  her  charms,  decided  the  contest  in 
favour  of  the  beauteous  queen.  A  war  ensued,  in  which  Ptolemy 
was  killed,  and  Egypt  subdued  by  the  Roman  arms.  In  this  war  the 
famous  library  of  Alexandria  was  burnt  to  ashes,  A.  C.  48.  A  revolt 
of  the  Asiatic  provinces,  under  Phamaces,  the  son  of  Mithridates, 
was  signally  chastised ;  and  the  report  was  conveyed  by  Caesar  to 
the  Roman  senate  in  three  words.  Feni,  vidi^  vici.  The  conqueror 
returned  to  Rome,  which  needed  liis  presence  ;  for  Italy  was  divid- 
ed, and  the  partizans  of  Pompey  were  yet  extremely  tbrmidable. 
His  two  sons,  with  Cato  and  Scipio,  were  in  arms  in  Africa.  Cassar 
pursued  them  thither,  and  proceeding  with  caution  till  secure  of  his 
advantage,  defeated  them  in  a  decisive  engagement  at  Thapsus. 
bcipio  perished  in  his  passage  to  Spain.  Cato,  shutting  himself  up 
in  Utica,  meditated  a  brave  resistance ;  but  seeing  no  hope  of  suc- 
cess, he  finally  determined  not  to  survive  the  liberties  of  his  country, 
and  fell  deliberately  by  his  own  hand.  Mauritania  was  now  added 
to  the  number  of  the  Roman  provinces ;  and  Caesar  returned  to 
Rome,  absolute  master  of  the  empire. 

5.  From  that  moment  his  attention  was  directed  solely  to  the 
prosperity  and  happiness  of  the  Roman  people.  He  remembered 
no  longer  that  there  had  been  opposite  parlies ;  beneficent  alike  to 
the  friends  of  Pompey  as  to  his  own.  He  laboured  to  reform  every 
species  of  abuse  or  grievance.  He  introduced  order  into  every  de- 
partment of  the  state,  defining  the  separate  rights  of  all  its  magistrates, 
and  extending  his  care  to  the  regulation  of  its  most  distant  provinces. 
The  reformation  of  the  kalendar,  the  draining  of  the  marshes  of 
Italy,  the  navigation  of  the  Tiber,  the  emnellishment  of  Rome,  the 
complete  survey  and  delineation  of  the  empire,  aiteniately  em- 
ployed his  liberal  and  capacious  mind.  Returning  from  the  final 
overthrow  of  Pompey's  party  in  Spain,  he  was  hailed  the  father  o. 
his  country,  was  created  consul  for  ten  years,  and  perpetual  diC* 
tator.  His  person  Wfis  declared  sacred,  his  title  henceforth  iinperatory 
A.  U.  C.  709,  A.  C.  45. 

6.  The  Roman  republic  had  thus  finally  resigned  its  liberties,  by 
its  own  acts.  They  were  not  extinguished,  as  Montesquieu^  has 
well  remarked,  by  the  ambition  of  a  Pompey  or  of  a  Caesar,  if  the 
sentiments  of  Caesar  and  Pompey  bad  been  the  same  with  those  of 
Cato,  others  would  have  had  the  same  ambitious  thoughts;  and, 
since  the  commonwealth  was  fated  to  fall,  there  never  would  have 
been  wanting  a  hand  to  dra|;  it  to  destruction.    Yet  Caesar  bad  by 


ANCIENT  HISTORY.  69 

force  subdued  his  country ;  and  therefore  was  a  usurper.  If  it  had 
been  possible  to  restore  the  liberties  of  the  republic,  and  with  these 
its  happiness,  by  the  suppression  of  his  usurpation,  the  attempt 
would  nave  merited  the  praise  at  least  of  good  design.  Perhaps  so 
thought  his  murderers ;  and  thus,  however  weak  their  policy,  how- 
ever base  and  treacherous  their  act,  they  will  ever  find  apologists. 
They  expected  an  impossible  issue,  as  the  event  demonstrated. 

"t.  A  conspiracy  was  formed  by  sixty  of  the  senators,  at  the  head 
of  whom  were  Brutus  and  Cassius;  the  former  a  man  beloved  of 
Cajsar,  who  had  saved  his  Ufe,  and  heaped  upon  him  numberless 
beaents.  It  was  rumoured  that  the  dictator  wished  to  add  to  his 
numerous  titles  that  of  king,  and  that  the  ides  of  March  was  fixed 
on  for  investing  him  with  tlie  diadem.  On  that  day,  when  taking 
his  seat  in  the  senate-house,  he  was  suddenly  assailed  by  the  con- 
spirators. He  defended  himself  for  some  time  against  their  daggers, 
till,  seeing  Brutus  among  the  number,  he  faintly  exclaimed,  "  And 
you,  too,  my  son !"  and  covering  his  face  with  his  robe,  resigned 
nimself  to  his  fate.  He  fell,  pierced  by  twenty-three  wounds,  A.  U. 
C.  711,  and  A.  C.  43. 

8.  The  Roman  people  were  struck  with  horror  at  the  deed. 
They  loved  Caesar,  master  as  he  was  of  their  lives  and  liberties. 
Mark  Antony  and  Lepidus,  ambitious  of  succeeding  to  the  power  of 
the  dictator,  resolved  to  pave  the  way  by  avenging  his  death. 
Caesar,  by  his  testamt;nt,  had  bequeathed  a  great  part  of  his  fortune 
to  the  people ;  and  they  were  penetrated  with  gratitude  to  his 
memory.  A  public  harangue  by  Antony  over  the  bleeding  body,  ex- 
posed In  the  forum,  intiaraed  them  with  the  utmost  indignation 
against  his  murderers,  who  must  have  met  with  instant  destruction 
if  they  had  not  escaped  with  precipitation  from  the  city.  Antony 
profited  by  these  dispositions  ;  and  the  avenger  of  Caesar,  of  course 
the  favourite  of  the  people,  was  in  the  immediate  prospect  of  attain- 
mg  a  similar  height  of  dominion.  In  this,  however,  he  found  a  for- 
midable competitor  in  Octavius,  the  grand-nephew  and  the  adopted 
heir  of  Caesar,  who,  at  this  critical  moment,  arrived  in  Rome. 
Availing  himself  of  these  titles,  Octavius  gained  the  senate  to  his  inter- 
est, and  divided  with  Antony  the  favour  of  the  peo{)le.  The  rivals 
soon  perceived  that  it  was  their  wisest  plan  to  unite  their  interests ; 
and  they  admitted  Lepidus  into  their  association,  whose  power,  as 
governor  of  Gaul,  and  immense  riches,  gave  him  a  title  to  a  share 
of  authority.  Thus  was  formed  the  second  triumvirate,  the  effects 
of  whose  union  were  beyond  measure  dreadful  to  the  republic. 
The  triumviri  divided  among  themselves  the  provinces,  and  cement- 
ed their  union  by  a  deliberate  sacrifice  made  by  each  of  his  best 
friends  to  the  vengeance  of  his  associates.  Antony  consigned  to 
death  his  uncle  Lucius ;  Lepidus  his  brother  Paulus ;  and  Octavius 
his  guardian  Toranius  and  his  friend  Cicero.  In  this  horrible  pro- 
scription 3<)0  senators  and  3,000  knights  were  put  to  death. 

9.  Octavius  and  Antony  now  marched  against  the  conspirators,  whn 
had  a  tbrmidable  army  in  the  field  in  Thrace,  commanded  by  Brutus 
and  Caasius.  An  engagement  ensued  at  Philippi,  which  decided 
the  fate  of  the  empire.  Antony  obtained  the  victory,  for  Octavius 
had  no  military  talents.  He  was  destitute  even  of  personal  bravery, 
and  his  conduct  after  the  victory  was  stained  with  that  cruelty  which 
IS  ever  the  attendant  of  cowardice.  Brutus  and  Cassius  escaped  the 
vengeance  of  their  enemies  by  a  voluntary  death.  Antony  now 
sought  a  recompense  for  his  troops  by  the  plunder  of  the  east. 


70  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

While  in  Cilicia,  he  summoned  Cleopatra  to  answer  for  her  conduct 
in  dethroning  an  intant  brother,  and  in  openly  favouring  the  party  of 
Brutus  and  Cassius.  The  queen  came  to  T  arsus,  and  made  a  com- 
plete conquest  of  the  triumvir.  Immersed  in  luxury,  and  intoxicated 
with  love,  he  forgot  glory,  ambition,  fame,  and  every  thing,  for 
Cleopatra.  Octavius  saw  this  phrensy  with  delight,  as  the  prepara- 
tive of  his  rival's  ruin.  He  had  nothing  to  dread  from  Lepidus, 
whose  insignificant  character  first  drew  on  him  the  contempt  of  his 
partizans;  and  whose  folly,  in  attempting  an  invasion  of  the  province 
of  his  colleague,  was  punished  by  his  deposition  and  banishment. 

10.  Antony  had  in  his  madness  lavished  the  provinces  of  the  em- 
pire in  gifts  to  his  paramour  and  her  children.  The  Roman  people 
were  justly  indignant  at  these  enormiti;^s;  and  the  divorce  of  his 
wife  Octavia,  the  sister  of  his  colleague,  was  at  length  the  signal  of 
declared  hostility  between  them.  An  immense  armament,  chiefly 
naval,  came  at  length  to  a  decisive  contiict  near  Actium,  on  the 
coast  of  Epirus.  Cleopatra,  who  attended  her  lover,  deserted  him 
with  her  galleys  in  the  heat  of  the  engagement;  and  such  was  the 
infatuation  of  Antony,  that  he  abandoned  his  fleet,  and  followed  her. 
After  a  contest  of  some  hours,  they  yielded  to  the  squadron  of  Octavius, 
A.  U.  C.  723,  A.  C.  31.  The  victor  pursued  the  fugitives  to  Egypt; 
and  the  base  Cleopatra  proffered  terms  to  Octavius,  including  the 
surrender  of  her  kingdom,  and  the  abandonment  of  Antony  After 
an  unsuccessful  attempt  at  resistance,  Antony  anticipated  his  fate 
by  falling  on  his  sword.  Cleopatra  soon  after,  either  from  remoi-se, 
or  more  probably  from  mortifled  ambition,  as  she  found  it  was  Octa- 
vius's  design  to  lead  her  in  chains  to  Rome  to  grace  his  triumph,  had 
courage  to  follow  the  example  of  her  lover,  and  put  herself  to  death 
by  the  •poison  of  an  asp.  Ocfavius  returned  to  Rome  sole  master  of 
the  Roman  empire,  A.  U.  C.  727,  A.  C.  27. 


sp:ction  XXXV. 

CONSIDERATIONS   OF    SUCH    PARTICULARS    AS   MARK    THE 
GENIUS  AND  NATIONAL  CHARACTER  OF  THE  ROMANS. 

SYSTEM  OF  ROMAN  EDUCATIOxN. 

\.  A  VIRTUOUS  but  rigid  severity  of  manners  was  the  characteristic 
of  the  Romans  under  their  kings,  and  in  the  first  ages  of  the  repub- 
lic. The  private  life  of  the  citizens,  frugal,  temperate,  and  labori- 
ous, had  its  influence  on  their  public  character.  The  {patria  potesios) 
paternal  authority  gave  to  every  head  of  a  family  a  sovereign  author- 
ity over  all  the  members  that  composed  it ;  and  this  power,  lelt  as  a 
right  of  nature,  was  never  abused.  Plutarch  has  remarked,  as  a  defect 
in  the  Roman  laws,  that  they  did  not  prescribe,  as  those  ot'  Laceda^- 
mon,  a  system  and  rules  for  the  education  of  youth.  But  tlie  truth 
is,  the  manners  of  the  people  supplied  this  want.  The  utmost  at- 
tention was  bestowed  in  the  early  formation  of  the  mind  and  charac- 
ter. The  excellent  author  of  the  dialogue  De  Oratoribus  [cmiceming 
orators)  presents  a  valuable  picture  of  the  Roman  education  in  the 
early  ages  of  the  commonwealth,  contrasted  with  the  less  virtuous 
practice  of  the  more  refined  ages.  The  Roman  matrons  did  not 
abandon  their  infants  to  mercenary  nurses.  They  regarded  the 
careful  nurture  of  their  oflspring,  the  rudiments  of  tlieir  education, 


ANCIENT  HISTORY.  7* 

and  the  necessary  occupations  of  tneir  household,  a«?  the  highest 
points  of  female  merit.  Next  to  the  care  bestowed  in  the  instilment 
of  virtuous  morals,  a  remarkable  degree  of  attention  seems  to  have 
been  given  to  the  language  of  children,  and  to  the  atiainment  of 
a  cori'ectness  and  purity  of  expression.  Cicero  mforms  us  that  the 
Gracchi,  the  sons  of  Cornelia,  were  educated,  non  tarn  in  gronnio 
quain  in  senrioiie  mati'is,  in  the  speech  niwe  than  in  the  boscrn  of'  their 
mother  That  urbanity  which  characterized  the  Roman  citizens 
showed  itself  particularly  in  their  speech  and  gesture. 

2.  The  attention  to  the  language  of  the  youth  had  another  source. 
It  was  by  eloquence,  mope  than  by  any  other  talent,  that  the  young 
Roman  could  rise  to  the  highest  otfices  and  dignities  of  the  state. 
The  studia  forensia  [Jorendc  studies)  were,  theretore,  a  principal  ob- 
ject of  the  "koman  education.  Plutarch  inlorms  us,  that  among  the 
sports  of  the  children  at  Rome,  one  was  pleading  causes  before  a 
mock  tribunal,  and  accusing  and  defending  a  criminal  in  the  usual 
forms  of  judicial  procedure. 

13.  The  exercises  of  the  body  were  likewise  particularly  attended 
to ;  whatever  might  harden  the  temperament,  and  confer  strength 
and  agility.  These  exercises  were  daily  practised  by  the  youth, 
under  the  eye  of  their  elders,  in  the  CampYis  Martius. 

4.  At  seventeen  the  youth  assumed  the  manly  robe.  He  was 
consigned  to  the  care  of  a  master  of  rhetoric,  whom  he  attended 
constantly  to  the  forum,  or  to  the  courts  of  justice ;  for,  to  be  an 
accomplished  gentleman,  it  was  necessary  for  a  Roman  to  be  an  ac- 
complished orator.  The  pains  bestowed  on  the  attainment  of  this 
character,  and  the  best  instructions  for  its  acquisition,  we  learn  from 
the  writings  of  Cicero,  (c^uintilian,  and  the  younger  Pliny. 


SECTION  XXXVI. 


OF  THE  PROGRESS  OF  LITERATURE   AxMONG  THE  ROMANS. 

1.  Before  the  intercourse  with  Greece,  which  took  place  after 
the  Punic  wars,  the  Roman  people  was  utterly  rude  and  illiterate. 
As  among  all  nations  the  first  appearance  of  the  literary  spirit  is 
shown  in  poetical  composition,  the  Roman  warrior  had  probably, 
like  the  Indian  or  the  Celtic,  his  war  songs,  which  celebrated  his 
triumphs  in  battle.  Religion  likewise  employs  the  earliest  poetry 
of  most  nations;  and  if  a  people  subsist  by  agriculture,  a  plentiful 
harvest  is  celebrated  in  the  rustic  song  of  the  husbandman.  The 
versus  fescennini  {fescennine  verses),  mentioned  by  Livy,  wereproba- 
bly  ol  the  nature  of  a  poetical  dialogue,  or  alternate  verses  sung  by 
the  labourers,  in  a  strain  of  coarse  merriment  and  raillery.  This 
shows  a  dawning  of  the  drama. 

2.  About  the  39Uth  year  of  Rome,  on  occasion  of  a  pestilence, 
ludiones  ^drolls  or  stage  dancers)  were  brought  from  Etruria,  qu* 
ad  tihicinis  inodos  saltantes,  haud  indecoros  motus  more  Tusco  dabant  ■; 
who  danced  to  the  tunes  of  a  musician,  and,  in  tlie  Tuscan  fashion,  exhi' 
bited  motions  tluit  were  not  ungraceful.  Livy  tells  us  that  the  Roman 
youth  imitated  these  performances,  and  added  to  them  rude  and  joc- 
ular verses,  probably  the  fescennine  dialogues.  The  regular  drama 
was  introduced  at  Rome  from  Greece  by  Livius  Andronicus,  A.  U-  C 


72  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

514.    The  earliest  Roman  plays  were  therefore,  we  may  pre«um«| 
translatious  from  the  Greek. 

Et  post  punica  bella  quietus  quaerere  coepit, 

Quid  Sophocles,  et  Thespis,  et  5^schylus  utile  ferrent. 

Hor.  Epist.  Lib.  II,  i. 

And  being  at  peace  after  the  Punic  wars,  the  Romans  began  to  inquire 
what  advantages  might  be  derived  from  the  writings  of  feophocles,  Thtspis, 
atnd  ^schylus. 

3.  Of  the  early  Roman  drama,  Ennius  was  a  great  ornament,  and 
from  his  time  the  art  made  rapid  advancement.  The  comedies  of 
Plautus,  the  contemporary  of  Ennius,  with  great  strength  and  spirit 
of  dialogue,  display  a  considerahie  knowledge  of  human  nature, 
and  are  read  at  this  day  witli  pleasure. 

4.  Caeciiius  improved  so  much  on  the  comedy  of  Plautus,  that  he 
is  mentioned  by  Cicero  as  perhaps  the  best  of  the  Roman  comic 
writers.  Of  his  compositicns  we  have  no  remains.  His  patronage 
fostered  the  rising  genius  of  Terence,  whose  lii-st  comedy,  the  Ai- 
dria,  was  performed  A.  U.  C.  587.  The  merit  of  the  comedies  of 
Terence  lies  in  that  nature  and  simplicity  which  are  observable  in 
the  structure  of  his  fables,  and  in  the  delineation  of  his  characters. 
They  are  deficient,  however,  in  comic  energy  ;  and  are  not  calcu- 
lated to  excite  ludicrous  emotions.  They  are  chiefly  borrowed  from 
the  Greek  of  Menander  and  Apoilodorus. 

5.  'Phe  Roman  comedy  wrs  of  four  ditferent  species :  the  cotnedia 
togata  or  prwtexiata,  the  coiaedia  tabernana^  the  attellante,  and  the 
tmmi.  The  first  admitted  serious  scenes  and  personages,  nnd  was  of 
the  nature  of  the  modern  sentimental  comedy.  'Ine  second  was  a 
representation  ot  orthnary  lite  and  manners.  The  ottellamt  were 
pieces  where  the  dialogue  was  not  committed  to  wriiing,  but  the 
subject  of  the  scene  was  prescribed,  and  the  dialogue  filled  up  by 
the  talents  of  the  actors,  'i'he  mimi  were  pieces  of  comedy  ot  the 
lowest  species ;  farces,  or  entertainments  ot  butioonery ;  though 
sometimes  admitting  the  serious,  and  even  the  pailietic. 

6.  The  Roman  tragedy  kept  pace  in  its  advancement  with  the 
comedy.  The  best  of  the  Roman  tragic  poets  were  Actius  and 
Pacuyius,  of  whom  we  liave  no  remains.  The  tragedies  published 
under  the  name  of  Seneca  am  genorady  esteemed  the  work  of  dif- 
ferent hands.     They  are  none  ot  them  of  superlative  merit. 

7.  Velleius  Patercnhis  remarks,  that  the  aera  of  tlie  perfection 
of  Roman  literature  was  the  age  ot  Cicero,  conjprehending  all  the 
literary  men  of  the  preceding  times  whom  Cicero  might  have  seen, 
and  all  those  of  the  succeeding  who  might  have  seen  liim.  Cicero, 
Quintilian,  and  Pliny  celebrate,  in  high  terms,  the  writings  ot  the 
elder  Cato,  whose  principal  works  were  histoiical,  and  have  entirely 
perished.  We  have  his  fragments,  de  Re  Rustix^a  {on  agriculture)^  in 
which  he  was  imitated  by  v  arro,  one  of  the  earliest  of  the  good 
writers  among  the  Romans,  and  a  man  oi  universal  erudition.  Of 
the  variety  of  his  talents  we  may  judge,  not  only  from  the  splendid 
culogium  of  Cicero,  but  from  the  chcumstance  of  Pliny  having  re- 
course to  his  authority  in  every  book  of  his  Natural  History. 

8.  Sallust,  in  order  of  time,  comes  next  to  V  arro.  This  write* 
introduced  an  inportant  improvement  ca  history,  as  treated  by  the 
Greek  historians,  by  applying  (as  Diouysius  ot  Halicamassus  says) 


ANCIENT  HISTORY.  73 

the  science  of  philosophy  to  the  study  of  facts.  Sallust  is  therefore 
to  be  considered  as  the  fatlier  of  philosophic  history ;  a  species  of 
writing  which  has  been  so  successfully  cultivated  in  modern  times. 
He  is  an  admirable  writer  for  the  matter  of  his  compositions,  which 
evince  great  judgment  and  knowledge  of  human  nature,  but  by  no 
means  commendable  for  his  style  and  manner  of  writing.  He  affects 
singularity  of  expression,  an  antiquated  phraseology,  and  a  petulant 
brevity  and  sententiousness,  which  has  nothing  of  the  dignity  of  the 
historical  style. 

9.  Caesar  has  much  more  purity  of  style,  and  m-ore  correctness 
and  simplicity  of  expression ;  but  his  Commentaries,  wanting  that 
amplitude  of  diction  and  fulness  of  illustration  which  is  essential  to 
history,  are  rather  of  the  nature  of  annals. 

10.  In  all  the  requisites  of  a  historian,  Livy  stands  unrivalled 
among  the  Romans;  possessing  consummate  jiidgment  in  the  selec- 
tion of  facts,  perspicuity  of  arrangement,  sagacious  relic  «tion,  sound 
views  of  policy,  with  the  most  copious,  pure,  and  eloquent  expres- 
sion. It  has  been  objected,  that  his  speeches  derogate  from  the 
truth  of  history :  but  this  was  a  prevalent  taste  with  the  ancient 
tvriters ;  and  as  those  speeches  are  always  known  to  be  the  compo- 
sition of  the  historian,  the  reader  is  not  misled.  As  to  the  style  of 
Livy,  though  ia  general  excellent,  we  sometimes  perceive  in  it,  and 
most  commonly  in  the  speeches,  an  afi'ectation  cf  the  pointed  sen- 
tences (the  vibrantes  sente.ntiol(x)  and  obscurity  of  the  declaimers, 
which  evinces  the  pernicioxis  influence  acquired  by  those  teachers 
at  Rome  since  the  time  of  Cicero  and  Sallust. 

11.  In  the  decline  of  Roman  literature  Tacitus  is  a  historian  of 
no  common  merit.  He  successfully  cultivated  the  method  pointed 
out  by  Sallust,  of  applying  philosophy  to  history.  In  this  he  dis- 
plays great  knowledge  of  human  nature,  and  penetrates,  with  sin- 
gular acuteness,  into  the  secret  springs  of  policy,  and  the  motives 
ot"  actions.  But  his  fault  is,  that  he  is  too  much  of  a  politician, 
drawing  his  characters  after  the  model  of  his  own  mind ;  ever  as- 
signing actions  and  events  to  preconceived  scheme  and  design,  and 
allowing  too  Httle  for  the  operation  of  accidental  causes,  which  often 
have  the  greatest  influence  on  human  affairs.  Tacitus,  in  his  style, 
professedly  imitated  that  of  Sallust;  adopting  all  the  ancient  phra- 
seology, as  well  as  the  new  idioms  introduced  into  the  Roman  lan- 
guage by  that  writer.  To  his  brevity  and  abruptness  he  added  most 
of  the  faults  of  the  declaiming  school.  His  expression,  therefore, 
tliough  extremely  forcible,  is  often  enigmatically  obscure ;  the 
worst  property  that  style  can  possess. 

12.  Among  the  eminent  Roman  poets  (after  the  dramatic)  Lucre- 
tius deserves  first  to  be  noticed.  He  has  great  inequality,  being  at 
some  times  verbose,  rugged,  and  perplexed,  and  at  others  displaying 
all  the  elegance  as  well  as  the  fire  oi  poetrj'.  This  may  be  in  great 
part  attributed  to  his  subject.  Philosophical  disquisition  is  unsuitable 
to  poetry.  It  demands  a  dry  precision  of  thought  and  expression, 
rejecting  all  excursive  fancy  and  ornament  of  diction.  That  luxuri- 
ance of  imagery,  which  is  the  soul  of  poetry,  is  raving  and  imper- 
tinence when  applied  to  philosophy. 

13.  Catullus,  the  contemporary  of  Lucretius,  is  the  earliest  of  the 
Roman  lyric  poets.  His  Epigrams  are  pointed  and  satirical,  but  too 
licentious;  his  Idylla  tender, natural,  and  picturesque.  He  flourished 
in  the  age  of  Julius  Cassar. 

14.  In  the  succeeding  age  of  Augustus,  poetry  attained  to  its  high 

G  10 


Hi  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

est  elevation  among  the  Romans.  Virgil,  Horace,  Ovid,  and  Tibiil* 
lu8,  were  all  contemporaries.  Virgil  is  allowed  the  same  rank  among 
the  Roman  poets,  as  Homer  among  the  Greek.  If  Homer  excel 
Virgil  in  the  sublime,  the  latter  surpasses  the  former  in  the  tender 
and  elegant.  The  transcendent  merits  *(  Homer  are  sullied  by  oc- 
casional defects.  Virgil  is  the  model  of  a  correct  taste.  The  dif- 
ference of  manner  in  the  Bucolics,  the  Georgics,  and  the  -Sjieid, 
shows  that  Virgil  was  capable  of  excelling  in  various  departments  of 
poetry ;  and  such  is  the  opinion  of  Martial,  who  affirms  that  he 
could  have  surpassed  Horace  in  lyric  poetry,  and  Varius  in  tragedy. 

15.  Horace  excels  as  a  lyric  poet,  a  satirist,  and  a  critic.  In  his 
odes  there  is  more  variety  than  in  those  of  either  Anacreon  or 
Pindar.  He  can  alternately  display  the  sublimity  of  the  latter,  and 
the  jocose  vein  of  the  former.  His  Satires  have  that  characteristic 
slyness  and  obliquity  of  censure,  associated  with  humour  and  pleas- 
antry, which  strongly  distinguish  them  from  the  stem  and  cutting 
sarcasm  of  Juvenal.  As  a  critic,  his  rules  are  taken  chiefly  from 
Aristotle;  but  they  contain  the  elements  of  a  just  taste  in  poetical 
composition,  and  therefore  do  not  admit  of  variation.  The  Satires 
of  Juvenal,  compared  with  those  of  Horace,  are  deficient  in  face- 
tiousness  and  urbanity  ;  but  they  are  superior  in  acuteness  of  thought, 
and  in  manly  vigor  of  sentiment. 

16.  In  variety  of  talent,  without  supreme  excellence,  and  in  ease 
and  elegance  of  numbers,  no  Roman  poet  has  exceeded  Ovid.  In 
his  Metamorphoses,  particularly,  with  great  fancy,  we  have  speci- 
mens of  the  patlietic,  the  descriptive,  the  eloquent,  and  even  the 
sublime.  His  Elegies  have  more  of  nature  and  of  real  passion, 
than  those  of  either  Tibullus  or  Propertius.  His  amatory  verses 
have  much  tenderness,  but  are  too  frequently  loose,  and  even  grossly 
licentious. 

17.  There  is  nothing  more  elegant  than  the  compositions  of  Ti- 
bullus, nothing  more  delicate  than  the  turn  of  his  expression ;  but 
it  is  not  the  language  of  passion.  The  sentiments  are  tender,  but 
their  power  of  affecting  the  heart  is  weakened  by  the  visible  care 
and  solicitude  of  the  poet  for  relined  phraseology  and  polished  num- 
bers ;  nor  is  there  either  much  fancy  or  variety  of  thought.  A  sin- 
gle elegy  exhibits  the  sentiments  of  the  whole. 

18.  Martial  is  the  last  of  the  Roman  poets  who  can  be  mentioned 
with  high  approbation.  His  Epigrams,  independent  of  their  art  and 
ingenuity,  are  valuable,  as  throwing  light  upon  the  Roman  manners. 
He  possesses,  above  every  other  poet,  a  naivete  of  expression, 
which  is  chiefly  ©bservable  in  his  serious  epigrams.  He  is  well  char- 
acterized by  the  younger  Pliny.  Ingoii/mis,  accr,  et  qui  in  scribendn  et 
satis  haberet  etfellis,  nee  candons  minus.  Epist.  3.  21.  His  writings  are 
ingenimis  and  acute  ;  they  possess  humour  and  satire, and  no  less  candour. 

19.  Luxuriance  of  ornament,  and  the  fondness  for  points,  and  bril- 
liancy of  thought  and  expression,  are  certain  indications  of  the  de- 
cline of  good  taste.  These  characters  strongly  mark  the  Latin 
poets  of  the  succeeding  ages.  Lucan  has  some  scattered  examples 
of  genuine  poetic  imagery,  and  Persius  some  happy  strokes  of  ani- 
mated satire ;  but  they  scarcely  compensate  the  affected  obscurity 
of  one,  and  the  bombast  of  the  other.  The  succeeding  poets,  Statius, 
BiliuB  Italicus,  and  Valerius  Flaccus,  in  their  attempts  at  the  most 
difficult  of  all  species  of  poetry,  the  epic,  have  only  more  signally 
displayed  the  interiority  of  their  genitts,  fmd  the  manifest  decay  of 
the  art. 


ANCIENT  fflSTORY.  7« 

SECTION  XXXV 11. 
STATE  OF  PHILOSOPHY  AMONG  THE  ROMANS. 

1.  Tjie  Romans,  in  the  earlier  periods  of  the  republic,  had  little 
leiBure  to  bestow  on  the  cultivation  of  the  sciences,  and  had  no  idea 
of  philosophical  speculation.  It  was  not  till  the  end  of  the  sixth 
century  from  the  building  of  the  city,  and  in  the  interval  between 
the  war  with  Perseus  and  the  third  Punic  war,  that  philosophy  made 
its  tirst  appearance  at  Rome.  A  few  learned  Acnaeans,  banished 
from  their  country,  had  settled  in  various  parts  of  Italy,  and  apply- 
ing themselves  to  the  cultivation  of  literature  and  the  education 
of^youth,  diffused  a  taste  for  those  studios  hitherto  unknown  to  the 
Romans.  The  elder  citizens  regarded  those  pursuits  with  an  unfa- 
vourable eye.  Jealous  of  the  introduction  of  foreign  manners  with 
foreign  studies,  the  senate  banished  the  Greek  philosophers  from 
Rome.  But  an  Athenian  embassy,  arriving  soon  after,  brought 
thitiierCarneadesandCi'itolaus,  who  revived  the  taste  for  the  Greek 
philosophy,  and  left  behind  them  many  able  disciples,  who  publicly 
taught  their  doctrines. 

2.  It  was  natural  that  those  systems  should  be  most  generally 
adopted  which  were  most  suitable  to  the  national  character.  While 
the  manners  of  the  Romans  had  a  tincture  of  ancient  severity,  the 
stoical  system  prevailed.  Scipio,  Laelius,  and  the  younger  Cato  rank 
among  its  chief  partisans. 

3.  The  philosophy  of  Aristotle  was  little  known  in  Rome  till  the 
age  of  Cicero.  At  that  time  Cratippus  and  Tyrannion  taught  his 
system  wifh  great  reputation.  Yet  Cicero  complains  that  the  peri- 
patetic philosophy  was  little  understood  at  Rome ;  and  therefore,  he 
sent  his  son  to  study  its  doctrines  in  the  schools  of  Athens. 

4.  Lucullus,  whose  stay  in  Greece  g#e  him  an  opportunity  of 
being  acquainted  with  all  the  different  sects,  disseminated,  on  his 
return  to  Rome,  a  very  general  taste  for  philosophy.  His  patronage 
of  learned  men,  and  his  liberality  in  allowing  his  library  to  be  open 
for  the  public  use,  contributed  greatly  to  tne  promotion  of  litera- 
ture. 

5.  The  Old  and  New  Academy  had  each  its  partisans.  ,  Of  the 
foniier,  which  may  be  termed  the  Stoico-Platonic,  the  most  illus- 
trious disciples  were  Marcus  Brutus  and  Terentius  Varro.  To  the 
philosophical  talents  of  Brutus,  and  the  universal  erudition  of  Varro, 
the  writings  of  Cicero  bear  ample  testimony.  Cicero  himself  must 
be  deemed  the  most  eminent  of  all  the  Roman  philosophers.  He  is 
classed  among  the  principal  supporters  of  the  New  Academy ; 
though  it  seems  to  have  been  his  purpose  to  elucidate  the  Greek 
philosophy  in  general,  rather  than  to  rank  himself  among  the  disci- 
ples of  any  particular  sect 

6.  The  cultivation  of  physics,  or  natural  philosophy,  seems  to 
have  been  little  attended  to  either  by  the  Greeks  or  Romans.  Un- 
less agriculture  should  be  classed  under  this  description,  we  know 
of  no  Roman  authoi-s,  except  Varro  and  the  elder  r liny,  who  seem 
to  have  bestowed  much  attention  on  the  operations  of  nature.  The 
works  of  Varro  have  perished,  except  a  few  fragments.  The  Nat- 
ural History  of  Pliny  is  a  most  valuable  store-house  of  the  knowl- 
edge of  the.  ancients  in  physics,  economics,  and  the  arts  and  sciencer 


•»  ANCIENT  HISTORY 

It  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  style  is  unsuitable  to  the  matter,  being 
too  frequently  florid,  declamatory,  and  obscure. 

7.  The  philosophy  of  Epicurus  was  unknown  in  the  early  ages 
©f  the  Roman  commonwealth.  It  was  introduced  with  luxury,  and 
kept  pace  in  its  advancement  with  the  corruption  of  manners.  Cin- 
neas  Laving  discoursed  on  the  tenets  of  Epicurus  at  the  table  of 
Pynhus,  Fabricius  exclaimed,  "May  the  enemies  of  Rome  ever 
entertain  such  principles  f  Yet  tlit^se  principles  were,  in  a  short 
time  from  that  period,  too  current  among  the  citizens  of  Rome. 


SECTION  XXXVIII. 

OF  THE  PUBLIC  AND  PRIVATE  MANNERS  OF  THE  ROMANS. 

1.  The  manners  of  the  Romans  in  the  early  ages  of  the  republic 
were  so  different  from  those  of  the  latter  times,  that  one  should  be 
led  to  suppose  some  very  extraordinary  causes  to  have  co-operated 
to  produce  so  remarkable  a  change  ;  yet  the  transition  is  easy  to  be 
accounted  for.  A  spirit  of  temperance,  of  frugality,  and  probity,  is 
the  characteristic  ot  every  infant  establishment.  A  virtuous  simpli- 
city of  manners,  and  a  rigour  of  military  discipline,  paved  the  way 

■for  the  extension  of  the  Roman  arms,  and  for  their  prodigious  con- 
quests.    These  conquest  introduced  wealth,  luxury,  and  corruption, 

2.  In  the  early  times  of  the  republic  the  patricians,  when  in  the 
country,  forgot  the  distinction  of  ranks,  and  laboured  in  the  cultiva- 
tion of  their  fields,  like  the  meanest  plebeians.  We  have  the  exam- 
ples of  Cincinnatus,  Curius,  the  elder  Cato,  and  Scipio  Africanufc. 
The  town  was  visited  only  every  ninth  day,  which  was  the  market 
day.  In  those  times  of  A^irtuous  simplicity,  says  Sallust,  Domi  mili- 
ticeqiie  honi  mores  colSantur.  Duaha  artibus,  audacia  in  bello^  ubi  pax 
foenerat^  ctquitate^  seque  remqite  publicam  curabant.  Good  manners  were 
cultivated  both  in  peace  an^^zjar.  By  two  means^  valour  in  war,  and 
tquity  in  peace,  thly  supported  themselves  and  the  commmm.ealth.  But 
when  the  Romans  had  extended  their  dominion,  in  consequence  of  this 
very  discipline  and  these  manners,  they  imported  with  the  wealth  of 
the  conquered  nations  their  tastes,  their  mannti-s,  and  their  vices. 

3.  The  Romans  had  no  natural  taste  in  the  fine  arts.  On  the  con- 
quest of  Greece  an  immense  field  opened  at  once  to  their  eyes,  and 
the  master-pieces  of  art  poured  in  upon  them  in  abundance.  But 
they  could  not  appreciate  their  excellences.  The  Roman  luxury,  as 
far  as  the  arts  were  concerned,  was  in  general  displayed  in  an 
awkward,  heavy,  and  tasteless  magnificence. 

4.  The  public  and  private  life  of  the  Romans  will  be  best  eluci- 
dated by  a  short  account  of  the  manner  in  which  the  day  was  pass- 
ed at  Rome,  both,  by  the  higher  and  lower  rai^s  of  the  people. 
By  a  part  of  the  citizens  the  morning  hours  were  spent  in  visiting 
the  temples,  by  others  in  attending  the  levees  of  the  great.  The 
clientes  (clients)  waited  on  their  patroni  (patrons) ;  the  patricians 
yisited  one  another,  or  paid  their  compliments  to  tne  leaders  of  the 
repubhc.  Popularity  was  always  the  first  object  of  ambition  at 
Rome,  as  paving  the  way  to  all  advancement  From  the  levee  they 
proceedeq  to  the  forum,  either  to  assist  in  the  public  business,  or  for 
amusement  There  the  time  was  spent  till  noon,  which  was  the 
hour  of  dinner  apftong  the  Romans.  This  was  chiefly  a  very  Ught 
repsgt,  of  which  it  was  not  customary  to  invite  any  ^\ies\s.  to  |)artaie. 


ANCIENT  HISTORY.  *■* 

After  dinner  the  youth  repaired  to  the  Campus  Martius,  where  they 
occupied  themselves  in  athletic  exercises  and  sports  till  sunset.  The 
elder  class  retired  for  an  hour  to  repose,  and  then  passed  the  aftei* 
noon  in  their  porticoes,  galleries  or  libraries,  where  they  enjoyed  the 
conversation  of  their  friends,  or  heard  recitations  of  literary  works : 
others  repaired  to  the  theatres,  or  to  tlie  shows  of  the  circus  and 
amphitheatre. 

5.  Combats  of  gladiators  were  introduced  for  the  first  time  about 
the  400th  year  of  the  city.  These  and  combats  with  wild  beasts  soon 
became  a  favourite  amusement  among  the  Romans.  The  spirit  of 
luxuiy,  which  in  general  is  not  unfavourable  to  humanity,  showed  its 
progress  among  the  Romans  by  an  increasing  ferocity  and  inhumanity 
\  of  the  public  spectacles.  Theatrical  entertainments  were  in  high 
request.  (Sect.  XXXVI,  §  2,  3,  4,  5,  6.)  The  taste  for  pantomime 
came  to  such  a  height,  that  tlie  art  was  taught  in  public  schools,  and 
the  nobility  and  people  were  divided  into  parties  in  favour  of  the 
rival  performers;  an  abuse  which  called  at  length  for  the  interposi- 
tion of  theiaws. 

6.  From  the  porticoes,  or  from  the  theatre  and  amphitheatre,  it  was 
customary  to  go  to  the  baths,  of  which  there  were  many  for  the  use 
of  the  public.  The  rich  had  baths  in  their  own  houses,  vying  with 
each  other  in  this  as  in  every  other  article  of  luxury  or  magnificence 
From  the  bath  they  went  immediately  to  supper,  generally  about  the 
ninth  or  tenth  hour,  counting  from  sunrise.  At  table  they  reclined 
on  couches.  The  luxury  of  the  Roman  suppers  far  exceeded  every 
thing  known  among  the  modems.  An  antecanium  of  pickles  and 
spices  was  presented  to  prepare  and  sharpen  the  appetite.  Cook- 
ery became  a  science.  The  number  and  costliness  of  the  dishes 
were  incredible.  The  entertainment  was  heightened  by  every  thing 
gratifying  to  the  senses;  by  male  and  female  dancers,  musicians, 
pantomimes,  and  even  shows  of  gladiators. 

7.  in  the  end  of  the  republic  pleasure  and  amusement  were  the 
darling  object  of  all  ranks  of  the  citizens  :rfH)ey  sought  no  more  than 
punein  et  circenses  {bread  and  games  in  the  circus). 


SECTION  XXXIX. 

OF  THE  ART  OF  WAR  AMONG  TPIE  ROMANS. 

1.  From  the  prodigious  success  which  attended  the  arms  of  the 
Romans,  and  the  dominion  which  they  acquired  over  the  greater 
part  of  the  known  world,  it  seems  a  nat-ural  inference  that  they  must 
nave  excelled  all  the  contemporary  nations  in  the  military  art.  Vege- 
tiu.s  expressly  assigns  their  extensive  conquests  to  that  cause  alone. 
It  is  the  discipline  of  an  army  that  makes  a  multitude  act  as  one  man. 
It  likewise  increases  the  courage  of  troops ;  for  each  individual  con- 
fides in  the  steady  co-operation  of  his  fellows. 

2.  From  the  constant  practice  of  athletic  exercises,  the  Romans 
were  inured  from  infancy  to  hardiness  and  fitigue,  and  bred  to  that 
species  of  life,  which  a  soldier  leads  in  the  most  active  campaign  in 
the  field. 

3.  The  levies  were  made  annually,  by  the  tribes  called  out,  and 
divided  into  their  respective  number  of  centuries;  each  century  pre- 
senting by  rotation,  as  many  soldiers  as  there  were  legions  intended 
to  be  raised;  and  the  tribunes  of  the  several  legions  taking  their  turn 

G2 


78  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

by  rotation  in  the  selection  of  the  men  presented  by  the  centuries. 
(Sect.  XXIV,  §  16.)  The  number  of  soldiers  in  the  legion  was  vari- 
ous at  different  periods,  from  3,000  to  10,000  and  11,000. 

4.  Among  the  ancient .  nations  there  were  usually  two  different 
arrangements  of  the  troops  in  order  of  battle.  One  the  phalanx, 
or  close  arrangement  in  a  rectangular  form,  intersected   only  by 

freat  divisions ;  a  disposition  commonly  used  by  the  Greeks,  and 
y  most  of  the  barbarous  nations.  The  other  the  quincunx  or 
chequer,  consisting  of  small  companies  or  platoons,  disposed  in  three 
straight  lines,  with  alternate  spaces  between  the  companies  equal 
to  the  space  occupied  by  each  company.  In  the  first  line  were  the 
fuxstati,  in  the  second  the  principes^  and  in  the  third  the  triarii.  On 
the  tlanks  of  the  first  line  were  the  cavalry,  in  detached  companies ; 
and  in  front  of  the  line  were  the  velites^  or  light-afmed  troops,  who 
usually  began  with  a  skirmishing  attack,  and  then  were  withdrawn,  to 
make  way  for  the  m<iin  body  to  come  into  action.  The  advantages 
of  this  arrangement  were,  that  the  line  of  battle  could  be  three 
times  formed  with  fresh  troops,  and  that  it  was  more  adapted  thaa 
any  other  for  rapid  changes  of  movement.  In  the  Roman  legion, 
the  arms  of  the  hastati  and  principes  were  the  piluin  or  heavy  jave- 
lin, and  the  sword  and  buckler ;  and  of  the  triarii^  the  long  spear, 
with  the  sword  and  buckler. 

5.  Notwithstanding  these  advantages  the  quincunx  went  into  disuse 
toward  the  end  of  the  republic,  and  from  that  time  various  arrange- 
ments of  the  legion  were  used  according  to  circumstances.  The 
Roman  tactics  are  supposed  to  have  been  at  their  greatest  pitch  of 
excellence  during  the  Punic  wars.  Hannibal  was  a  great  master  of 
the  science  of  tactics ;  and  the  Romans  profited  by  the  experience 
of  his  ability.  The  battle  of  Cannae,  as  described  by  rolybius, 
affords  signal  evidence  of  the  great  talents  of  the  Carthaginian  gen- 
eral. The  description  of  tliat  battle  has  been  misrepresented  by 
Folard ;  but  it  is  accurately  explained  in  the  Memmres  MUitaires  of 
M.  Guischardt.  If  the  quincunx  disposition  had  been  kept  by  the 
Roman  army  in  that  engagement,  the  event  might  have  been  very 
different ;  for  it  would  have  disappointed  the  efiect  of  an  artful 
manoeu\Te  planned  by  Hannibal,  on  observing  his  enemy's  army 
arranged  in  the  unusual  order  of  the  phalanx. 

6.  The  art  of  intrenchment  was  carried  to  perfection  by  the  Ro- 
mans, particularly  by  Julius  Caesar.  With  60,000  men  he  defended 
himself  in  his  intrenchments  before  Alexia,  while  the  lines  of  cir- 
cumvallation  were  attacked  by  240,000  Gauls,  and  the  lines  of  couuter- 
vallation  by  80,000,  without  effect.  These  intrenchm.ents  consisted 
of  a  ditch  from  nine  to  fifteen  feet  in  depth  and  width,  fenced  on  the 
inside  by  the  mound  of  excavated  earth,  and  on  the  outside  by  strong 
stakes  with  pointed  branches. 

7.  In  besieging  a  town  several  camps  were  formed  round  the 
place,  joined  to  one  another  by  lines  of  circumvailation  and  coun- 
tervallation.  A  mound  of  earth  {a^ger)  was  raised,  beginning  by  a 
gentle  slope  from  one  of  the  camps,  and  gradually  rising  in  elevation 
as  it  approached  the  city.  The  front,  where  the  workmen  were 
employed,  was  defended  by  a  curtain  of  hides  fixed  on  strong  posts. 
On  this'  mound  the  engines  of  attack,  catapultm  and  balista,  were 
advanced,  till  they  played  on  the  very  spot  which  the  besiegers  wish- 
ed to  assail.  The  catapultce  discharged  heavy  Jnes,  the  balutfB 
wrovra.    The  same  machines  were  used  by  the  besieged  for  annoy- 

.  iBB^lre  enemy.   When  the  engines  on  the  terrace  liad  driven  the 


ANCIENT  HISTORY.  79 

besieged  from  the  walls,  the  battering-ram  {aries)  was  then  brought 
up  under  a  pent-house  (testudo) ;  and,  if  it  once  reached  the  wall,  was 
generally  decisive  of  tne  fate  of  the  town.  The  main  object  of  the 
besieged  was  therefore  to  prevent  its  approach  by  every  power  of 
annoyance.  Stones,  darts,  and  combustible  matters  were  continually 
launched  upon  the  assailants ;  and  sometimes  a  mine  was  dug  from 
the  city  to  scoop  away  the  terrace  and  ail  its  engines.  These  arts 
of  attack  and  defence  of  fortified  places  were  in  general  use  among 
the  nations  of  antiquity,  and  continued  down  to  modern  times,  till  the 
invention  of  gunpowder. 

8.  The  naval  militai-y  art  was  utterly  unknown  among  the  Ro' 
mans  till  the  first  Puric  war.  A  Carthaginian  gailey  was  the  first 
model  of  a  vessel  of  war.  In  the  space  of  two  months  they  equipped 
a  fleet  of  100  gallies  of  five  banlis  of  oars,  and  20  of  three  batiks. 
The  structure  of  those  gallies,  and  the  mode  ot  arranging  the  row- 
ers, may  be  learned  from  the  ancient  sculptures  and  medals.  The 
combatants  at  sea  assailed  at  a  distance  with  javeiin^  missile  com- 
bustibles, and  sometimes  with  catapultoe  and  balistw ;  but  the  serious 
attack  was  made  in  boarding,  when  tlie  vessels  were  grappled  by 
means  of  a  crane  let  down  from  the  prow. 

9.  In  the  times  of  the  empire,  the  Romans  maintained  their  distant 
conquests,  not  only  by  their  armies,  but  by  their  tleets.  The  ships 
were  moored  in  the  large  rivers  and  bays ;  and  both  the  legions  and 
the  fleets  generally  preserved  a  fixed  station. 


SECTION  XL. 

REFLECTIONS  ARISING  FROM  A  VIEW  OF  THE  ROMAN  HI& 
TORY  DURING  THE  COMMONWEALTH. 

\.  The  history  of  all  nations  evinces,  that  there  is  an  inseparable 
connexion  between  the  morals  of  a  people  and  their  political  pros.* 
perity.  But  we  have  no  stronger  demonstration  of  this  truth  than 
the  annals  of  the  Roman  commonwealth.  To  limit  to  republics  alone 
the  necessity  of  virtue  as  a  principle,  is  a  chimerical  notion,  fraught 
with  dangerous  consequences.  Qaid  leges  sine  i/ioribus  vutuv  prqfici- 
uni  ?  inlaws  •without  morals  avail  notJiinp)  is  a  sentiment  equally  appli- 
cable to  all  governments ;  and  no  political  system,  however  excellent 
its  fabric.  Can  possess  any  measure  of  duration,  without  that  power- 
ful cement,  virtue,  in  the  principles  and  manners  of  the  people.  (Sect. 
XIX,  §4.) 

2.  The  love  of  our  country,  and  the  desire  for  its  rational  liberty, 
are  noble  and  virtuous  feelings ;  and  their  prevalence  is  ever  a  test 
of  the  integrity  of  the  national  morals.    But  no  term  has  been  more 

Erostituted  than  the  word  liberty.  In  a  corrupted  people  the  cry  for 
berty  is  heard  the  loudest  among  the  most  profligate  of  the  commu- 
nity. With  these  its  meaning  has  no  relation  to  patriotism ;  it  im- 
ports no  more  than  the  aversion  to  restraint ;  and  the  personal  cliar- 
acter  of  the  demagogue,  and  the  private  morals  of' his  disciples,  are 
always  sufficient  to  unmask  the  counterfeit.  The  spirit  of  patriot- 
ism and  a  general  corruption  of  manners  cannot  possibly  be  coexis- 
tent in  the  same  age  and  nation. 

3.  On  the  other  hand,  while  the  morals  of  a  people  are  pure,  no 
public  misfortune  is  irretrievable,  nor  any  political  situation  so  des- 
perate, that  hope  may  not  remain  of  a  favourable  change.  In  such 
Ktuationa  the  spirit  of  patriotism  pervading  ail  ranks  of  the  state  wiU 


80  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

80on  recover  the  national  prosperity.  The  history  of  the  Roman  peo- 
ple, and  that  of  the  Grecian  states,  in  various  crises,  both  of  honour 
and  ol  disgrace,  affords  proofs  alike  of  this  position  and  of  its  converse. 

4.  The  national  character  of  the  Romans  seems  to  have  under- 
gone its  most  remarkable  change  for  the  worse  from  the  time  of  the 
destruction  of  their  rival,  Carthage,    Sallust  assigns  the  cause.    Jlnte 

Cartha^inein  dtletam^ metus  hostile  in  bonis  artibus  civitatetn  rttinehat. 

Sed  ubi  illaforinido  mentihus  decessit.  scilicet  ea  qnce  secundce  res  atrumtf 

hiscivia  atque  superbia  invasere.     Before  the  destruction  of  Carthage^ 

the  f  tar  nj  their  enemy  kept  the  people  in  the  practice  of  virtue  ;  but  -^jchen 
the  rejtraint  (fffear  ceased  to  influence  their  conduct^  they  abandoned  tJienir 
selves  to  profligacy  and  arrogance^  the  usual  concomitants  of  prospenty. 

5.  In  the  last  ages  of  the  commonwealth,  avarice  and  ambition, 
unrestrained  by  moral  principle,  were  the  chief  motives  of  the  Ro- 
man conquests.  It  was  suthcient  reason  for  going  to  war,  that  a 
country  offered  a  tempting  object  to  the  rapacity  and  ambition  of 
the  military  leaders.  The  conquest  of  Italy  paved  the  way  for  the 
reduction  of  foreign  nations.  Hence  the  Romans  imported,  with  their 
wealth,  the  mannei-s,  the  luxuries,  and  the  vices  of  the  nations  which 
they  subdued.  The  generals  returned  not  as  formerly,  after  a  suc- 
cessful war,  to  the  labours  of  the  tield,  and  to  a  life  of  temperance 
and  industry.  They  were  now  the  governors  of  kingdoms  and  prov- 
inces ;  and  at  the  period  of  their  command  abroad,  disdaining  the 
restraints  of  a  subject,  they  could  be  satisfied  with  nothing  less  than 
sovereignty  at  home.  Ihe  armies,  debauched  by  the  plunder  of 
kingdoms,  were  completely  disposed  to  support  them  in  all  their 
schemes  of  ambition;  and  the  populace,  won  by  corruption,  always 
took  part  with  the  chief  who  best  could  pay  for  their  favour  and 
support.  Force  or  bribery  overruled  every  election  ;  and  the  in- 
habitants of  distant  states,  now  holding  the  right  of  citizens,  were 
brought  to  Rome,  at  the  command  of  the  demagogue,  to  influence 
any  popular  contest,  and  turn  the  scale  in  his  favour.  In  a  govern- 
ment thus  irretrievably  destroyed  by  the  decay  of  those  springs 
which  supported  it,  it  was  of  little  consequence  by  what  particular 
tyrant,  usurper,  or  demagogue,  its  ruin  Wius  tinally  accomplished. 

6.  From  a  consideration  of  the  rise  and  fall  of  the  principal  states 
of  antiquity,  it  has  been  a  commonly  received  opinion,  that  the  con- 
stitution of  empires  has,  like  the  human  body,  a  period  of  growth, 
maturity,  decline,  and  extinction.  But  arguments  from  analogy  are 
extremely  deceitful,  and  particuhu'ly  so  when  the  analogy  is  from 
physical  to  moral  truths.  The  human  body  is,  from  its  fabric,  natu- 
rally subject  to  decay,  and  is  perpetually  undergoing  a  change  from 
time.  Its  organs,  at  fii'st  weak,  attain  gradually  their  perfect 
strength,  and  thence,  by  a  similar  gradation,  proceed  to  decay  and 
dissolution.  This  is  an  immutable  law  of  its  nature.  But  the  springs 
of  the  body  poUtic  do  not  necessarily  undergo  a  perpetual  change 
from  time.  It  is  not  regularly  progi-essive  from  weakness  to  strength, 
and  thence  to  decay  and  dissolution ;  nor  is  it  under  the  influence 
of  any  principle  of  corruption  which  may  not  be  checked,  and  even 
eradicated,  by  wholesome  laws  Thus  the  beginning  of  the  cor- 
ruption of  Sparta  is  attributed  to  Lysander's  breach  of  the  institu- 
tions of  Lycurgus,  in  introducing  gold  into  the  treasury  of  the  state 
instead  of  its  iron  money.  But  was  this  a  necessary,  or  an  unavoid- 
able measure  ?  Perhaps  a  single  vote  in  the  senate  decreed  its  adop- 
tion, and  therefore  another  suffrage  might  have  prevented,  or  long 
postponed,  the  downfal  of  the  conunoQwealth.    The  Roman  repaid 


ANCIENT  HISTORY.  81 

He  owed  its  dissolution  to  the  extension  of  its  dominions.  If  it  had 
been  a  capital  crime  for  any  Roman  citizen  to  have  proposed  to 
carry  the  arms  of  the  republic  beyond  the  limits  of  Italy,  its  consti- 
tution might  have  been  preserved  for  many  ages  beyond  the  period 
of  its  actual  duration.  "  Accustom  your  mind,"  said  Phocion  to 
Aristias,  "■  to  discern,  in  the  fate  of  nations,  that  recompense  which 
the  great  Author  of  nature  has  annexed  to  the  practice  of  virtue. 
No  state  ever  ceased  to  be  prosperous,  but  in  consequence  of  having 
departed  from  those  institutions  to  which  she  owed  her  prosperity." 
History  indeed  has  shown  that  all  states  and  empires  have  had  theiv 

Eeriod  of  duration ;  but  history,  instructing  us  in  the  causes  whicli 
ave  produced  their  decline  and  fall,  inculcates  also  this  salutary 
lesson,  that  nations  are  in  general  the  masters  of  their  own  destiny, 
and  that  they  may,  and  most  certainly  otight  to,  aspire  at  immortality. 
7.  It  was  a  great  desideratvm  in  ancient  politics,  that  a  government 
should  possess  within  itself  the  power  orperiodical  reformation ;  a 
capacity  of  checking  any  overgrowth  oi  authority  in  any  of  its 
branches,  and  of  winding  up  the  machine,  or  bringing  back  the  con- 
stitution to  its  first  principles.  To  the  want  of  such  a  power  in  the 
states  of  antiquity  (which  they  inefl'ectually  endeavoured  to  supply 
by  such  partial  contrivances  as  the  ostracism  and  petalism)  we  may 
certainly  ascribe,  in  no  small  degree,  the  decay  of  those  states  ;  for 
ui  their  governments,  when  the  balance  was  once  destroyed,  the 
evil  grew  worse  from  day  to  day,  and  admitted  no  remedy  out  a 
revolution,  or  entire  change  of  the  system.  The  British  constitu- 
tion possesses  this  inestimable  advantage  over  all  the  governments 
both  of  ancient  and  modern  times,  with  the  single  exception  of  the 
government  of  the  United  States  of  America.    Besides  the  perpetual 

! lower  of  reforai  vested  in  parliament,  the  constitution  may  be  puri- 
ied  of  every  abuse,  and  brought  back  to  its  first  principles,  at  the 
commencement  of  every  reign.  But  of  this  we  shall  afterwards 
tr^at  in  its  proper  place. 


SECTION  XLI. 

ROME  UNDER  THE  EMPERORS. 

1.  The  battle  of  Actium  decided  the  fate  of  the  commonwealth, 
and  Octavius,  now  named  Augustus,  was  master  of  the  Roman 
empire.  He  possessed  completely  the  sagacity  of  discerning  what 
character  was  best  fitted  for  gaining  the  affections  of  the  people 
whom  he  governed,  and  the  versatility  of  temper  and  genius  to  as- 
sume it.  His  virtues,  though  the  result  of  policy,  not  of  nature,  were 
certainly  favourable  to  the  happiness,  and  even  to  the  liberties  of 
his  subjects.  The  fate  of  Caesar  warned  him  of  the  insecurity  of  a 
usurped  dominion ;  and  therefore,  while  he  studiously  imitated  the 
engaging  manners  and  clemency  of  his  great  predecessor,  he  affect- 
ed a  much  higher  degree  of  moderation,  and  respect  for  the  rights  of 
the  people, 

2.  The  temple  of  Janus  was  shut,  which  had  been  open  for  188 
years,  since  the  beginning  of  the  second  Punic  war ;  an  event  pro- 
ductive of  universal  joy.  "  The  Romans  f  says  Condillac)  now  be- 
lieved themselves  a  free  people,  since  they  nad  no  longer  to  fight  for 
their  liberty."  \The  sovereign  kept  up  this  delusion./ by  maintaining 
the  ancient  forms  of  the  republican  constitution,  iri  the  election  ot 

U 


tt  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

magistrates,  &c.,  though  they  were  nothing  more  than  forms.  He 
even  pretended  to  consider  his  own  function  as  merely  a  temporary 
administration  for  the  public  benefit.  Invested  with  the  consulate 
and  censorship,  he  went  through  the  regular  forms  of  periodical 
election  to  those  offices,  and  at  the  end  of  the  seventh  year  of  his 
government  actually  announced  to  the  senate  his  resignation  of  all 
authority.  The  consequence  was  a  general  supplication  of  the  sen- 
ate and  people,  that  he  would  not  abandon  the  republic,  which  he 
had  saved  from  destruction.  "  Since  it  mast  be  so,"  said  he,  "  I  accept 
the  empire  for  ten  years,  unless  the  public  tranquillity  shall,  before 
the  expiration  of  that  time,  permit  me  to  enjoy  retirement,  which 
1  passionately  long  for.""  He  repeated  the  same  mockery  five  times 
in  the  course  of  his  government,  accepting  the  administration  some- 
times for  ten,  and  sometimes  only  for  five  years. 

3.  It  was  much  to  the  credit  of  Augustus,  that  in  the  government 
of  the  empire  he  reposed  unlimited  confidence  in  Mecaenas,  a  most 
able  minister,  who  had  sincerely  at  heart  the  interest  and  happiness 
of  the  people.  By  his  excellent  counsels  all  public  atfairs  were  con- 
ducted, and  the  most  salutary  laws  enacted  for  the  remedy  of  public 
grievances,  and  even  the  correction  of  the  morals  of  the  people. 
To  his  patronage  literature  and  the  arts  owed  their  encouragement 
and  advancemeuL  By  his  infiuence  and  wise  instructions  Augustus 
assumed  those  virtues  io  which  his  heart  was  a  stranger,  and 
which,  in  their  tendency  to  the  happiness  of  his  subjects,  were 
equally  effectual  as  if  they  had  been  the  genuine  fruits  of  his  nature. 

4.  (5n  the  death  of  Marcellus,  the  nephew  and  son-in-law  of  Au- 
gustu!?,  and  a  prince  of  great  hopes,  2.3  A.  C,  the  emperor  bestowed 
nis  chief  favour  on  Marcus  Agrippa,  giving  him  his  daughter  Julia, 
the  widow  of  Muroellus,  in  marriage.  Agrippa  had  considerable 
military  talents,  and  was  successful  in  accomplisiiing  the  reduction  of 
Spain,  and  subduing  the  revolted  provinces  of  Asia.  Augustus  as- 
sociated Agrippa  with  himself  in  the  office  of  censor,  and  would  prob- 
ably have  given  him  a  share  of  the  empire,  if  his  death  had  not 
occasioned  a  new  urrangement.  JuUa  now  took  for  her  third  husband 
Tiberius,  who  became  thef  son-in-law  of  the  emperor  by  a  double 
tie,  for  Augustus  had  previously  married  his  mother  Livia.  This 
artful  woman,  removing  all  of  the  imperial  family  who  stood  betwixt 
her  and  the  object  of  her  ambition,  thus  made  room  for  the  succes- 
sion of  her  sou  Tiberius,  whoj  on  his  part,  bent  all  his  attention  to  gain 
the  favour  and  confidence  of  Augustus.  On  the  return  of  Tiberius 
from  a  successful  campaign  against  the  Germans,  the  people  were 
made  to  solicit  the  emperor  to  confer  on  him  the  government  of  the 
provinces  iuid  the  command  of  the  armies.  Augustus  now  gradually 
withdrew  himself  from  the  cares  of  empire.  He  died  soon  after  at 
Nola,  in  Campania,  in  the  76th  year  of  his  agei  and  the  44th  of  his 
imperial  reiga,  A.  U.  C.  767,  and  A.  D.  14. 

5.  A  considerable  part  of  the  lustre  thrown  on  the  reign  of  Augus- 
tus is  owuig  to  the  splendid  colouring  bestowed  on  his  character  by 
the  poets  and  other  authors  who  adorned  his  court,  and  repaid  his 
favours  by  their  adulation.  Other  sovereigns  of  much  higher  merits 
have  been  less  fortunate  in  obtaining  the  applause  of  posterity, 

-Illacrymabiles 

Urguentur,  ignotique,  longa 

Nocte,  carent  quia  vale  sacro.     HoR.  Car.  Lib.  IV,  9. 

Unlamented  and  unknown  they  sink  into  oblivien,  because  they  have  »• 
iofpired  bard  to  celebrate  their  praise. 


ANCIENT  HISTORY.  85 

One  great  event  distinguished  the  reign  of  Augustus,  the  birth  o^ 
«ur  Lord  and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ,  wliich,  according  to  the  besf 
authorities,  happened  A.  U.  C.  754,  and  four  years  before  the  vulgai 
date  of  the  christian  aera.* 

5.  Augustus  had  named fTiberius  his  heir,  together  with  his  moth 
er  Livia;  and  had  substituted  to  them  Drusus,  the  son  of  Tiberius 
and  Germanicus.  Tiberius  was  vicious,  debauched,  and  cruel ;  ,'yet 
the  very  dread  of  his  character  operated  in  securing  an  easy  suc- 
cession to  the  empire.  An  embassy  from  the  senate  entreated  him 
to  accept  the  government,  which  he  modestly  affected  to  decline, 
but  suffered  himself  to  be  won  by  their  supplications.  Notwithstand- 
ing these  symptoms  of  moderation,  it  soon  appeared  that  the  power 
enjoyed  by  his  predecessor  was  too  Umited  for  the  ambition  of  Ti- 
berius. It  was  not  enough  that  the  substance  of  the  republic  was 
gone ;  the  very  appearance  of  it  was  now  to  be  demolished.  The 
people  were  no  longer  assembled,  and  the  magistrates  of  the  state 

"were  supplied  by  the  imperial  will. 

6.  Germanicus,  the  nephew  of  Tiberius,  became  the  object  of  his 
jealousy,  from  the  glory  which  he  had  acquired  by  his  miSitary  ex- 
ploits in  Germany,  and  the  high  favour  in  which  he  stood  with  the 
Koman  people.  He  was  recalled  in  the  midst  of  his  successes,  and 
despatched  to  the  oriental  provinces,  where  he  soon  after  died;  and  it 
was  generally  believed  that  he  was  poisoned  by  the  emperor's  com- 
mand. * 

7.  JSlius  Sejanus,  prasfect  of  the  prastorian  guards,  the  favourite 
counsellor  of  Tiberius,  and  the  obsequious  miaister  of  his  tyranny 
and  crimes,  conceived  the  daring  project  of  a  revolution,  which 
should  place  himself  on  the  throne,  by  the  extermination  of  the  whole 
imperial  family.  Drusus,  the  son  of  the  emperor,  was  destroyed  by 
poison.  Agrippina,  the  widow  of  Germanicus,  with  her  elder  son, 
was  banished ;  and  the  younger  son  was  confined  in  prison.  Tibe- 
rius Wiis  persuaded  by  Sej  inus,  under  the  pretence  of  the  discovery 
of  plots  for  his  assassination,  to  retire  from  Rome  to  the  Isle  of 
Capreae,  and  devolve  the  government  upon  his  faithful  minister. 
But  while  Sejanus,  thus  far  successful,  medifcited  the  last  step  to  the 
accomplishment  of  his  wishes,  by  the  murder  of  his  sovereign,  bis 
treason  was  detected ;  and  the  emperor  despatched  his  mandate  to  the 
senate,  which  was  followed  by  his  immediate  sentence  and  execution. 
The  public  indignation  was  not  satistied  with  his  death  .  the  populace 
tore  his  body  to  pi  ices,  and  flung  it  into  the  Tiber. 

8.  Tiberius  now  became  utterly  negligent  of  the  cares  of  govern- 
'^  ment,  and  the  imperial  power  was  displayed  only  in  public  execu- 
tions, confiscations,  and  scenes  of  cruelty  and  rapine.  .  At  length  the 
tyrant  falling  sick^as  strangled  in  his  bed  by  Macro,  the  prsefect  of 
the  prsetorian  guards,  in  the  78tb  year  of  his  age,  and'the  23d  of  his 
reign. 

9.  In  the'lSthyear  of  Tiberius,  our  Lord  and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ, 
the  divine  author  of  our  religion,  suffered  death  upon  the  cross,  a 
sacrifice  and  propitiation  for  the  sins  of  mankind,  A.  J3.  33. 

10.  Tiberius  had  nominated  for  his  heir,^Caligula  the  son  of  Ger- 
manicus, his  grandson  b^  adoption ;  and  had  joined  with  him  Tibe- 
rius the  son  ofDrusus,  his  grandson  by  blood.  The  former  enjoyed, 
on  his  fathers  account,  the  tavour  of  the  people  ;  and  the  senate,  td 

*  See  Dr.  Plaj-fair"'?  Syftetn  of  Chronology,  p.  49,  50,  a  work  of  great 
tesearch  and  accuracy,  and  by  far  the  best  on  that  subject. 


S4  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

gratify  them,  set  aside  tiie  right  of  his  colleague,  and  conferred  on 
Him  the  empire  untlivided.  The  commencement  of  his  reign  was 
signalized  by  a  few  acts  of  clemency,  and  even  good  policy.  He 
restored  the  privileges  of  the  comitia,  and  abolished  arbitrary  prose- 
cutions for  crimes  of  state.  But<^tyrannical  and  cruef  by  nature,  he 
substituted  military  execution  for*  legal  punishment.  'The  provinces 
were  loaded  with  the  most  oppressive  taxes,  and  daily  contiscations 
filled  the  imperial  coifers.  1  he  folii  'S  and  absurdities  c(  Caligula 
were  equal  to  his  vices,  and  it  is  hard  lo  s;iy  whether  he  was  most  the 
object  of  hatred  or  of^  contempt  to  his  subjects.  '  He  perished  by 
assassinationun  the  fourth  year  of  his  reign,  the  twenty-niniii  of  his 
age,  A.  U.  C.  794,  A.  D.  42. 

H.^Ciaudius,  the  uncle  of  Caligula,  was  saluted  emperor  by  the 
praetorian  guards,  who  had  been  the  murderers  of  his  nephew.  He 
was  the  son  of  Octavia,  the  sister  of  Augustus ;  a  man  of  weak  in- 
tellects, and  ot  no  education.  His  short  reign  was  marked  by  an 
enterprise  of  importance.  He  undertook  the  reduction  of  Britain, 
and  after  visiting  the  island  in  person,  left  his  generals,  Piautius  and 
Vespasian,  to  prosecute  a  war  which  was  carried  on  for  several  years 
with  various  success.  The  Silures  or  inhabitants  of  South  Wales, 
under  their  king  Caractacus  (Caradoc),  made  a  brave  resistance,  but 
were  finally  defeated ;  and  Caractacus  was  led  captive  to  Rome, 
where  the  magnanimity  of  his  demeanour  procured  him  respect  and 
admiration. 

12.  The  civil  administration  of  Claudius  was  weak  and  cor.tempt- 
ible.  He  was  the  slave  even  o(  his  domestics,  and  the  dupe  of  hi«  in- 
famous wives  Messaiina  and  Agrippina.  The  former,  abandoned  to 
the  most  shameful  profligacy,  was  at  length  btit  to  death  on  suspi- 
cion of  treasonable  designs.  The  latter,  who  was  the  datighter  of 
Germanicus,  bent  her  utmost  endeavours  to  secure  the  succession  to 
the  empire  to  her  son  Domitius  Oenobardus,  and  employed  every 
engine  of  vice  and  inhumanity  to  remove  the  obstacles  to  the  accom- 
plishment of  her  wishes.  Having  at  length  prevailed  on  Claudius  to 
adopt  her  son,  and  confer  on  him  the  title  of  Caesar,  to  the  exclusion 
ofhisownson  Britannicus,  she  now  made  room  for  the  immediate 
elevation  of  Domitius,  by  poisoning  her  husband.  Claudius  was 
;f>ut  to  death  in  the  15lh  year  of  his  reign,  and  the  63d  of  his  age. 


SECTION  XLll. 

1.  The  son  of  Agrippina  assumed  the  title  of  Nero  Claudius.  He 
had  enjoyed  the  beneht  of  a  good  education  under  the  philosopher 
Seneca,  but  reaped  from  bis  instructions  no  other  fruit  than  a  pedan- 
tic affectation  of  taste  and  learning,  with  no  real  pretension  to  either. 
While  controled  by  his  tutor  Seneca,  and  by  Bnrrhus,  captain  of 
the  praetorian  guards,  a  man  of  worth  and  ability,  Nero  maintained 
for  a  short  time  a  decency  of  public  conduct ;  but  the  restraint  was 
intolerable,  and  nature  soon  broke  out.  His  real  character  was  a 
compound  of  every  thing  that  is  base  and  inhuman.  In  the  murder 
of  his  mother  Agrippina  he  revenged  the  crime  which  she  had 
committed  in  raising  him  to  the  throne ;  he  rewarded  the  fidelity 
of  Burrhus,  by  poisoning  him ;  and  as  a  last  kindness  to  his  tutor 
Seneca,  he  allowed  him  to  choose  the  mode  of  his  death.  It  was  bis 
^rling  amusement  to  exhibit  ou  the  stage  and  ampliitheatre  as  au 


ANCIENT  HISTORY.  85 

actor,  musician,  or  gladiatoi  At  length,  become  the  object  of 
universal  hatred  and  contempt,  a  rebellion  of  his  subjects,  hefided  by 
Vindex,  an  illustrious  Gaul,  hurled  this  monster  from  the  throne. 
He  had  noi  courage  to  attempt  resistance ;  and  a  slave,  at  his  own 
request,  despatched  him  with  a  dagger.  Nero  perished  in  the  30th 
year  of  his  age,  after  a  reign  of  tburteen  years,  A.  1).  69. 

2.  Galoa,  the  successor  of  Nero,  was  of  an  ancient  and  ilbi^trions 
family.  He  was  in  tlie  73d  year  of  ids  age  when  the  senate,  ratify- 
ing the  choice  of  tiie  praetorian  bands,  proclaimed  him  emperor. 
But  an  impolitic  rigour  of  discipline  soon  disgusted  the  army  ;  the 
avarice  ot  his  disposition,  grudging  the  populace  their  fivourite 
g  vM\'s  and  spectacles,  deprived  him  o/  their  alfeclions;  and  some 
i'liquitous  prosecutions  and  confiscations  excited  general  discontent 
an  1  .mutiny.  Galba,  adopted  and  designed  for  his  successor  the  able 
an  1  virtuous  Piso;  a  measure  which  excited  the  jealousy  of  Otho, 
hi?  t<)rmer  fivourite,  and  led  him  to  form  the  daring  plan  of  raising 
himself  to  the  throne  by  the  destruction  of  both.  He  found  the 
pPcetorians  apt  to  his  purpose.  They  proclaimed  him  emperor,  and 
j)re-ented  lum,  as  a  grateful  offering,  the  heads  of  Galba  and  riso, 
who  were  slain  in  quelling  the  insurrection.  Galba  had  reigned 
poven  months.  Major  privato  visits^  diun  privatusfnit^  et  ouinium  con- 
sensu capax  imperii^  nm  inipe russet.  Tacitus.  He  ujrpeared  to  be  greater 
tluni  a  private  //ut7i,  zcliik  he  zuas  in  a  private  station  ;  and  by  the  consent 
'f  all  was  capable  r>f  governing.,  if  he  fuid  iwt  governed. 

3.  Otho  had  a  formidable  rival  in  Vitellius,  who  hal  been  pro- 
f-!aimed  emperor  by  his  army  in  Germany.  It  is  hard  to  say  which 
of'  the  competitors  was,  in  [joint  of  abi;ities,  the  more  despicable,  or 
in  character  the  more  iof  imous.  A  decisive  battle  was  fought  at 
Ikdriacum,  near  Mantua,  where  Otho  was  defeated,  and  in  a  tit  of 
despair  ended  his  lite  by  his  own  hand,  after  a  reign  of  three  months, 
A.  i).  70.  • 

4.  The  reign  of  Vitellius  was  of  eight  months'  duration.  He  is 
sai  1  to  have  proposed  Nero  for  his  model,  and  it  was  just  that  he 

-should  resemlile  him  in  his  ftte.  Vespasian  had  obtained  from  Nero 
the  charge  of  the  war-  against  the  Jews,  which  he  had  conducted 
with  ability  and  success,  and  was  proclaimed  emperor  by  his  troops 
in  the  east.  A  great  part  of  Italy  submitted  to  Vespasian's  generals; 
and  V'itellius  meanly  capitulated  to  save  his  life,  by  a  resignation  of 
liie  empire.  The  people,  indignant  at  his  dastardly  spirit,  compelled 
him  to  an  effort  of  resistance ;  but  the  attempt  was  fruitless.  Priscus, 
one  of  the  generals  of  Vc'^pasian,  took  possession  of  Rome  ;  and 
Vitellius  was  massacred,  and  his  body  tiung  into  the  Tiiier. 

5.  Vespasian,  though  of  mean  desccm,  was  worthy  of  the  empire, 
and  reigned  with  high  popularity  for  ten  years.  He  possessed  great 
clemency  of"  disposition.  His  manners  were  affable  and  engaging, 
and  his  mode  of  life  was  characterized  by  simplicity  and  frugality. 
He  respectetl  the  ancient  forms  of  tiie  constitution,  restored  the  sen- 
ate to  its  deliberative  rights,  and  acted  by  its  authority  in  the  admin- 
istration of  all  public  alfiii's.  The  only  blemish  in  his  character  was 
a  tincture  of  avarice,  and  even  that  is  greatly  extenuated  bv  the 
laudable  and  patriotic  use  which  he  made  of  his  revenues.  tJnder 
his  ivign,  and  by  the  arms  of  his  son  Titus,  was  terminated  the  war 
against  the  Jews.  They  had  been  brought  under  the  yoke  of  Rome 
by  Pompey,  who  took  Jerusalem.  Tiiey  were  governed  for  some 
<irne  by  Herod,  as  viceroy  under  Augnsius.  The  tyranny  of  his  sou 
Archelaus  was  the  cjiuse  oi'  bis  banishment,  and  of  the  reduction  ot 

H 


^ 


86  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

Judaea  into  the  ordinary  condition  of  a  Roman  province.  The  Jews 
rebelled  on  every  slight  occasion,  and  Nero  had  sent  Vespasimi  to 
reduce  them  to  order.  He  had  just  prepared  for  the  siege  of  Jeru- 
salem, when  he  was  called  to  Rome  to  assume  the  government  of  the 
empire.  Titus  wished  to  spare  the  city,  and  tried  evei'y  means 
to  prevail  on  the  Jews  to  surrender ;  hut  in  vain.  Their  ruin  was 
decreed  by  Heaven.  After  an  obstinate  blockade  of  six  months 
Jerusalem  was  taken  by  storm,  the  temple  burnt  to  ashes,  and  the 
city  buried  in  ruins.  The  Roman  empire  was  now  in  profound 
peace.  Vespasian  associated  Titus  in  the  imperial  dignity,  and 
soon  after  died,  univei'saily  lamented,  at  the  age  of  sixty-nine,  A. 
D.  79. 

6.  The  character  of  Titus  was  humane,  munificent,  dignified,  and 
splendid.  '  His  short  reign  was  a  period  of  great  happiness  and 
prospei'ity  to  the  empire,  and  his  government  a  constant  example  of 
virtue,  justice,  and  beneficence.  In  his  time  happened  that  dreadful 
eruption  of  Vesuvius,  wliich  overwhelmed  the  cities  of  Herculaneum 
and  Pompeii.  The  public  losses  fron)  these  calamities  he  repaired 
by  the  sacrifice  of  his  fortune  and  revenues.  He  died  in  the  third 
year  of  his  reign,  and  tbrtieth  of  his  age  ;  ever  to  be  remembered 
by  that  most  exalted  epithet,  delicife  hwnani  generis  {the  deliglU  of 
mankiwi). 

7.  Domitian,the  brother  of  Titus,  was  suspected  of  murdering  him 
by  poison,  and  succeeded  to  the  empire,  A.  D.  81.  He  was  a  vicious 
and  inhuman  tyrant.  A  rebellion  in  Germany  gave  him  occasion  to 
signalize  the  barbarity  of  his  disposition;  and  its  consequences  were 
long  felt  in  the  sanguinary  punisiirnents  inflicted  under  the  pretence 
of  justice.  The  prodigal  and  voluptuous  spirit  of  this  reign  was  a 
singular  contrast  to  its  tyranny  and  inhumanity.  The  people  were 
loaded  with  insupportable  taxes  to  furnish  spectacles  and  games  tor 
their  amusement.  The  successes  of  Agricola  in  Biitain  threw  a 
lustre  on  the  Roman  arms,  no  part  of  which  reflected  on  the  emperor, 
for  he  treated  this  eminent  commander  with  the  basest  ingratitude. 
After  fifteen  tedious  years  this  monster  fell  at  last  the  victim  of  assas- 
sination, the  empress  herself  conducting  the  plot  lor  his  murder,  A. 
D.  96. 

8.  Cocceius  Nerva,  a  Cretan  by  birth,  was  chosen  emperor  by  the 
senate,  from  respect  to  the  probity  and  virtues  of  his  character. 
He  was  too  old  tor  the  burden  of  government,  and  of  a  temper  too 
placid  for  the  restraint  of  rooted  corruptions  and  enormities.  His 
reign  was  weak,  inefficient,  and  contemptible.  His  only  act  of  real 
merit  as  a  sovereign,  was  the  adoption  of  the  virtuous  Trajan  as  his 
successor.     Nerva  died  after  a  reign  of  sixteen  mouths,  A.  D.  98. 

9.  Ulpius  Trajanus  possessed  every  talent  and  every  virtue  that 
can  adorn  a  sovereign.  Of  great  military  abilities,  and  an  indtiatijra 
ble  spirit  of  enterprise,  he  raised  the  Roman  arms  to  th.-ir  ancient 
splendour,  and  greatly  enlarged  the  boundaries  of  the  empii-e.  He 
subdued  the  Dacians,  conquered  the  Parthians,  and  brought  under 
subjection  Aasyi-ia,  Mesopotimiia,  and  Arabia  P'elix.  Nor  was  he  less 
eminent  in  promoting  the  happiness  of  his  subjects,  and  the  internal 
prosperity  of  the  enipire.  His  largesses  were  humane  and  munifi- 
cent. He  was  the  friend  and  support  of  the  virtuous  indig'^rit,  and 
the  liberal  patron  of  every  useful  art  and  talent.  His  boui.ties  w«-re 
■nnoplied  by  well  judged  economy  in  his  private  fortune,  and  a  wi.:«e 
artmmistraiion  of  the  pubhc  finances.  In  his  own  life  he  w  is  a  man 
of  simple  manners,  modest,  atlkble,  fond  of  the  farniliiu-  intetcoui-se 


ANCIENT  fflSTORY.  87 

of  his  friends,  and  sensible  to  ail  the  social  and  benevolent  affections. 
He  merited  the.  surname  universally  bestowed  on  him,  Traj-tnus 
Optimus.  He  died  at  the  age  of  sixty-three,  after  a  glorious  reini  of 
nineteen  years,  A.  D.  118. 

10.  ^]lius  Adrianus,  nephew  of  Trajan,  and  worthy  to  fill  his  place, 
was  chosen  emperor  by  the  army  in  the  east,  and  his  title  was 
acknowledged  by  all  orders  of  the  state.  He  adopted  a  polxy  differ- 
ent from  that  of  his  predecessor.  Judging  the  limits  of  the  empire 
too  extensive,  he  abandoned  all  the  conquests  of  Trajan  bounding 
the  eastern  provinces  by  the  Euphrates.  He  visited  in  perso^i  ill  the 
provinces  of  the  empire,  reforming  in  his  progress  all  abuse?,  reliev- 
ing his  subjects  of  every  oppressive  burden,  rebuilding  thr  ruined 
cities,  and  establishing  every  where  a  regular  and  mild  adi sinistra 
tion,  under  magistrates  of  approved  probity  and  humanity,  i  fe  gave 
a  discharge  to  the  indigent  debtors  of  the  state,  and  appointeJ  liberal 
institutions  for  the  education  of  the  children  of  the  poor.  To  the 
talents  of  an  able  politician  he  joined  an  excellent  taste  in  th-  liberal 
arts.  His  reign,  which  was  of  twenty-two  years'  duration,  wa  <  an  aera 
both  of  public  happiness  and  splendour.  In  the  last  year  of  his  life 
he  bequeathed  to  the  empire  a  double  legacy,  in  adopting  for  hi« 
immediate  successor  Titus  Aurelius  Antoninus,  and  substitu  ing  An- 
nids  V'erus  to  succeed  upon  his  death.  These  were  the  Antonines, 
who  during  forty  years  ruled  the  Roman  empire  with  constmrnate 
wi*dom,  ability,  and  virtue.  Adrian  died  A.  D.  138,  at  the  age  of 
sixty-two. 

SECTION  XLIII. 

AGE  OF  THE  ANTONINES,  &c. 

1.  The  happiest  reigns  furnish  the  fewest  events  for  the  pen  of 
history.  Antoninus  was  the  father  of  his  people.  He  preferred 
peace  to  the  ambition  of  conquest;  yet  in  every  necessary  war 
the  Roman  arras  had  their  wonted  renown.  The  British  province 
was  enlarged  by  the  conquests  of  Urbicus,  and  some  formidable 
rebellions  were  subdued  in  Germany,  Dacia,  and  the  east.  The 
domestic  administration  of  the  sovereign  was  dignified,  splendid,  and 
humane.  'tVVith  all  the  virtues  of  Numa,  his  love  of  religion,  peace, 
and  jiisticepie  had  the  superior  advantage  of  diffusing  these  blessings 
over  a  great  portion  of  the  world.  He  died  at  the  age  of  seventy- 
four,  after  a  reign  of  twenty-two  years,  A.  D.  161. 

2.  Annius  Verus  assumed,  at  his  accession,  the  name  of  Marcus 
Aurelius  Antoninus,  and  bestowed  on  his  brother  Lucius  Verus  a  joint 
adiniuistration  of  the  empire.  The  former  was  as  eminent  for  the 
worth  and  virtues  of  his  character,  as  the  latter  was  remaikable  for 
profligacy,  meanness,  and  vice.  Marcus  Aurelius  was  attached  botii 
by  nature  and  education  to  the  Stoical  philosophy,  which  he  has  ad- 
mirably taught  and  illustrated  in  his  meditations.  His  own  life  was 
the  best  commentary  on  his  precepts.  The  Parthians  were  repulsed 
in  an  attack  upon  the  empire,  and  a  rebellion  of  the  Germans  was 
subdued.  In  these  wars  the  mean  and  worthless  Verus  brought  dis- 
grace upon  the  Roman  name  in  every  region  where  he  commanded ; 
but  fortunately  refieved  the  empire  of  its  fears  by  an  early  deatli. 
The  residue  of  the  reign  of  Marcus  Aurelius  was  a  continued  bless- 
ing to  his  subjects.  He  reformed  the  internal  policy  of  the  state* 
regulated  the  government  of  the  provinces,  and  visited  himself,  fojf 


88  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

the  purposes  of  beneficence,  the  most  distant  quarters  of  his  doniin- 
j'oiis.  "  He  appeared,"  says  an  ancient  author,  "  like  some  benevo- 
lent deity,  diftusing  around  him  universal  peace  and  happiness."  He 
died  in  Parinonia,  in  the  69th  year  of  his  age,  and  19th  of  his  reign, 
A.  D.  180. 

3.  Coinmodus,  his  most  unworthy  son,  succeeded  to  the  empire 
on  his  death.  He  resem'uled  in  character  his  mother  Faustina,  a 
woman  infamous  for  all  manner  of  vice.  Her  prcflifncy  was  known 
to  ail  but  her  husbaad  Marcu*,  by  whom  she  was  rej^.aded  as  a  para- 

{'on  of  virtue.  Commodus  had  an  aversion  to  every  rational  and 
iberal  pursuit,  and  a  fond  attacb.ment  to  the  sports  of  the  circus  and 
amphitheatre,  the  hunting  of  wild  beasts,  and  the  combats  of  boxers 
and  gladiators.  T!ie  measures  of  this  reign  were  as  unimportant  ;is 
the  character  «'>f  the  sovereign  wijs  contemptible.  His  concubine  and 
some  of  his  cuief  otiicers  prevented  their  own  destruction  by  assas- 
sinaiiug  the  tyrant,  in  the  o2d  year  of  his  age,  and  13th  of  his 
reign,  A.  D.  193. 

4.  Ihe  praetorian  guards  gave  the  empire  to  PubUiis  Helvius 
Pertinax,  a  man  of  mean  birth,  who  had  risen  to  esteem  by  his  vir- 
tues and  military  talents.  He  applied  himself  with  zeal  to  the  cor- 
rection of  abuses;  but  the  austerity  of  his  government  deprived  him 
of  the  afiecdons  of  a  corrupted  people,  fie  had  disappointed  the 
army  of  a  promised  reward,  and,  after  a  reign  of  eighty-six  days, 
was  murdered  in  the  imperial  palace  by  the  same  hands  which  had 
placed  him  on  the  throne. 

5.  The  empire  was  now  put  up  to  auction  by  the  praetorians,  and 
was  purchased  by  Didius  Julianus ;  while  Pescenius  Niger  in  Asia, 
Clodius  Albinus  in  l>ritain,  and  Septimius  Severus  in  lilyria,  were 
each  chosen  emperor  by  the  troops  which  they  commanded.  Se- 
verus marched  to  iiome,  and,  on  his  approach,  the  praitcrians  aban- 
doned Didius,  who  n;ui  fouled  to  pay  the  stipulated  price  for  his  ele- 
vation: and  the  senale  formally  deposed  to  put  him  to  death.  Seve- 
rus being  now  master  of  Rome,  prepared  to  reduce  the  provinces 
which  had  acknowledged  the  sovereignty  of  Niger  and  Albinus. 
These  two  rivals  were  successively  subdued.  JSigerwas  slain  in 
battle,  and  Albinus  fell  by  bis  own  hands.  The  adniini'^tration  of  Se- 
verus was  wise  and  equitable,  I>ut  tinctured  with  despotic  rigour. 
it  was  his  purpose  to  erect  the  hlmc  ol'  absolute  monarchy,  and  ail 
his  institutions  operated  witl\  able  policy  to  that  end.  He  i  osses^ed 
eminent  military  talents.  He  gloriousiy  boasted,  that,  having  re- 
ceived the  empire  oppressed  wiih  foreign  and  domestic  wars,  he  left 
it  in  profound,  universal,  and  honourable  peace.  He  carried  with 
him  into  Britain  ids  two  sons,  Caracalla  and  Geta,  whose  unpronds- 
ing  dispositions  clouded  Iiis  latter  days.  In  ibis  war  the  Caledoninns 
under  Fingal  are  said  to  have  defeated,  on  the  banks  of  the  Carron, 
Caracul,  the  son  of  the  king  of  the  world.  Severus  died  at  York,  in 
the  66th  year  of  his  age,  aftor  a  reign  of  eighteen  years,  A.  D.  21 1. 

6.  The  mutual  hatred  of  Caracalla  and  Geta  was  increased  by 
their  association  in  the  empire ;  and  the  former,  \\  ith  brutal  iidiu- 
manity,  caused  his  brother  to  be  openly  murdered  in  the  arms  of  bis 
mother.  His  reign,  which  was  of  six  years'  duration,  and  one  con- 
tioued  series  of  atrocities,  was  at  length  terminated  by  assassination, 
A.D.  217. 

7.  Those  disorders  in  the  empire  which  began  with  Commodus 
continued  for  about  a  century,  till  the  accession  of  Diocletian.  That 
interval  was  filled  by  the  reigns  o(  Helio^abalus,  Alexar-def^eyerus, 


ANCIENT  HISTORY.  tO 

Maximin.  Gordian,  Decius,  Gallus,  Valerianus,  Galiienus,  Claudius, 
Aurelianus,  Tacitus,  Probus,  and  Carus ;  a  period  of  vviiich  the  an- 
nals furnish  neither  amusement  nor  usetul  information.  The  .«ingle 
exception  is  the  reign  of  Alexander  Severus,  a  mild,  beneficent,  and 
enliglitened  prince,  whose  character  shines  the  more  from  the  con- 
trast of  those  who  preceded  and  followed  him. 

8.  Diocletian  began  his  reign  A.  D.  281,  and  introduced  a  new 
system  of  administration,  dividing  the  empire  into  four  governments, 
under  as  many  princes.  Maximian  shared  with  him  the  title  of 
Augustus,  and  Galerius  and  Constantius  were  declared  Caesars.  Each 
had  his  separate  department  or  province,  all  nominally  supreme,  but 
in  reaUty  under  the  direction  of  the  superior  talents  and  authority  of 
Diocletian :  an  unwise  policy,  which  depended  for  its  efficacy  on 
individual  ability  alone.  Diocletian  and  Maximian,  trusting  to  the 
continuance  of  that  order  in  the  empire  which  their  vigour  had 
established,  retired  from  sovereignty,  and  left  the  government  in  the 
hands  of  the  Caesars;  but  Constantius  died  soon  atter  in  Britain,  and 
his  son  Constantine  was  proclaimed  emperor  at  York,  though  Gale- 
rius did  not  acknowledge  his  title.  Maximian,  however,  having  once 
more  resumed  the  purple,  bestowed  on  Constantine  his  daughter  in 
marriage,  and  thus  invested  him  with  a  double  title  to  empire.  On 
the  death  of  Maximian  and  Galerius,  Constantine  had  no  other  com- 
petitor but  Maxentius,  the  son  of  the  tbrmer,  and  the  contest  between 
them  was  decided  by  the  sword.  Maxentius  fell  in  battle,  and  Con- 
stantine remained  sole  master  of  the  empire. 

9.  The  administration  of\Constantine  \vas,  in  the  beginning  of  his 
reign, 'sTnild,  equitable,  and  politic."  Though  zealously  attached  to 
the  christian  faith,:he  made  no  violent  innovations  on  the  religion  of 
the  state.  He  introduced  order  and  economy  into  the  civil  govern- 
ment, and  repressed  every  species  of  oppression  and  corruption. 
But  his  natural  temper  was  severe  and  cruel,  and  the  latter  part  of 
liis  reign  was  as  much  detbrmed  by  intolerant  zeal  and  sanguinai'y 
rigour,  as  the  former  had  been  remarkable  for  equity  and  benignity. 
From  this  unfavourable  change  of  character  he  lost  the  affections  of 
his  subjects;  and,  from  a  feeling  probably  of  reciprocal  disgust,  he 
removed  the  seat  of  the  Kom.an  empire  to  Byzantium,  now  termed 
Constantinople.  The  court  followed  the  sovereign;  the  opulent 
proprietors  were  attended  by  th^ur  sh.ves  and  retainers.  Rome  was 
in  a  tew  years  greatly  depopulated,  and  the  new  capital  swelled  at 
once  to  enormous  magnitude.  It  was  characterized  by  eastern 
splendour,  luxury,  and  volu])taou^ne.ss;  and  the  cities  of  Greece 
were  despoiled  for  its  embellishments.  Of  the  internal  pohcy  of 
the  empire  we  shall  treat  in  the  next  section.  In  an  expedition 
against  the  Persians,  Constantine  died  at  Nicomedia,  in  the  30th 
year  of  his  reign,  and  63d  of  his  age,  A.  D.  337.  In  the  time  of 
Constantine  the  Goths  had  made  several  irruptions  on  the  empire, 
and,  though  repulsed  and  beaten,  began  gradually  to  encroach  oi^ 
the  provinces. 

H2  12 


<iO  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


SECTION  XLIV. 

STATE   OF   THE   ROMAN  EMPIRE    AT    THE    TIME    OF   CON. 
STANTINE.     HIS  SUCCESSORS, 

1.  In  li'^u  of  the  ancient  republican  distinctions,  which  were 
founded  chietiy  on  pergonal  merit,  a  rigid  subordination  ot"  rank  and 
otii^-e  now  went  through  ali  the  orders  of  the  state.  The  niagis- 
trates  were  divided  into  three  classes,  distinguished  by  the  unmean- 
ing titles  of,  l^the  illustrious;  2,  the  respectable;  3,  the  clarissimi. 
The  epithet  ot  illustrious  was  bestowed  on,  1,  the  consuls  and  patri- 
cians ;  2^  the  praetorian  praefects  of  Rome  and  Constantinople  ;  3,  the 
masters-general  of  the  cavalry  and  infantry ;  4,  the  seven  ministers 
of  the  palace.  The  consuls  were  created  by  the  sole  authority  ot" 
the  emperor :  their  dignity  was  inefficient ;  they  had  no  appropriate 
function  in  the  state,  and  their  names  served  only  to  give  the  legal 
date  to  the  year.  The  dignity  of  patrician  was  not,  as  in  ancient 
times,  a  liereditary  distinction,  but  was  bestowed,  as  a  title  of  honour, 
by  the  emperor  on  his  favourites.  From  the  time  of  the  abolition  of 
the  praetorian  bands  by  Constantine,  the  dignity  of  praetorian  pi-ae- 
feet  was  conferred  on  the  civil  governors  of  the  four  departments  of 
the  empire.  These  were,  the  East,  Illyria,  Italy,  and  the  Gauls. 
They  had  the  supreme  administration  of  justice  and  of  the  tinances, 
the  power  of  supplying  all  the  inferior  magistracies  in  their  district, 
and  an  appellative  jurisdiction  i'rom  all  its  tribunals.  Independent 
of  their  authority,  Rome  and  Constantinople  had  each  its  own  prae- 
fect,  who  was  the  chief  magistrate  of  the  city.  In  the  second  class, 
the  respectable,  were  the  proconsuls  of  Asiii^  Achaia,  and  Africa, 
and  the  military  comites  and  duces,  generals  of  the  imperial  armies. 
The  third  class,  clarissiini,  comprehended  the  inferior  governors 
and  magistrates  of  the  provinces,  responsible  to  the  pi-a3fects  and 
their  deputies. 

2.  The  intercourse  between  the  court  and  provinces  was  main- 
tained by  the  construction  of  roads,  and  the  institution  of  regular 
posts  or  couriers ;  under  which  denomination  were  ranked  the  num- 
berless spies  of  government,  whose  duty  was  to  convey  all  sort  of 
intelligence  from  the  remotest  quarter  of  the  empire  to  its  chief 
seat.  Every  institution  was  calculated  to  support  the  fabric  of  des- 
potism. Torture  was  employed  for  the  discovery  of  crimes.  Taxes 
and  impositions  of  every  nature  were  prescribed  and  levied  by  the 
sole  authority  of  the  emperor.  The  quantity  and  rate  were  fixed  by  a 
census  made  over  all  the  provinces,  and  part  was  generally  pai([  iii 
money,  part  hi  the  produce  of  the  lands;  a  burden  frequently  found 
so  grievous  as  to  prompt  to  the  neglect  of  agriculture.  Every  ob- 
ject of  merchandise  and  manufacture  was  Rkewise  highly  taxed. 
Subsidies,  moreover,  were  exacted  from  all  the  cities,  under  the 
name  of  free  gifts,  on  various  occasions  of  public  concerns;  as  the 
accession  of  an  emperor,  his  consulate,  the  birth  of  a  prince,  a  victory 
Over  the  barbarians,  or  any  other  event  of  sinjilar  importance. 

3.  An  impolitic  distinction  was  made  between  the  troops  stationed 
in  the  distant  provinces  and  those  in  the  heart  of  the  empire.  The 
Jatter,  termed  pabtines,  enjoyed  a  higher  pay  and  more  peculiar 
favour,  and,  having  less  employment,  spent  their  time  in  idleness  and 
luxury ;  while  the  former,  termed  the  bordereriy  who,  in  iact,  had  the 


ANCIENT  HISTORY.  91 

care  of  the  empire,  and  were  exposed  to  perpetual  hard  service,  had, 
with  an  inferior  reward,  the  mortilication  of  feeling  themselves  re- 
garded as  of  meaner  rank  tfian  tneirfeilow-soluiers.  Constantino  like- 
wise, from  a  timid  policy  of  guarding  against  mutinies  of  the  ti'oops, 
reduced  the  legion  from  its  ancient  complement  of  5,t)00,  6^0, 
7,000,  and  8,000,  to  1,000  or  1,500;  and  debased  the  body  of  the 
army  by  tha  intermixture  of  Scythians,  Goths,  and  Germans. 

4.  This  immense  mass  of  heterogeneous  parts,  which  internally 
laboured  witii  the  seeds  of  dissolution  and  corruption,  was  kept  to- 
gether for  some  time  t)y  the  vigorous  exertion  of  despotic  authority. 
The  fabric  was  spiondiJ  and  august ;  but  it  wanted  both  that  energy 
of  constitution  and  tiiat  real  dignity,  which,  in  former  times,  it  derived 
from  the  exercise  of  heroic  and  patriotic  virtues. 

5.  Constantino,  with  a  destructive  policy,  had  divided  the  empire 
among  live  princes,  tiiree  of  them  his  sons,  and  two  nephews ;  but 
Constantius,  the  youngest  of  the  sons,  finally  got  rid  of  all  his  com- 
petitors, and  ruled  the  empire  alone  with  a  weak  and  impotent  scep- 
tre. A  variety  of  dom.^stic  broils,  and  mutinies  of  the  trooj)s  against 
their  generals,  had  left  the  western  frontier  to  the  mercy  ot  the  bar- 
barian nations.  The  Franks,  Saxons,  Aiimianni,  and  Sarmatians,  laid 
waste  all  tlie  tine  countries  watered  by  the  Rhine,  and  the  Persians 
made  dreatltul  incursions  on  the  provinces  of  the  east.  Constantius 
indolently  wiisted  his  time  in  theological  controversies,  but  was  pre- 
vailed on  to  adopt  one  prudent  measure,  the  appointment  of  his 
cousin  Julian  to  the  dignity  of  Caesar. 

6.  Julian  possessed  many  heroic  qualities,  and  his  mind  was  formed 
by  nature  tor  the  sovereignty  of  a  great  people ;  but,  educateil  at 
Athens,  in  the  schools  of  the  Platonic  philosophy,  he  had  unfortunately 
conceived  a  I'ooted  antipathy  to  the  doctrines  of  Christianity.  With 
every  talent  of  a  general,  and  possessing  the  confidence  and  affec- 
tion of  his  troops,  he  once  more  restored  the  giory  of  the  Roman 
arms,  and  successfully  repressed  the  invasions  of  the  barbarians. 
His  victories  excited  the  jealousy  of  Constantius,  who  meanly  re- 
solved to  remove  from  his  command  the  better  part  of  his  troops.  The 
consequence  was  a  declaration  of  tlie  army,  that  it  was  their  choice 
that  Julian  should  be  their  emperor.  Constantius  escaped  the  igno- 
miny that  awaited  him  by  dying  at  this  critical  juncture,  and  Julian 
was  immediately  acknowledged  sovereign  of  the  Roman  empire. 

7.  The  reformation  of  civil  abuses  formed  the  first  object  of  his 
attention,  wliich  he  next  turned  to  the  reformation,  as  he  thought, 
of  religion,  by  the  suppression  of  Christianity,  He  began  by  reform- 
ing the  pagan  theology,  and  sought  to  raise  the  character  of  its 
priests,  by  inculcating  purity  of  life  and  sanctity  of  morals;  thus 
bearing  involuntary  testimony  to  the  superior  excellence,  in  those 
respects,  of  that  religion  which  he  laboured  to  abolish.  Without 
persecuting  he  attacked  the  christians  by  the  more  dangerous  policy 
of  treating  them  with  contempt,  and  removing  them,  as  visionaries, 
from  ail  employments  of  public  trust.  He  refused  them  the  benefit 
of  the  laws  to  decide  their  dilTerences,  because  their  religion  forbade 
all  dissensions;  and  they  were  debarred  the  studies  of  literature  and 
philosophy,  which  they  could  not  learn  but  from  pagan  authors.  He 
was  himself,  as  a  pagan,  the  slave  of  the  most  bigoted  superstition, 
believing  in  omens  and  auguries,  and  fmcying  himself  favoured  with 
an  actual  intercourse  with  the  gods  and  goddesses.  To  avenge  the 
injuries  which  the  empire  had  sustained  fi-om  the  Persians,  Julian 
marched  into  the  heart  of  Asia,  and  was  for  some  time  in  the  traia 


98  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

of  conquest,  when,  in  a  fatal  engagement,  though  crowned  with 
victory,  he  was  slain,  at  the  age  of  thirty-one,  after  a  reign  of  three 
years,  A.  D.  363. 

8.  The  Roman  army  was  dispirited  by  the  death  of  its  commander 
They  chose  for  their  emperor  Jovian,  a  captain  of  the  domestic 
guards,  and  purchased  a  free  retreat  from  the  dominions  of  Persia 
by  the  ignominious  surrender  of  five  provinces,  which  had  been  ceded 
by  a  former  sovereign  to  Galerius.  The  short  reign  of  Jovian,  a 
period  of  seven  months,  was  mild  and  equit;ible.  He  favoured  Chris- 
tianity, and  restored  its  votaries  to  all  their  privileges  as  subjects. 
He  died  suddenly  at  the  age  of  thirty-three. 

9. 'Valentinian  was  chosen  emperor  by  the  army  on  the  death  of 
Jovian ;  a  man  of  obscure  birth  and  severe  manners,  but  of  consider- 
able military  talents.  He  associated  with  himself  in  the  empire  his 
brother  Valens,  to  whom  he  gave  the  dominion  of  the  eastern  prov- 
inces, reserving  to  himself  the  western.  The  Persians,  under  Sapor, 
were  making  inroads  on  the  former,  and  the  latter  was  subject  to 
continual  invasion  from  the  northern  barbarians.  They  were  suc- 
cessfully repelled  by  Valentinian  in  many  battles  ;  and  his  domestic 
administration  was  wise,  equitable,  and  politic.  The  christian  reli 
gion  was  favoured  by  tne  emperor,  though  not  promoted  by  the 
persecution  of  its  adversaries ;  a  contrast  to  the  conduct  of  his 
brother  Valens,  who,  intemperately  supporting  the  Arian  heresy,  set 
tbe  whole  provinces  in  a  Hame,  and  drew  a  swarm  of  invaders  upon 
the  empire  in  the  guise  of  friends  and  allies,  who  in  the  end  entirely 
subverted  it.  These  were  the  Goths,  who,  migrating  from  Scandi- 
navia, had,  in  the  second  century,  settled  on  the  banks  of  the  Palus 
Moeotis,  and  thence  gradually  extended  their  territory.  In  the  reign  of  ~ 
\'alens  they  took  possession  of  Dacia,  and  wei'e  known  by  the  disiinct 
appellation  of  Ostrogoths  and  Visigoths,  or  eastern  and  western  Goths  ; 
a  remarkable  people,  whose  manners,  customs,  government,  and 
laws,  are  afterwards  to  be  particularly  noted. 

10.  V^alentinian  died  on  an  expedition  against  the  Alemanni,  and 
was  succeeded  in  the  empire  of  the  west  by  Gratian,  his  eldest  son, 
a  boy  of  sixteen  years  of  age,  A.  D.  367.  Valens,  in  the  east,  was 
the  scourge  of  his  people.  The  Huns,  a  new  race  of  barbarians,  of 
Tartar  or  Siberian  origin,  now  poured  down  on  the  provinces  both 
of  the  west  and  east.  The  Goths,  comparatively  a  civilized  people, 
fled  before  them.  The  Visigoths,  who  were  fii-st  attacked,  requested 
protection  from  the  enrpirc,  and  \alens  imprudently  gave  them  a 
settlement  in  Thrace.  The  Ostrogoths  made  the  same  request,  and, 
on  refusal,  ibrced  their  way  into  the  same  province.  Valens  gave 
them  battle  at  Adrianople.  His  army  was  defeated,  and  he  was  ?iain 
in  the  engagement.  Tbe  Goths,  unresisted,  ravaged  Achaia  and  Pan- 
nonia. 

11.  Gratian,  ayouth  of  great  worth,  but  of  little  energy  of  char- 
acter, assumed  Theodosius  as  his  colleague.  On  the  eany  death  of 
Gralian,  and  the   minority  of  his  son   valentinian  11,  1  heodosius 

¥>vemed,  with  great  ability,  both  the  eastern  and  western  empire, 
he  character  of  Theodosius,  deservedly  sumamed  the  great,  was 
worthy  of  the  best  ages  of  the  Roman  state.  He  successmliy  repell- 
ed the  encroachments  of  the  barbarians,  and  secured,  by  wholesome 
laws,  the  prosperity  of  his  people.  He  died,  after  a  reign  of 
eighteen  years,  assigning  to  his  sons,  Arcadius  ,and  Honorius,  the 
eeparate  sovereignties  of  east  and  west,  A.  D/395. 


ANCIENT  HISTOIIY.  03 


SECTION  XLV. 

PROGRESS  OF  THE  CHRISTIAN  RELIGION,  FROM  ITS  INSTI 
TUTION    TO    THE     EXTINCTION     OF     PAGANISM    IN    THk, 
REIGN  OF  THEOUOSIUS. 

1.  The  reign  of  Thcodosius-was  signalized  by  the  downfal  of  the 
pagan  superstition,  and  the  full  establishment  of  the  christian  religion 
in  me  Roman  empire.  This  great  revolution  of  opinions  is  highly 
worthy. of  attention,  and  natur.illy  induces  a  retrospect  to  the  condi- 
tion of  the  christian  church  from  its  institution  down  to  this  period. 

it  has  been  frequently  remarked  (because  it  is  an  obvious  truth), 
that  at  the  time  of  our  Saviour's  birth  a  divine  revelation  seemed  to 
be  more  peculiarly  needed  ;  and  that,  from  a  concuirence  of  circum- 
stances, the  state  of  the  world  was  then  uncommonly  favourable  for 
the  extensive  dissemination  of  the  doctrines  which  it  conveyed.  The 
union  of  so  many  nations  under  one  power,  and  the  extension  of  civ- 
ilization, were  favourable  to  the  progress  of  a  religion  which  pre- 
scribed universal  charity  and  benevolence.  ^The  gross  superstitions 
of  paganism,  and  its  tendency  to  corrupt  mstead  of  purifying  the 
morals,  contributed  to  explode  its  influence  with  every  thinking  mind. 
Even  tlie  prevalent  philosophy  of  the  times,  epicurism,  more  easily  / 
understood  than  tlie  refinements  of  the  Platonists,  and  more  grateful 
than  the  severities  of  the  Stoics,  tended  to  degrade  human  nature  to 
the  IjvcI  of  the  brute  creation.  The  christian  religion,  thus  neces- 
sary for  the  reformation  of  the  world,  found  its  chief  partisans  in  those 
who  were  the  friends  of  virtue,  and  its  enemies  among  the  votaries 
of  vice. 

2.  The  persecution  which  the  christians  suffered  from  the  Romans 
has  been  deemed  an  exception  to  that  spirit  of  toleration  which 
they  showed  to  the  religions  of  other  nations ;  but  they  were  toler- 
ant only  to  those  whose  theologies  were  not  hostile  to  their  own. 
Tiie  religion  of  the  Romans  was  interwoven  with  their  political  con- 
stitution. The  zeal  of  the  christians,  aimhig  at  the  suppression  of  ali 
idolatry,  was  naturally  regarded  as  dangerous  to  the  state ;  and  hence 
they  were  the  oiject  of  hatred  and  persecution.  In  the  first  century 
the  christian  chuirii  sufiered  deeply  under  Nero  and  Domitian; 
yet  those  persecutions  had  no  tendency  to  check  the  progress  of  its 
doctrines. 

3.  It  is  matter  of  quotation  what  was  the  form  of  the  primitive 
churcli,  and  the  n-iiure  of  its  government;  and  on  this  head  much 
diiiarence  of  opii/ion  obtains,  not  otily  between  the  catholics  and  prot- 
estants,  but  between  the  ditferent  classes  of  the  latter,  as  the  Luther- 
ans and  Caivinists.  It  is  moreover  an  0[nnion,  that  our  Saviour  and 
his  apostles,  coiiliMing  tneir  precepts  to  the  pure  doctrines  of  religion, 
h.ive  lefc  all  chritini  societies  to  regidate  tiieir  frame  and  govern 
ment  in  the.  maauer  best  suited  to  the  ci\  il  constitutions  of  the  coun- 
tries in  vvliich  tlicy  are  established. 

4.  j  111  the  seooiul  century' tiie  books  of  the  New  Testament  were 
aoUetted  into  a  volume  by  the  eider  fiithei's  of  the  church,  and  re- 
ceived as  ii  CLuioii  of  fiitti.  The  Old  Testiiment  had  been  translat 
ed  from  the  H.n^rew  into  Greek,  by  order  of  Ptolemy  Fhiladelphus, 

\2)j4  yeai"s  before  Christ,'    The  early  church  sufiered  much  from  an 
iibsurd  endeavour  of  the  more  learned  of  its  votaries  to  reconcile  its 


54  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

doctrine?  to  the  tenets  of  the  pagan  philosophers :  hence  the  sects  of 
the  Gnostics  and  Ammonians,  and  the  Platonising  christians.  In  the 
second  century  the  Greek  churches  began  to  form  provincial  associ- 
ations, and  to  establish  general  rules  of  government  and  discipline. 
Assemblies  were  held,  termed  synodoi  and  concilia,  over  which  a  me- 
tropolitan presided.  A  short  time  after  arose  the  superior  order  of 
patriarch,  presiding  over  a  large  district  of  the  christian  world  ;  and 
a  subordination  taking  place  even  amon^  these,  the  bishop  of  Rome 
was  acknowledged  the  chief  of  the  patriarchs.  Persecution  still  at- 
tended the  early  church,  even  under  those  excellent  princes,  Trajan, 
Adrian,  and  the  Antonines ;  and,  in  the  reign  of  Severus,  all  the  prov- 
inces of  the  empire  were  stained  with  the  blood  of  the  martyrs. 

5.  The  third  century  was  more  favourable  to  the  progress  of  Chris- 
tianity and  the  tranquillity  of  its  disciples.  \In  those  times  it  suflered 
less  fi-om  the  civil  arm  than  from  the  pens  of  the  pagan  philosopers. 
Porphyry,  Phiiostratus,  &,c. ;  but  these  attacks  called  forth  the  zeal 
and  talents  of  many  able  defenders,  as  Origen,  Dionysius,  and  Cy- 
prian. A  part  of  the  Gauls,  Germany,  and  Britain,  received  the  light 
of  the  gospel  in  this  century. 

6.  In  the  fourth  century  the  christian  church  was  alternately  per- 
secuted and  cherished  by  the  Roman  emperors.  Among  its  oppres- 
sors we  rank  Diocletian,  Galerius,  and  Julian;  among  its  favourei's, 
Constantine  and  his  sons,  Valentinian,  Valens,  Gratian,  and  the  excel- 
lent Theodosius,  in  whose  reign  the  pagan  superstition  came  to  its 
final  period. 

7.  From  the  age  of  Numa  to  the  reign  of  Gratian  the  Romans 
preserved  the  regular  succession  of  the  several  sacerdotal  colleges, 
the  pontiffs,  augui-s,  vestals,  Jiamines,  salii,  &c.,  whose  authority, 
though  weaKened  in  the  latter  ages,  was  still  protected  by  the  laws, 
Even  the  christian  emperoi"s  held,  like  their  pa^an  predecessors,  the 
office  of  pontifex  maxwms.  Gratian  was  the  hrst  who  refused  that 
ancient  dignity  as  a  profanation.  In  the  time  of  Theodosius  the 
cause  of  Christianity  and  of  paganism  was  solemnly  debated  in  the 
Roman  senate  between  Ambrose,  archbishop  of  Milan,  the  champion 
of  the  former,  and  Symmachus,  the  defender  of  the  latter.  The 
cause  of  Christianity  was  triumphant,  and  the  senate  issued  its  de- 
cree for  the  abolition  of  paganism,  whose  downfal  in  the  capital  was 
soon  followed  by  its  extinction  in  the  provinces.  Theodosius,  with 
able  policy,  permitted  no  persecution  of  the  ancitnt  religion,  which 
perished  with  more  rapidity,  because  its  fall  was  gentle  and  un- 
resisted. 

8.  But  the  christian  church  exhibited  a  superstition  in  seme  re- 
spects little  less  irrational  than  polytheism,  in  the  worship  of  saints 
and  relics ;  and  many  novel  tenets,  unfounded  in  the  precepts  of 
our  Saviour  and  his  apostles,  were  manifestly  borrowed  from  the 
pagan  schools.  The  doctrines  of  the  Platonic  philosophy  seem  to 
have  led  to  the  notions  of  an  intermediate  state  of  purit^Ciition,  ce- 
libacy of  the  priests,  ascetic  mortifications,  penances,  and  monastic 
seclusion. 


ANCIENT  HISTORY  95 


SECTION  XLVI. 

EXTINCTION  OF  THE  ROMAN  EMPIRE  IN  THE  WEST. 

1.  In  the  reigns  of  Arcadius  and  Honorius,  the  sons  and  successors 
of  Theodosius,  the  barbarian  nations  established  themselves  in  ihe 
frontier  provinces  both  of  the  east  and  west.  Theodosius  had  com- 
mitted the  government  to  Ruhnus  and  Stilicho  during  the  nonage  of 
his  sons ;  and  their  fatal  dissensions  gave  every  advantage  to  the 
enemies  of -the  empire.  The  Huns,  actually  invited  by  Rulinus, 
overspread  Armenia,  Cappadocia,  and  riyria.  The  Goths,  under 
Alaric,  ravaged  to  the  bordere  of  Italy,  and  laid  waste  Achaia  to  the 
Peloponnesus.  Stilicho,  an  able  general,  made  a  noble  stand  against 
these  invaders ;  but  his  plans  were  frustrated  by  the  machinations 
of  his  rivals,  and  the  weakness  of  Arcadius,  who  purchased  an 
ignominious  peace,  by  ceding  to  Aiaric  the  v,  hole  of  Greece. 

2.  Alaric,  now  styled  king  of  the  Visigoths,  prepared  to  add  Italy 
to  his  new  dominions.  He  piissed  the  Alps,  and  was  carrying  all 
before  him,  when,  amused  by  the  politic  StiUcho  with  the  prospect 
of  a  new  cession  of  territory,  he  wsis  attacked  unawares,  and  det'ealed 
by  that  general,  then  commanding  the  armies  of  Honorius.  The 
emperor  triumphantly  celebrated,  on  that  occasion,  the  eternal  defeat 
of  the  Gothic  nation ;  an  eternity  bounded  by  the  lapse  of  a  few 
months.  In  this  interval,  a  torrent  of  the  Goths  breaking  down  upon 
Germany  forced  the  nations  wliom  they  dispossessed,  the  Suevi, 
Aiani,  and  Vandals,  to  precipitate  themselves  upon  Italy.  They 
joined  tlieirarms  to  those  of  Alaric,  who,  tnus  reinforced,  determined 
to  overwhelm  Rome.  The  policy  of  Stilicho  made  him  change  his 
purpose,  on  the  promise  of  4,000  pounds  weight  of  gold ;  a  promise 
repeatedly  broken  by  Honorius,  and  its  violation  tinaily  revenged*  by 
Alaric,  by  the  sack  and  plunder  of  the  city,iA.  D.  410.  With  gene- 
rous magnanimity  he  spared  the  lives  of  the  vanquished,  and,  with 
singular  Liberality  of  spirit,  was  anxious  to  preserve  every  ancient 
edilice  from  destruction. 

3.  Alaric,  preparing  now  for  the  conquest  of  Sicily  and  Africa, 
died  at  this  jera  of  his  highest  glory;  and  Honoi'ius,  instead  of  prolit- 
ing  by  this  event  to  recover  his  lost  provinces,  made  a  treaty  with 
his  successor  Ataulfus,  gave  him  in  marriage  his  sister  Placidia,  and 
secured  his  friendship  ny  ceding  to  him  a  portion  of  Spain,  while  a 
great  part  of  what  remained  had  before  been  occupied  by  the  Van- 
dais.  He  allowed  soon  after  to  the  Burgundians  a  just  title  to  their 
conquests  in  Gaul.  Thus  the  western  empire  was  passing  by  de- 
grees from  the  dominion  of  its  ancient  masters. 

4.  The  mean  and  dissolute  Arcadius  died  in  the  year  408,  leaving 
the  eastern  empire  to  his  infant  son  Tneodosius  II.  Theodosius  was 
a  weak  prince,  and  his  sister  Pulcheria  governed  the  empire,  with 
prudence  and  ability,  for  the  space  of  forty  years.  Honorius  died  iu 
the  year  423.  The  laws  of  Arcadius  and  Honorius  are,  with  a  few 
exceptions,  remarkable  for  their  wisdom  and  equity ;  which  is  a 
singular  circumstance,  considering  the  personal  character  of  those 
princes,  and  evinces  at  least  that  tney  employed  some  able  minislei-s. 

5.  The  Vandals,  under  Genscric,  subdued  the  Roman  province 
in  Africa.  The  Huns,  in  the  east,  extended  their  conquests  from 
the  borders  of  Cmaa  to  the  iSaitic  sea.    Under  Attiia  they  laid  waste 


96  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

Moesia  and  Thrace  ;  and  Theodosius,  after  a  mean  attempt  to  mur- 
der the  barbarian  general,  ingloriously  submitted  to  pay  him  an  an- 
nual tribute.  It  was  in  this  crisis  of  universal  decay  that  the  Britona 
implored  the  Romans  t-:  detend  them  against  the  Picts  and  Scots,  but 
received  for  answer,  that  they  hud  nothing  to  bestow  on  them  t»-t 
compassion.  The  Britons,  in  despair,  sought  aid  from  the  Saxons 
and  Angles,  who  seized,  as  their  property-,  the  country  vvliich  they 
were  invited  to  protect,  and  founded,  in  the  tifth  and  sixth  centuries, 
the  kingdoms  of  the  Saxon  heptarcliy.     (See  Part  II,  Sect.  XIJ,  6  5.) 

6.  Altila,  with  an  army  of  500,0(ib  men,  threatened  the  total  de- 
struction of  the  empire.  He  was  ably  opposed  by  .'Etius,  general  of 
Valentinian  III.,  now  emperor  of  the  west.  Valeniinian  was  shut  up 
in  Rome  by  the  arms  ot  the  barbarian,  and  at  length  compelled  to 
purch;ise  a  peace.  On  the  death  of  Attila  his  dominions  Avei'e  dis- 
membered by  his  sons,  whose  dissensions  gave  temporary  relief  to 
the  falling  empire  of  l-icme. 

7.  After  \  aienlinian  III.  M'e  have  in  the  west  a  succession  of 
princes,  or  rather  names,  for  the  events  of  their  reigns  merit  no 
detail.  In  the  reign  of  Romulus,  suniamed  Augustulus,  the  son  of 
Orestes,  the  empire  of  the  west  came  to  a  final  period.  Odoacer, 
prince  ot  the  Heruli,  subdued  Italy,  and  spared  the  lite  of  Augustuhis, 
on  condition  of  his  resigning  the  throne,  A.  D.  476.  From  the  build- 
ing of  Rome  to  the  extinction  of  the  western  empire,  A.  D.  476,  is 
a  period  ofll224  years.". 

8.  We  may  reduce  to  one  ultimate  cause  the  various  circum- 
stances that  produced  the  decline  and  fall  of  this  once  magniticent 
fabric.  \The  ruin  of  the  Roman  empire  was  the  inevitable  conse- 
quence of  its  greatness.  The  extension  of  its  dominion  relaxed 
the  vigour  of  its  frame  ;  the  vices  of  the  conquered  nations  infected 
the  victorious  legions,  and  Ibreign  luxuries  corrupted  their  command- 
ers ;  selfish  interest  supplanted  tlie  patriotic  anection ;  the  martial 
spii'it  was  purposely  debased  by  the  emperors,  who  dreaded  its 
effects  on  their  own  power ;  and  the  whole  mass,  thus  weakened 
and  enervated,  leli  an  easy  prey  to  the  torrent  of  barbarians  which 
overwhelmed  it. 

9.  The  Ileruiian  dominion  in  Italy  was  of  short  duration.  Theo- 
doric,  prince  of  the  Ostrogoths  (afterwards  deservedly  surnamed 
the  ffirut),  obtained  pernnsfion  of  Zeno,  emperor  of  the  east,  to  at- 
tempt the  recovery  of  ll;dy,  and  a  promise  of  its  sovereignty  as  tlie 
reward  of  his  success.  'I'he  wb.ole  nation  of  the  Ostrogoths  attend- 
ed the  standard  of  Theodoric,  who  was  victorious  in  repeated  en- 
gagements, and  at  length  co:i:pelled  Odoacer  to  surrender  all  Italy  to 
the  conqueror.  The  Romans  iiad  tasted  happiness  under  the  govern- 
ment of  Odoacer;  but  their  happiness  was  increased  under  tt)e  do- 
minion of  Theodoric,  who  possessed  every  talent  and  virtue  of  a  sov- 
ereign. His  equity  and  clemency  rendered  him  a  blessing  to  his 
subjects.  He  allied  himself  with  all  the  surrounding  nations,  tlie 
Franks,  Visigotl.s,  Burgundians,  and  Vandals.  He  left  a  peaceable 
sceptre  to  his  grandson  Atbalaric,  during  whose  infancy  his  mother 
Amalasonte  governed  with  such  admirable  wisdom  and  mo<leration,  as 
left  her  subjects  no  re-al  cause  of  regret  for  the  loss  of  iier  father. 

10.  While  such  was  the  state  of  Gothic  Italy,  the  empire  of  the 
east  was  under  the  government  of  Justinian,  a  prince  of  mean  ability, 
vain,  capricious,  and  tyr.umical.  Yet  the  Roman  name  rose  for  a 
whil.'  Irom  its  abasement  by  the  merit  of  hi*  generals.  Beiisarius  nas 
the  support  of  his  throne;  yet  Justinian  treated  him  with  the  most 


< 


ANCIENT  HISTORY.  9? 

shncking  ingratitude.  The  ir^ersiaus  were  at  this  time  the  most  fbr- 
midaoie  enemies  of  the  empire,  ariier  th^nr  sovereigns  Cabudes  and 
Cosriioes;  and  from  the  latier,  a  most  able  prince,  JusJitiiHii  meanly 
purchoLsed  a  peace,  by  a  cession  of  l<^mtory,  aucl  an  enormous  tcib- 
te  in  gold.  The  civil  fartions  of  Constantinople,  arising  from  tlie 
^cit  conttmptihie  of  causes,  the  disputes  of  the  performers  in  the 
circ'ifl  and  an.pniiheatre,  threatened  to  hurl  .lisiiaian  from  the 
'i'.rone,  but  were  fortunately  composed  by  the  arms  and  the  policy  of 
i>-;i-5?,ri;js.  Tins  groat  general  overwhelmed  tiie  Vandal  sovereignty 
of  iiVica,  and  n^xovered  ttiat  province  to  the  emj^ire.  He  wrested 
I  i:y  from  its  Gothic  sovereign,  and  once  more  restored  it  for  a  short 
timv  to  the  dominion  of  its  ancient  masters. 

11.  Italy  was  recovered  to  the  Goths  by  the  heroic  H^otilaj  who 
besieged  and  took  tne  city  of  Rome,  but  forebore  to  destroy  it  at 
the  request  of  Belisarius.  The  fortunes  of  Beiisarins  were  now  in 
the  wane.  He  was  compelled  to  evacuate  Italy,  and,  on  his  return 
to  Constantinople, Alls  long  services  were  repaid  with  disgrace.  He 
was  superseded  in  the  command  of  the  armissby  the  eunuch  Narses, 
who  defeated  Totila  in  a  decisive  engagement,  in  which  the  Gothic 
prince  was  slain.  Narses  governed  Italy  with  great  ability  for  thir- 
teen years,  when  he  was  ungratefiilly  recalled  by  Justin  11.  the  suc- 
cessor of  Justinian.  He  invited  the  Lombards  to  avenge  his  injuries  ; 
and  this  new  tribe  of  invaders  overran  and  conquered  the  country, 
(A.  D.  568. ' 


SECTION  XLVII. 

OF  THE  ORIGIN,  MANNERS,  AND  CHARACTER  OF  TIIE 
GOTHIC  NATIONS,  BEFORE  THEIR  ESTABLISHMENT  IN 
THE  ROMAN  EMPIRE. 

1.  The  history  and  manners  of  the  Gothic  nations  are  curious 
objects  of  inquiry,  from  their  iniluence  on  the  constitutions  and  na- 
tional character  oi  most  of  the  modern  kingdoms  of  Europe.  As  the 
present  inhabitant?  of  these  kingdoms  are  a  mixed  race,  compounded 
of  the  Goths  and  of  the  nations  \vuom  they  subdued,  the  laws,  man- 
ners, and  institutions  of  the  modern  kingdoms  are  the  result  of  this 
conjunction ;  and  in  so  far  as  these  are  difierent  from  the  usages  prev- 
alent before  this  intermixture,  they  are,  in  all  probability,  to  be 
traced  from  the  ancient  manners  and  institutions  of  those  northern 
tribes.  We  purpose  to  consider  the  original  character  of  the 
Gothic  nations,  and  the  change  of  their  manners  on  their  establish- 
ment in  the  Roman  empire. 

2.  The  Scandinavian  chronicles  attribute  to  the  ancient  inhabitants 
of  that  country  an  Asiatic  origin,  and  inform  us  that  the  Goths  were 
a  colony  of  Scythians,  who  migrated  thiiher  from  the  banks  of  the 
Black  sea  and  the  Caspian :  but  these  chronicles  do  not  fix  the  period 
of  this  migration,  which  some  later  writers  suppose  to  have  been 
1,000  years,  and  others  only  70,  before  the  christian  aera.  Odin,  the 
chief  deity  of  the  Scandinavians,  was  the  god  of  the  Scythians. 
Sigga,  a  Scythian  prince,  is  said  to  have  undertaken  a  distant  exped-w 
tion,  and,  after  he  had  subdued  several  of  the  Sarmatian  tribes,  to 
have  penetrated  into  the  northern  parts  of  Germany,  and  thence 
into  Scandinavia.  He  assumed  the  honours  of  divinity,  and  the  title 
^f  Odin,  his  national  god.    He  conquered  Denmark,  Swedci,  and 

1  -  l^ 


SB  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

Norway,  and  gave  wise  and  salutary  laws  to  the  nations  which  he 
had  subdued  by  his  arms. 

3.  The  agreement  in  manners  between  the  Scythians  and  the 
ancient  Scandinavian  nations,  corroborates  the  accounts  given  in  the 
northern  Chronicles  of  tlie  identity  of  their  origin.  The  descrijitiop 
of  the  manners  of  the  Germans  by  Tacitus  (though  this  people  was' 
probably  not  of  Scythian,  but  of  Celtic  origin)  may,  in  many  partic- 
ulars, be  applied  to  the  ancient  nations  of  Scandinavia ;  and  the 
same  description  coincides  remarkably  with  the  account  given  by 
Herodotus  of  the  manners  of  the  Scythians.  Their  life  was  spent 
in  hunting,  pasturage,  and  predatory  war.  Their  dress,  their  weap- 
ons, their  food,  their  respect  for  their  women,  their  religious  wor- 
.ship,  were  the  same.  They  despised  learning,  and  had  no  other 
records  for  many  ages  than  the  songs  of  their  bards.  < 

4.  The  theology  of  the  Scandiijavians  was  most  intimately  con- 
nected with  their  manners.  They  held  three  great  principles  or 
fundamental  doctrines  of  religion:  "To  serve  the  Supreme  Being 
« ith  prayer  and  sacritice  ;  to  do  no  wrong  or  unjust  action ;  and  to 
be  intrepid  in  tight."  These  principles  are  the  key  to  the  Edda^  or 
sacred  book  of  the  Scandinavians,  which,  though  it  contains  the  sub- 
stance of  a  very  ancient  religion,  is  not  a  work  of  high  antiquity, 
being  complied  in  the  thirteenth  centui-y  by  Snorro  Sturleson, 
supreme  judge  of  Iceland.  Odin,  characterized  as  the  terrible  and 
severe  god,  the  father  of  carnage,  the  avenger,  is  the  principal  deity 
of  the  Scandinavians;  from  whose  union  with  Frea,  the  heavenly 
mother,  sprung  various  subordinate  divinities ;  as  Thor,  who  per- 
petually wars  against  Loke  and  his  evil  giants,  who  envy  the  power 
of  Odin,  and  seek  to  destroy  his  works.  Among  the  interior  deities 
are  the  virgins  of  the  Valhalla,  whose  othce  is  to  minister  to  the  he- 
roes in  paradise.  The  favourites  of  Odin  are  all  who  die  in  battle,  or^ 
what  is  equally  meritorious,  by  their  own  hand.  The  timid  wretch, 
who  allows  himself  to  perish  by  disease  or  age,  is  unworthy  of  the 
joys  of  paradise.  These  joys  are,  fighting,  ceaseless  slaughter,  and 
drinking  beer  out  of  the  skulls  of  their  enemies,  with  a  renovation 
of  life,  to  furnish  a  perpetuity  of  the  same  pleiisures. 

5.  As  the  Scandinavians  believed  this  world  to  be  the  work  of 
some  superior  intelligences,  so  they  held  all  nature  to  be  constantly 
under  the  regulation  of  an  almighty  will  and  power,  and  subject 
to  a  fixed  and  unalterable  destiny.  These  notions  had  a  wonderful 
effect  on  the  national  manners,  and  on  the  conduct  of  individuals. 
The  Scandinavian  placed  his  sole  delight  in  war  :  he  entertained  an 
absolute  contempt  of  danger  and  of  death,  and  his  glory  was  estimat- 
ed by  the  number  which  he  had  slain  in  battle.  The  death-song  of 
Regner  Lodbrok^  who  comforts  himself  in  his  last  agonies  by  lecount- 
ing  all  the  acts  of  carnage  which  he  had  committed  in  his  life-time, 
is  a  faithful  picture  of  the  Scandinavian  character. 

6.  We  have  remarked  the  great  similarity  of  the  manners  of  the 
Scandinavians  and  the  ancient  Germans.  These  nations  seem,  how- 
ever, to  have  had  a  different  origin.  The  Germans,  as  well  as  the 
Gauls,  were  branches  of  that  great  original  nation  termed  Cdtce,  who 
inhabited  most  of  the  countries  of  Europe  south  of  the  Baltic,  before 
they  were  invaded  by  the  northern  tribes  from  Scandinavia.    The 

,  Celtae  were  all  of  the  druidical  religion,  a  system  different  from  the 
behef  and  worship  of  the  Scandinavians,  but  founded  nearly  on  the 
Scime  principles;  and  the  Goths,  in  their  progress,  intermixing  with 
the  Germans,  could  not  fail  to  adopt,  in  part,  the  notions  of  a  kindred 


ANCIENT  HISTORY.  •  99 

f-eligion.  Druidism  acknowledged  a  god  who  delighted  in  blood 
shed,  taught  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  and  inculcated  the  contempt 
of  danger  and  of  death.  Tacitus  remarks  that  the  ancient  Germans 
r^ad  neither  temples  nor  idols.  The  open  air  was  the  temple  of  the 
^divinity,  and  a  consecrated  grove  the  appropriated  place  for  prayer 
and  sacrifice^  whicii  none  but  the  priests  were  allowed  to  enter. 
The  chief  sacritices  were  human  victims,  most  probably  the  prison 
ers  taken  in  war.  The  druids  heightened  the  sanctity  of  their  char- 
acter by  concealing  the  mysteries  of  their  worship.  They  had  the 
highest  influence  over  the  minds  of  the  people,  and  thus  found  it 
easy  to  conjoin  a  civil  authority  with  the  sacerdotal ;  a  policy  which 
in  the  end  led  to  the  destruction  of  the  druidical  system ;  for  the 
Romans  ibund  no  other  way  of  securing  their  conquests  over  any  oi 
the  Celtic  nations,  but  by  exterminating  the  druids. 

7.  Whatever  diiference  of  manners  there  may  have  been  among 
the  various  nations  or  tribes  of  Gothic  origin,  the  great  features  ol 
their  character  appear  to  have  been  the  same.  Nature,  education, 
and  prevailing  habits,  all  concurred  to  form  them  for  an  intrepid 
and  conquering  people.  Their  bodily  frame  was  invigorated  by 
the  climate  which  they  inhabited ;  they  were  inured  to  danger  and 
fatigue  ;  war  was  their  habitual  occupation  ;  they  believed  in  an  un- 
alterable destiny,  and  were  Uiught  by  their  religion  that  a  heroic 
sacrifice  of  life  gave  certain  assurance  of  eternal  happiness.  How 
could  a  race  of  men  so  characterized  fail  to  be  the  conquerors  of  th« 
world? 


SECTION  XLVIII. 

OF  THE  MANNERS,  LAWS,  AND  GOVERNMENT  OF  THB 
GOTHIC  NATIONS,  AFTER  THEIR  ESTABLISHMENT  IN  THE 
ROMAN  EMPIRE. 

1.  It  has  been  erroneously  supposed  that  the  same  ferocity  of 
manners,  which  distinguished  the  Goths  in  their  original  seats,  at- 
tended their  successors  in  their  new  establishments  in  the  provinces 
of  the  Roman  empire.  Modern  authors  have  given  a  currency  to 
this  false  supposition.  Voltaire,  in  describing  the  middle  ages,  paints 
the  Goths  in  all  the  characters  of  horror ;  as  "  a  troop  of  hungry 
wolves,  foxes,  and  tigers,  driving  before  them  the  scattered  timid 
herds,  and  involving  all  in  ruin  and  desolation."  The  accounts  of 
historians  most  worthy  of  credit  will  dissipate  this  injurious  preju- 
dice, and  show  those  northern  nations  in  a  more  favourable  point  of 
view,  as  not  unworthy  to  be  the  successors  of  the  Romans. 

2.  Before  their  settlement  in  the  southern  provinces  of  Europe, 
the  Goths  were  no  longer  idolaters,  but  christians;  and  their  mo- 
rality was  suitable  to  the  religion  which  they  professed.  Salvianus, 
bishop  of  Marseilles,  in  the  hfth  century,  draws  a  parallel  between 
the  manners  of  the  Goths  and  of  the  Romans,  highly  to  the  credit  of 
the  former.  Grotius,  in  his  publication  of  Procopius  and  Jornandes, 
remarks,  as  a  strong  testimony  to  their  honourable  character  as  a 
nation,  that  no  province  once  subdued  by  the  Goths  ever  voluntarily 
withdrew  itself  from  their  government. 

3.  It  is  not  possible  to  produce  a  more  beautiful  picture  of  an 
excellent  administration  than  that  of  the  Gothic  monarchy  in  Italy 
under  Theodoric  the  great.     Though  master  of  the  country  hv 


100  AXaENT  HISTORY. 

©onquefi'  yet  he  was  regarded  by  his  sul>jects  with  the  affection  of 
a  native  overeign.  He  retained  the  Roman  iawsJ  and,  as  nearly 
as  possiL  »,  the  ancient  political  regulations.  In  supplying  all  civil 
offices  ot  iate  he  preferred  the  native  Romans.  It  wa§  his  care  to 
preserve  very  monument  cf  the  ancient  grandeur  of  the  empire, 
and  to  em  ellish  the  cities  by  new  works  of  beauty  and  utility.  In 
the  imposilon  and  levying  of  taxes  he  showed  the  most  humane  in- 
dulgence on  every  occasicn  of  scarcity  or  calamity.  His  laws  were 
dictated  by  the  most  enlightened  prudence  and  benevolence,  and 
framed  on  thit  principle  wiiich  he  nobly  inculcated  in  bis  instructions 
to  the  Roman  senate,  "  Bcnigni  principis  est,  non  tarn  delicto  velle  jyw 
nire,  qiMiU  toi  'ere.'"'  It  is  the  duty  of  a  benign  prince  to  be  disposed  to 
prevent  rather  than  to  punish  tfftmes.  The  historians  of  the  times 
delight  in  recc  untiug  the  examples  of  his  munificence  and  humanity. 
Partial  a^s  he  5vas  to  the  Arian  heresy,  many  even  of  the  catholic 
fathers  have  done  the  most  ample  justice  to  his  merits,  acknowledging 
that,  under  hii  rei^n,  the  church  enjoyed  a  high  measure  of  pros- 

Serity.     Such  was  Theodoric  the  grciit,  who  is  justly  tenned  by  Si- 
onius  Apoliiraris,  RonuxncR  deem  coluinenque  gentis  [the  glory  and  the 
support  <yf  the  Roman  juUion). 

4.  But  a  single  example  could  not  warrant  a  general  inference 
with  regard  to  the  merits  of  a  whole  people.  The  example  of 
Theodoric  is  not  single.  If  it  does  not  find  a  complete  parallel,  it 
is  at  least  nearly  approached  to  in  the  similar  characters  of  Alaric, 
Amalasonte,  and  1  otila.  Alaric,  compelled  by  his  enemy's  breach 
of  faith  to  revenge  himself  by  the  sack  of  Rome,  showed  even  in 
that  revenge  a  noble  example  of  humanity.  No  blood  was  shed 
without  necessity ;  the  churcnes  were  inviolable  asyluris;  the  hon- 
our of  the  women  was  preserved ;  the  treasures  of  the  city  wei'e 
saved  from  plunder.  Amalasonte,  the  daughter  of  Theodoric, 
repaired  to  her  subjects  the  loss  of  her  father,  by  the  equity  ana 
wisdom  of  her  administration.  She  trained  her  son  to  the  study  of 
literature  and  of  every  polite  accomplishment,  as  the  best  means  of 
reforming  and  enlightening  his  people.  Totila,  twice  master  of 
Rome,  which  he  won  by  his  arms  after  an  obstinate  resistance,  imi- 
tated the  example  of  Alaric  in  his  clemency  to  the  vanquished,  and 
in  his  care  to  preserve  every  remnant  of  ancient  magnihcence  from 
destruction.  He  restored  the  senate  to  its  authority,  adorned  Rome 
with  useful  edifices,  regulated  its  hitenial  policy,  and  took  a  noblq 
pride  in  reviving  the  splendour  and  dignity  of  the  empire.  Habitavit 
cum  Romanis,  says  a  contemporary  author,  tanquuin  pater  cum  Jiliis. 
He  lived  with  tlie  Romnns  as  a  father  with  his  children. 

5.  The  stem  of  the  Gothic  nation  divided  itself  into  two  great 
branches,  the  Ostrogoths,  who  remained  in  Pannonia,  and  the  VVest- 
rogoths  or  Visigoths,  so  termed  from  their  migrating  thence  to  the 
west  of  Europe.  Italy  was  possessed  by  the  latter  under  Alaric,  and 
by  the  former  under  Theodoric.  The  Visigoths,  after  the  death  of 
Alaric,  withdrew  into  Gaul,  and  obtained  from  Honorius  the  province 
of  Aquitaine,  of  which  Thoulouse  was  the  capital.  When  expelled 
from  that  province  by  the  Franks,  they  crossed  the  Pyrenees, 
and,  settling  in  Spain,  made  Toledo  the  capital  of  their  kingdom. 
The  race  of  the  Visigoth  princes  was  tenned  the  Balti^  that  of  the 
Ostrogoths  the  Amali.  The  Ostrogoths  enforced  in  their  dominions 
tlie  observance  of  the  Roman  laws;  the  Visigoths  adhered  to  a  code 
compiled  by  their  own  sovereigns,  and  founded  on  the  ancient  man- 
ners and  usages  of  their  nations.    From  this  code,  therefore,  we  may 


AJNCIENT  HISTORY.  101 

derive  much  informatioa  relative  to  the  genius  and  character  of  this 
ancient  people. 

6.  It  is  enacted  by  the  laws  of  the  Visigoths  that  no  judge  shall 
decide  in  any  iawsuit,  unless  he  find  in  that  book  n  law  applicable  to 
the  case.  All  causes  that  fall  not  under  this  description  are  reserved 
for  the  decision  of  the  sovereign.  The  penal  laws  are  severe,  but 
tempered  with  great  equity.  No  punishment  can  affect  the  heirs  of 
the  criminal :  Omnia  crimina  siu)s  sequantur  auctorcs^-^ct  ilk  solusjudi- 
cetiir  culpabilis  qui  culpavda  cotnmiserit,  et  crimen  cum  illo  quije.cerit 
moriatur.  All  crimes  shall  attach  to  their  authors,, — and  he  alone  sliall  be 
judged  culpable,  who  hath  committed  offences,  and  the  crime  shaii  die  v:ith 
him  who  Imth  committed  it.  Death  was  the  punishment  of  the  murder 
of  a  freeman,  and  perpetual  infamy  of  the  murder  of  a  si  ive.  Pe- 
cuniary fines  were  enacted  for  various  subordinate  offences,  accord- 
ing to  their  measure  of  criminality.  An  adulterer  was  delivered  in 
bondage  to  the  injured  hus})and ;  and  the  free  woman  who  had  com- 
mitted adultery  with  a  married  man,  became  the  slave  of  his  wife. 
No  physician  was  allowed  to  visit  a  female  patient,  except  in  the 
presence  of  her  nearest  kindred.  The  lex  talionis  [the  law  of  retalia- 
tion) was  in  great  observance  tor  such  injuries  as  admitted  it.  It  was 
even  carried  so  far,  that  the  incendiary  of  a  house  was  burnt  alive. 
The  trials  by  judicial  combat,  by  ordeal,  and  by  the  judgment  of 
God,  which  were  in  frequent  use  among  the  Franks  and  Normans, 
had  no  place  among  the  Visigoths.  Montesquieu  has  erroneously 
asserted,  that  in  all  the  Gothic  nations  it  was  usual  to  judge  tlie 
litigants  by  the  law  of  their  own  country;  the  Roman  by  the  Rowan 
law,  the  Frank  by  the  law  of  the  Franks,  the  Aleman  by  tie  law 
of  the  Alemans.  On  the  contrary,  the  V^isigoth  code  pr'''»ii^4*'^  ^^'® 
laws  of  ail  other  nations  witiiin  their  territories.  JVo-pmus  size  Ro- 
manis  legibus,  sive  alicnis  institationibus,  ainplius  conve'-'*^'^-  ^^^  '^'^^^  not 
be  controlled  by  the  Roman  laws,  nor  by  foreign  in«''>^tHtions.  The  laws 
of  the  Franks  and  Lombiirds  are  remarkable  tor  their  wisdom  and 
judicious  policy. 

7.  The  government  of  the  Goths,  Vier  their  settlement  in  the 
Roman  provinces,  was  monarchical  R  was  at  firet  elective,  and 
afterwards  became  hereditary,  i'le  sovereign  on  his  deiith-bed 
appointed  his  successor,  with  ^•''e  advice  or  consent  of  his  gnmdecs. 
Illegitimacy  did  not  disquai^iy  ffom  succession  or  nomination  to  the 
throne. 

8.  The  dukes  and  counts  were  the  chief  officers  under  the  Gothic 
government.  The  duke  {dux  exercitus)  was  the  commander  in  chief 
of  the  troops  of  the  province  ;  the  count  {comes)  was  tiie  highest 
civil  magistivite.  But  these  offices  freqvently  intermixed  their  func- 
tions, the  count  being  empowered,  on  su.l  en  emergencies,  to  assume 
a  military  command,  aiul  the  duke,  on  some  occasions,  warranted  to 
exercise  judicial  authority.  In  general,  however,  their  departments 
were  distinct.  Ofcomites  there  uere  various  orders,  with  distinct  offi- 
cial powers;  as,  comes,  cubicali,  chamberlain,  comes  stoiu/i,  constable.  &.C. 
These  various  olHcers  were  the  proceres  or  grandees  of  the  kingdom, 
by  whose  advice  the  sovereign  conducted  himself  in  important  mat- 
ters of  government,  or  in  the  nomination  of  his  successor;  but  we  do 
not  find  that  they  had  a  voice  in  the  framing  uf  laws,  or  in  the  im- 
position of  taxes;  and  the  prince  himself  had  the  sole  nomination  to 
ail  oliices  of  government,  magistracies,  and  dignities. 

12 


JOi  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

SECTION  XLIX. 
METHOD  OF  STUDYING  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

1.  A  GENERAL  and  concise  view  of  ancient  history  may  be  acquired 
hj  the  perusal  of  a  very  few  books ;  as  that  part  of  the  Cours  (F  Etude 
of  the  Abbe  Condillac  which  regards  the  history  of  the  nations  of 
antiquity ;  the  Elements  of  General  History  by  the  Abbe  Millot,  part 
1st;  the  Epitome  of  Turselline,  with  the  notes  of  L'Agneau,  part 
1st;  or  the  excellent  Compendium  Historice  Universalis,  by  professor 
Offerhaus  of  Groningen.  The  two  first  of  these  works  have  the 
merit  of  uniting  a  spirit  of  reflection  with  a  judicious  selection  of 
events.  The  notes  of  L'Agneau  to  the  Epitome  of  Turselline  con- 
tain a  great  store  of  geographical  and  biographical  information. 
The  work  of  Offerhaus  is  peculiarly  valuable,  as  uniting  sacred  with 
profane  history,  and  containing  most  ample  references  to  the  ancient 
authore.  The  Discours  siir  VHistoire  Universelle,  by  the  bishop 
of  Meaux,  is  a  work  of  high  merit,  but  is  not  adapted  to  convey  in- 
formation to  the  uninstructed.  It  is  more  useful  to  those  vvho  have 
already  studied  history  in  detail,  for  uniting  in  the  mind  the  great 
current  of  events,  and  recalling  to  the  memory  their  order  and  con- 
nexion. 

But  the  student  who  wishes  to  derive  the  most  complete  advan- 
tage from  history,  must  not  confine  himself  to  such  general  or  com- 
pendious views ;  he  must  resort  to  the  original  historians  of  ancient 
times,  »nd  to  the  modern  writers  who  have  treated  with  amplitiide 
of  particuVir  periods.  It  may  be  useful  to  such  students  to  print 
out  the  ordtr  in  which  those  historians  may  be  most  profitably 
perused. 

2.  Next  to  the  >4storical  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  the  most 
ancient  history  worthy  of  perusal  is  that  of  Herodotus,  which  com- 
prehends the  annals  of  Lj^ja,  Ionia,  Lycia,  Egypt,  Persia,  Greece, 
and  Macedonia,  during  abovt-230  years  preceding  479  A.  C. 

Book  1.  History  of  Lydia  fr(^  Gyges  to  Croesus.  Ancient  Ionia. 
Manners  of  the  Persians,  Babylotians,  &c.  History  of  Cyrus  the 
Elder. 

B.  2.  History  of  Egypt,  and  Manners  t^  the  Egyptians. 

B.  3.  History  of  Cambyses.  Persian  Monarchy  under  Darius 
Hystaspes, 

B.  4.  History  of  fecythia. 

B.  5.  Persian  Embas^y  to  Macedon.  Athens,  Lacedaamon,  Corinth, 
at  the  same  period. 

B.  6.  Kings  of  Lncedaemoh  War  of  Persia  against  Greece,  to  the 
battle  of  Marathon. 

B.  7.  The  same  War,  to  the  battle  of  Thermopylae. 

B.  8.  The  Naval  Battle  of  Salami*. 

B.  9.  The  Defeat  and  Expulsion  of  the  Persians  from  Greece. 

(The  merits  of  Herodotus  are  shortly  characterized  in  Sect. 
XXII,  §1.) 

3.  A  more  particular  account  of  the  periods  treated  by  Herodotus 
may  be  found  in  Justin,  lib.  1,  2,  3.  and  7  ;  in  the  Cyropedia  of  Xeno- 

fhon ;  in  the  Lives  of  Aristides,  Tnemistocles,  Cimon,  Miltiades,  and 
axisanias,  written  by  Plutarch  and  Cornehns  Nepos;  and  in  the 
lives  of  Anaximander,  Zeno,  Empedocles,  Heraclitus,  and  Demogri* 
tttV)  by  Diogenes  Laertius. 


ANCIENT  HISTORY.  lOS 

4.  The  Grecian  history  is  taken  up  by  Thucydides  from  the 
period  where  Herodotus  ends,  and  is  continued  for  seventy  years,  to 
the  twenty-first  of  the  Peloponnesian  war.  (This  work  characterized. 
Sect.  XXlI,  §  2.)  This  period  is  more  amply  illustrated  by  perusing 
the  11th  and  12th  books  of  Diodorus  Siculus;  the  Lives  of  Alcibia 
des,  Chabrias,  Thrasybuius,  and  Lysias,  by  Plutarch  and  Nepos ;  the 
2d,  3d,  4th,  and  5th  books  of  Justin;  and  the  14th  and  15th  chapters 
of  the  1st  book  of  Orosius. 

5.  Next  to  Thucydides  the  student  ought  to  peruse  the  1st  and 
2d  books  of  Xenophon's  History  of  Greece,  whicli  comprehends  the 
narrative  of  the  Peloponnesian  war,  with  the  contemporary  history  of 
the  Medes  and  Persians ;  then  the  expedition  of  Cyrus  {Aiabasis),  and 
the  continuation  of  the  history  to  its  conclusion  with  the  battle  of 
Mantinea.  (Xenophon  characterized,  Sect.  XXII,  ^  3.)  For  illustiat- 
ing  this  period  we  have  the  Lives  of  Lysander,  Agesilaus,  Artaxerxes, 
Conon,  and  Datames,  by  Plutarch  and  Wepos  ;  tlie  4th,  5tli,  and  !)th 
books  of  Justin ;  and  the  13th  and  16th  boc^s  of  Diodoi-us  Sicuiiis. 

6.  After  Xenophon  let  the  student  read  the  15th  and  16'lh  books 
of  Diodorus,  which  contam  the  history  of  Greece  and  Persia,  tVom 
the  battle  of  Mantinea  to  the  reign  of  Alexander  the  great.  (Diodorus 
characterized,  Sect.  XXII,  §  5.)  To  complete  this  period  let  him 
read  the  Lives  of  Dion,  Iphicrates,  Timotheus,  Piiocion,  and  Timo- 
leon,  by  Nepos. 

7.  For  the  history  of  Alexander  the  great  we  have  the  admirable 
works  of  Arrian  and  Quintus  Curtius.  (Annan  ciiaracterized,  Sect. 
XXII,  §  8.)  Curtius  possesses  great  judgment  in  the  selection  of 
facts,  with  much  elegance  and  perspicuity  of  diction.  He  is  a  good 
moralist  and  a  good  patriot;  but  his  passion  for  embellishment 
derogates  from  the  purity  of  history,  and  renders  his  authority  sus- 
picious. 

8.  For  the  continuation  of  the  history  of  Greece  from  the  death 
of  Alexander,  we  have  the  18th,  19th,  and  20th  books  of  Diodorus ; 
the  history  of  Justin  from  the  13th  book  to  the  end;  and  the  Lives 
of  the  principal  personages  written  by  Plutarch.  The  history  of 
Justin  is  a  judicious  abridgment  of  a  much  larger  work  by  Trogus 
Pompeius,  which  is  lost.  Justin  excels  in  the  delineation  of  charac 
ters,  and  in  purity  of  style. 

9.  I  have  mentioned  the  Lives  of  Plutjirch  and  Cornelius  Nepoa 
as  the  best  supplement  to  the  account  of  particular  periods  of  ancien* 
history.  It  is  the  highest  praise  of  Plutarch  that  his  writings  are 
admirable  for  their  moi^ality,  and  furnish  instructive  lessons  of  active 
virtue.  He  makes  us  familiarly  acquainted  with  the  great  men  of 
antiquity,  and  chiefly  delights  in  painting  their  private  character  and 
manners.  The  short  Lives  written  by  Nepos  show  great  judgment, 
and  a  happy  selection  of  such  facts  as  display  the  genius  and  charac 
ter  of  his  heroes.    They  are  written  with  purity  and  elegance. 

10.  For  the  Roman  history  in  its  early  periods  we  have  the  An- 
tiquities of  Dionysius  of  Haiicarnassus,  which  bring  down  the  his- 
tory of  Rome  to  412  A.  U.  C.  They  are  chiefly  valuable,  as  illus 
trating  the  manners  and  customs,  the  rites  civil  and  religious,  and  the 
Ia^vs  of  the  Roman  state.  But  the  writer  is  too  apt  to  frame  hypoth- 
eses, and  to  give  views  instead  of  narratives.  We  expect  these  in 
the  modem  writers  who  treat  of  ancient  times,  but  cannot  tolerate 
them  in  the  sources  of  history. 

11.  The  work  of  Livy  is  far  more  valuable  than  that  of  Dio 
aysius.    It  is  a  perfect  model  of  history  ')oth  as  to  matter  and  compo- 


104  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

sition.  (Characterized,  Sect.  XXX VI,  §  10.)  Of  132  books  only  35 
remain,  and  those  are  interrupted  by  a  consideroble  cli<y<m.  The 
first  decade  (or  ten  books)  treats  of  a  period  of  46U  years ;  the  sec- 
ond decade,  containing  seventy-live  years,  is  lost ;  tlie  third  contains 
the  second  runic  war,  including  eighteen  years ;  the  fourth  contains 
the  war  against  Philip  of  JMacedon,  and  the  Asiatic  war  against  Anti- 
ochusj  a  space  of  twenty-three  years.  Of  thi  tilth  decade  there  are 
only  fave  books ;  and  the  remainder,  which  reaches  to  the  death  of 
Drusus,  746,  A.  U.  C.  together  with  the  second  decade,  have  been 
snjjplied  by  Freinshemius.  To  supply  the  chasm  of  tlie  second  de- 
cade the  student  ought  to  read,  together  with  the  epitome  of  those 
lost  books,  the  first  and  second  books  of  Polyl;ius;  the  17th,  18th, 
22d,  and  23d  books  of  Justin;  tlie  lives  of  jMarcelUis  and  Fabius 
MaKimus  by  Plutarch  ;  and  the  Punic  and  lilyrian  wars  by  Appian. 

\2.  The  history  of  Polylius  demands  a  separate  and  attentive 
perusal,  as  an  admirable  compendium  of  political  and  military  in- 
struction. Of  forty  books  of  general  histoi-y  we  have  only  live  en- 
tire, and  excerpts  of  the  following  twelve.  Polybius  treats  of  the 
history  of  the  Romans,  and  of  the  nations  with  whom  they  were  at 
war,  from  tlie  beginning  of  the  second  Punic  war  to  the  beginning  of 
the  war  with  Macedcnia,  comprising  in  all  a  period  of  about  hlty 
years.  Of  tlie  high  estimation  in  w-nich  Polybius  was  held  by  the 
authors  of  anticjuitj  we  have  sufficient  proof  in  the  encomiums  be- 
stowed on  him  by  Cicero,  Strabo,  Josephus,  and  Plutarch  ;  and  in  the 
use  which  Livy  has  made  of  his  history,  in  adopting  his  narratives 
by  a  translation  nearly  literal. 

13.  The  work  of  Appian,  which  originally  consisted  of  twenty 
books,  from  the  earliest  period  of  the  Roman  history  down  to  Ihe 
age  of  Adrian,  is  greatly  nuitilated;  and  there  remains  only  his 
account  of  the  Syrian,  Parthian,  Mithridaiic,  Spanish,  Punic,  and 
Iliyrian  wars.  His  narrative  of  each  of  these  wars  is  remarkably 
distinct  and  judicious;  and  lils  composition,  on  the  whole,  is  chaste 
and  perspicuous.  After  the  history  of  Appian  the  student  should  re- 
sume Livy,  from  ihs  beginning  of  the  third  decade,  or  21si  book,  to 
tlie  end.  Then  he  ma>  peruse  •.vith  advantage  the  Lives  of  flanni- 
bal,  Scipio  Africanus,  Flaminius,  Paulus  iEmilius,  the  eider  Cato,  the 
Gracchi,  Marius,  Sylla,  the  younger  Cato,  Sertorius, LucuUus,  Julius 
Caisar,  Cicero,  Pofnpey,  and  Biutus,  by  Plutarch. 

14.  Sallust's  histories  of  the  Jugurthine  war  and  of  the  conspiracy 
of  Catiline  come  next  in  order,  (baliust  characterized.  Sect.  XXXVI, 
§  8.)  Then  follow  the  Commentaries  of  ^Caesar,  remarkable  for 
j)erspicuity  of  narration,  and  a  happy  unioc  of  brevity  with  elegant 
«impiicuy  of  style.  (Sect.  XXXIV,  ^9.)  The  epitomes  of  Florus  and 
of  Veieius  Paterculus  may  be  perused  'vith  advantage  at  this  period 
of  the  course.  The  latter  is  a  modei  for  abridgment  of  history,  in 
the  opinion  of  the  president  Henault. 

15.  For  the- history  of  Rome  under  the  first  emperors  we  have 
Suetonius  and  Tacitus ;  and  for  tZie  subsequent  reigns,  the  series  of 
the  minor  historians,  termed  Histor'vp.  Augusta  Scnptores  {^■Ucritcrs  rf 
migiust  history)^  and  the  Byzantine  writers.  Suetonius  gives  us  a 
series  of  detached  characters,  illustrated  by  an  artful  selection  of  facts 
and  anecdotes,  rather  than  a  regular  history.  His  work  is  chielJv 
valuable  as  descriptive  of  Roman  manners.  His  genius  has  too  much 
of  the  caustic  humour  of  a  satirist.  Tacitus,  with  greater  powers 
^d  deeper  penetration,  has  drawn  a  picture  of  the  times  in  stern 
iml  gloomy  colours.   (Sect  XXXV  I,  §  11.)   From  neither  of  these  his- 


ANCIENT  HISTORY.  I0& 

tDrians  will  the  ingenuous  mind  of  youth  receive  moral  improvement, 
or  pleasing  and  benevolent  impressions ;  yet  we  cannot  deny  their 
hign  utility  to  the  student  of  politics. 

16.  If  we  except  Herodian,  v.ho  wrote  with  taste  and  judgment,  H 
is  doubtful  whether  any  of  the  subsequent  writers  of  the  Romaa 
history  deserve  a  minute  perusal.  It  is  therefore  advisable  for  the 
student  to  derive  his  knowledge  of  the  history  of  the  decline  and 
fall  of  the  Roman  empire  from  modern  authors,  resorting  to  the 
original  writers  only  for  occasional  information  on  detached  points  of 
importance.  For  this  purpose,  the  General  History  by  Dr.  Howel 
is  a  work  of  great  utility,  being  written  entirely  on  the  basis  of  the 

'  original  historians,  whose  narrative  he  generally  translates,  referring 
constantly  to  his  authorities  in  the  margin.  In  this  work  tne  studeirt 
will  find  a  valuable  mass  of  historical  information. 

17.  The  reader  having  thus  founded  his  knowledge  of  general  his- 
tory on  the  original  writers,  will  now  peruse  with  great  advantage 
the  modem  histories  of  ancient  Greece  and  Rome  by  Mitford,  Gillies, 
Gast,  Hooke,  Gibbon,  and  Furgusson ;  and  will  lind  himself  qualified 
to  form  a  just  estimate  of  their  merits,  on  which  it  is  presumptuous 
to  decide  without  such  preparatory  knowledge. 

18.  The  greatest  magazine  of  historical  information  which  haa 
ever  been  collected  mto  one  body,  is  the  English  Universal  History ; 
a  most  useful  work,  from  the  amplitude  of  its  matter,  its  general 
accuracy,  and  constant  reference  to  the  original  authors.  V/e  may 
occasionally  consult  it  with  great  advantage  on  points  where  deep 
research  is  necessary ;  but  we  cannot  read  it  with  pleasure  as  a  con- 
tinued work,  from  its  tedious  details  and  harshness  of  style,  its  abrupt 
transitions,  and  the  injudicious  arrangement  of  many  oi  its  parts. 

19.  Geography  and  chronology  have  been  justly  termed  the  lights 
of  history.  We  cannot  peruse  with  advantage  the  historical  annals 
of  any  country  without  a  competent  knowledge  of  its  geographical 
situation,  and  even  of  its  particular  topography.  In  reading  the  de- 
scription of  any  event  the  mind  necessarily  forms  a  picture  of  the 
scene  of  action ;  and  it  is  surely  better  to  draw  the  picture  with  truth 
from  nature  and  reality,  than  falsely  from  imagination.  Many  actions 
and  events  are  hkewise  intimately  connected  with  the  geography  and 
local  circumstances  of  a  country,  and  are  uniateiligible  without  s^ 
knowledge  of  them. 

20.  The  use  of  chronological  tables  is  very  great,  both  for  the 
purpose  of  uniting  in  one  view  the  contemporary  events  in  different 
nations,  which  often  have  an  influence  on  one  another,  and  for  re- 
calling to  the  niemory  the  order  and  series  of  events,  and  renewing 
the  impressions  of  tha  oljects  of  former  study.  It  is  extremely  use- 
ful, after  perusing  the  history  of  a  nation  in  detail  or  that  of  a  certain 
a^e  or  period,  to  run  over  briefly  the  principal  occurrences  in  a  table 
of  chronology.  The  most  perfect  works  of  this  kind  are  the  chro- 
nological tables  of  Dr.  t*layfair,  which  unite  history  and  biography: 
the  tables  of  Dr.  Blair;  or  the  older  tables  by  Taiient.* 

END  OF  PART  FIRST. 

•  A  list  of  the  best  translations  of  the  principal  books  above  mentiooieii. 
Herodotus,  translated  by  Beloe,  4  vols.  8vo. 
Xenophon's  Cycropedia  by  Cooper,  8vo. 
Xenophon's  Anabasis,  by  Spelman,  2  vols.  8vo. 
Xenophon's  History  of  Greece,  by  South,  4t9. 

14 


PART  SECOND. 
MODERN  HISTORY. 

SECTION  I. 

OF  ARABIA,  AND  THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  SARACENS. 

1.  The  fall  of  the  westom  empire  of  the  Romans,  and  the  final  sub 
jugation  of  Italj  by  the  Lombards,  is  the  aera  from  which  we  date  the 
commencement  of  Modern  History. 

The  eastern  empire  of  the  Romans  continued  to  exist  for  many 
ages  after  this  period,  still  magnificent,  though  in  a  state  of  compar- 
ative weakness  and  degeneracy.  Towards  the  end  of  the  sixth  cen- 
tury a  new  dominion  arose  in  the  east,  which  was  destined  to  produce 
a  wonderful  change  on  a  great  portion  of  the  globe. 

Ttie  Arabians,  at  this  time  a  rude  nation,  living  chiefly  in  indepen- 
dent tribes,  who  traced  their  descent  from  the  patriarch  Abraham, 
professed  a  mixed  religion,  compounded  of  Judaism  and  idolatry. 
Mecca,  their  holy  city,  rose  to  eminence  from  the  donations  of  pil- 
grims to  its  temple,  in  which  was  deposited  a  black  stone,  an  object 
of  high  veneration.  Mahomet  wa.s  born  at  Mecca,  A.  D.  571.  Of 
mean  descent,  and  no  education,  but  of  great  natural  talents,  he  sought 
to  raise  himself  to  celebrity,  by  feigning  a  divine  mission  to  propagate 
a  new  religion  for  the  salvation  of  mankind.  He  retired  to  the  des- 
ert, and  pretended  to  hold  conterences  with  the  angel  Gabriel,  who 
delivered  to  him,  from  time  to  time,  portions  of  a  .sacred  book  or  Co- 
ran^  containing  revelations  of  the  will  of  the  Supreme  Being,  and  of 
the  doctrines  which  he  required  his  prophet  to  communicate  to  the 
world. 

2.  This  religion,  while  it  adopted  in  part  the  moralit]^  of  Christian- 
ity, retained  many  of  the  rites  of  .Judaism,  and  some  of  the  Ar;iiiian 
euperstitious,  as  the  pilgrimage  to  Mecca ;  but  owed  to  a  certain  spirit 

Plutarch,  by  Langhorne,  6  vols.    8vo.,  or  6  vols.   12mo.     W'rangham's 

edition. 
Thucydides,  by  Smith,  2  vols.  8vo. 
Dionysius  Halicarnassus,  by  Spelman,  4  vols.  4to, 
Polybius,  by  Hampton,  4  vols.  8vo. 
Livy,  by  Baker,  6  vols.  Bvo. 

Sallust,  by  Murphy,  8to.  ;  by  Stuart,  2  vols,  4to.  ;  by  Rose,  8vp. 
Tacitus,  by  Murphy,  8  vols,  8vo.  ;  Irish  edition,  4  vols.  Bvo 
Suetonius,  by  Thompson,  8vo. 
Diodorus  Siculus,  by  Booth,  I'olio. 
Arrian,  by  Rook,  2  vols.  8vo. 
Q.  Curtius,  by  Di*by,  2  vols.   12ttio. 
Justia,  by  TumbuU,  12ax».  kditob. 


MODERN  HISTORY.  lOf 

of  Asiatic  voluptuousness  its  chief  recommendation  to  its  votaries. 
Tlie  Goran  taught  the  belief  of  one  God,  whose  will  and  power  were 
constantly  exerted  towards  the  happiness  of  his  creatures ;  that  the 
duty  of  man  was  to  love  his  neighbours,  assist  the  poor,  protect  the 
injured,  to  be  humane  to  inferior  animals,  and  to  pray  seven  times  a 
day.  The  pious  mussulman  was  allowed  to  have  four  wives,  and  a^ " 
maiay  concubines  as  he  ciiose  ;  and  the  pleasures  of  love  were  prom- 
ised as  the  supreme  joys  of  paradise.  To  revive  the  impression  of 
these  laws,  w-iich  God  had  engraven  originally  in  the  hearts  of  men, 
he  had  sent  from  time  to  time  his  prophets  upon  earth,  Abraham, 
Moses,  Jesus  Christ,  and  Mahomat ;  the  last  the  greatest,  to  whom 
all  the  world  should  owe  its  conversion  to  the  true  religion.  By 
produciiig  the  Coran  in  detached  parcels,  Mahomet  had  it  in  his  pow- 
er to  solve  all  objections  by  new  revelations 

3.  Dissen-iions  and  popular  tumults  between  the  believers  and  infi- 
dels caused  the  banisament  of  Mahomet  from  Mecca.  His  flight, 
called  tne  hegyra^  A  D.  622,  is  the  aera  of  his^iory.  He  retired  to 
Medina,  and  was  joined  fey  the  brave  Omar.  He  propagated  his  doc- 
trines with  great  success,  and  marched  with  his  Ibllowers  in  arms,  and 
took  the  city  of  Mecca.  In  a  few  yeai"S  he  subdued  all  Arabia;  and 
then  attacking  Syria,  took  several  of  the  Roman  cities.  In  the  midst 
of  his  victories  he  died  at  the  age  of  sixty-one,  A.  D.  632.  He  had 
nominated  Ali,  his  son-in-law, his  successoi';  but  Abubeker,  his  father- 
in-law,  secured  the  succession  by  gaining  the  army  to  his  interest. 

4.  Abubeker  united  and  publisned  the  books  of  the  Coran,  and 
prosecuted  the  conquests  of  Mahomet.  He  defeated  the  army  of  He- 
raciius,  took  Jerusalem,  and  subjected  all  the  country  between  Mount 
Libanus  and  the  Mediterranean.  On  his  death  Omar  was  elected  to 
the  caliphate,  and  in  one  canipaign  deprived  the  Greek  enipire  of 
Syria,  Phoanicia,  Mesopotamia,  and  Chaldaea.  In  the  next  campaign 
he  subdued  to  tlie  mussulman  dominion  and  religion,  the  whole  em- 

Eire  of  Persia.     His  generals  at  the  same  time  conquered  Egypt, 
ibya,  and  Numidia. 

5.  Otaian,  the  successor  of  Omar,  added  to  the  dominion  of  the 
caliphs  Bactriana,  and  part  of  Tartary,  and  ravaged  Rhodes  and  the 
Greek  islands.  His  successor  was  Ali,  the  son-in-law  of  Mahomet^  a 
name  to  this  day  revered  by  the  Mahometans.  He  transferred  the 
seat  of  the  caliphate  from  Mecca  to  Couffa,  whence  it  was  afterwards 
removed  to  Bagdat.  His  reign  was  glorious,  but  only  of  five  years' 
duration.  In  the  space  of  half  a  century  from  the  beginning  of  the 
conquests  of  Mahomet,  the  Saracens  raised  an  empire  more  extensive 
than  what  remained  of  the  Roman.  Nineteen  caliphs  of  the  race  of 
Omar  {0/nniiades)  reigned  in  succession,  after  which  began  the  dy- 
nasty of  the  Massid(z^  descended  by  the  male  line  from  Mahomet, 
Almanzos,  second  caliph  of  this  race,  removed  the  seat  of  empire  to 
Bagdat.  and  introduced  learning  and  the  culture  of  the  sciences, 
which  nis  successors  continued  to  promote  v/ith  equal  zeal  and  liber- 
ality. Haroun  Alraschid,  who  flourished  in  the  beginning  of  the  ninth 
century,  is  celebrated  as  a  second  Augustus.  The  sciences  chiefly 
cultivated  by  the  Arabians  were,  medicine,  geometry,  and  astronomy 
They  improved  the  oriental  poetry,  by  adding  regularity  to  its  fancy 
and  iuxuriancy  of  unagery. 


1109  MODERN  HISTORY. 

SECTION  II. 
MONARCHY  OF  THE  FRANKS. 

1.  The  Franks  were  originally  those  tribes  of  Germans  who  inhab- 
ited the  districts  lying  on  the  Lower  Rhine  and  Weser,  and  v^ho,  in 
the  time  of  Tacitus,  passed  under  the  names  of  Chauci,  Cherusci, 
Catti,  Sicambri,  &.c.  They  assumed  or  received  the  appellation  of 
Franks,  or  freemen,  from  their  temporary  union  to  resist  the  domin- 
ion of  the  Romans.  Legendary  chronicles  record  a  Pharamond  and 
a  Meroveus;  the  latter  the  head  of  the  fii*st  race  of  the  kings  of  !• 'ranee, 
termed  the  Merovingian ;  but  the  authentic  history  of  the  Franks 
commences  only  wiih  his  grandson  Clovis,  who  began  his  reign  in 
the  year  48L  In  the  twentieth  year  of  his  age  Clovis  achieved  the 
conquest  of  Gaul,  by  the  di-fiat  of  Syagrius  the  Roman  governor; 
and  marrying  Clotilda,  daughter  of  C!ii;p.?ric  king  of  Burgundy,  soon 
add  ^A  that  province  to  his  dominions,  by  dethroning  his  father-in-law 
He  Wiis  cojiverted  by  Clotilda  ;  and  the  Franks,  till  then  idolaters,  be- 
came christians,  af;er  their  sovereign's  example.  The  Visigoths, 
professing  Ariini'Sin,  were  masters  at  this  time  of  Aquitaine,  the  coun- 
try between  the  Rhone  and  Loire.  The  intemperate  zeal  of  Ciovis 
prompted  the  estir;  ation  of  those  heretics,  who  retreated  across 
the  Pyren  j-^s  into  'jpain;  and  the  provinces  of  Aquitaine  became  part 
of  the  Kingdom  ot'tiie  Pranks.  They  did  not  long  retain  it,  for  Ihe- 
odoric  tile  great  d  feared  Ciovis  iu  tile  battle  of  Aries,  and  added 
Aquitaine  to  his  do  nniions.     Ciovis  died  A.  D.  bl\. 

2.  His  four  sons  divided  tlie  moiarcliy,  and  were  perpetually  at 
war  witti  one  anoiner.  A  se-'ies  of  weak  and  wicked  princes  succeed- 
ed, and  Gaul  for  some  ages  was  characterized  under  its  Frank  sover- 
eigns by  more  than  ancient  barbarism.  On  the  death  of  Dagobert  II, 
A.  D.  638,  who  ielt  two  infant  sons,  the  government,  during  their  mi- 
nority, fell  into  the  hands  of  their  chief  orhccrs,  termed  mayors  of  the 
palace;  and  these  ambiiious  men  founded  a  new  power,  which  for 
some  generations  held  the  Frank  sovereigns  in  absolute  subjection, 
and  left  them  little  more  than  the  title  of  king.  Austrasia  and  Neus- 
tria,  the  two  great  divisions  of  the  Frank  monarchy,  were  nominally 
governed  by  Fhierrr,  but  in  reality  by  Pepin  Heristel,  mayor  of  the 

alace,  who,  restricting  his  sovereign  to  a  small  domain,  ruled  France 
or  thirty  years  with  great  vvisdotn  and  good  policy.  His  son,  Charles 
Martel,  succeeded  to  his  power,  and  under  a  similar  title  governed  for 
twenty-six  years  with  equal  ability  and  success.  He  w<\s  victorious 
over  all  his  domestic  foes.  His  arms  kcrpt  in  awe  the  surrounding 
nations,  and  he  delivered  France  from  the  ravages  of  the  Saracens, 
whom  he  entirely  defeated  between  Tours  and  Poictiers,  A.  D.  732 

3.  Charles  Martel  bequeathed  tiie  government  of  France,  as  anun 
disputed  inheritance,  to  his  two  sons,  Pepin  le  brefand  Carloman, 
who  governed,  under  the  «ame  ti*le  of  mayor,  one  Austrasia,  and  the 
other  Neustria  and  Burgnnuy.  On  the  resignation  of  Carloman,  Pepin 
succeeded  to  the  sole  admiiisti-ation.  Ambitious  of  adding  the  title 
of  king  to  tlie  power  which  he  already  enjoyed,  he  proposed  the 
question  to  pope  Zachary,  whether  he  or  his  sovereign  Childeric 
was  most  worthy  of  the  throne  ?  Zachary,  who  had  his  interest  in 
view,  decided  that  Pepin  had  a  riglit  to  add  tlie  title  of  king  to  the 
office ;  a«d  Childeric  was  coniined  to  a  monastery  fur  life.    With 


I 


MODERN  HISTORY.  109 

i  tm  endod  the  first  or  Merovingian  race  of  the  kings  of  France, 
A  D.  751. 

4.  Fepin  recompenseil  the  service  done  him  by  the  pope,  by  turn- 
ing his  arms  against  the  Lombards.  He  deprived  them  of  the  exar- 
chate of  Ravenna,  and  made  a  donation  of  that  and  other  considerable 
territories  to  the  holy  see,  which  were  the  lir.-it,  as  is  alleged,  of  itf 
temporal  possessions.  Conscious  of  his  defective  title,  it  was  the 
principal  object  of  Pepin  le  href  to  conciliate  the  atfections  of  the 
people  whom  he  governed.  The  legislative  power  among  the  Franks 
was  vested  in  the  people  assembled  in  their  diuinps  de  Mars.  Under 
the  Merovingian  race  the  regal  authority  had  sunk  to  nothing,  while 
the  power  of  the  nobles  had  attained  to  an  inordinate  extent.  Fepin 
found  it  his  best  policy,  to  acknowledge  and  ratify  those  rights,  which 
he  could  not  Avithout  danger  have  invaded ;  and  thus,  under  the  char- 
acter of  guardian  of  llie  powers  of  all  the  orders  of  the  state,  he  exalt- 
ed the  regal  office  to  its  proper  elevation,  and  founded  it  on  the  se- 
curest basis.  On  his  death-bed  he  called  a  council  of  the  grandees, 
and  obtained  their  consent  to  a  division  of  his  kingdom  between  his 
two  sons,  Charles  and  Carloman.  He  died  A.  I).  768,  at  the  age  of 
fifty-three,  after  a  reign  of  seventeen  years  from  the  death  of  Chil- 
deric  111,  and  an  administration  of  twenty-seven  from  the  death  of 
Charles  iMartel. 


SECTION  111. 

REFLECTIONS    ON    THE   STATE    OF    FRANCE    DURING    THE  ! 

iMEROVINGIAN     RACE    OF     ITS    KINGS.     ORIGIN    OF    THE  i 

FEUDAL  SYSTEM.  : 

\.  The  manners  of  the  Franks  were  similar  to  those  of  tlie  other  ; 

Germanic  nations  described  by  Tacitus.   Though  under  the  command  " 
of  a  chief  or  king,  their  government  was  extremely  democratical,  and 

they  acknowledged  no  other  than  a  military  subordination.  The  legis-  ; 

lative  authority  resided  in  the  general  assembly,  or  cluunps  de  Jl'htrs,  j 

held  annu;rily  on  the  1st  day  of  March ;  a  council  in  which   the  king  t 

had  but  a  single  suffrage,  equally  with  the  meanest  soldier.     But,  \ 
when  in  arms  against  the  enemy,  his  power  was  absolute  in  enforcing 

military  discipline.  , 

2.  After  the  establishment  of  the  Franks  in  Gaul  some  changes  took  t 
place  from  their  new  situation.  They  reduced  the  Gauls  to  absolute  \ 
subjection ;  yet  they  lett  many  in  possession  of  their  lands,  because  the  \ 
new  country  was  too  large  for  it-s  conquerors.  They  left  them  like- 
wise the  use  of  their  existing  laws,  \vhich  were  those  of  the  Roman 
code,  while  they  themselves  were  governed  by  the  salique -And  npiui'  ■■ 
ruin  laws,  ancient  institutions  in  observance  among  the  r  ranks  litforc  "■ 
they  left  their  original  seats  in  Germany.  Hence  arose  that  extraor  i 
dinary  diversity  of  local  laws  and  usages  in  the  kingdom  of  France  I 
which  continued  down  to  modern  times,  and  gave  occasion  to  number  \ 
less  inconveniences.                    •  | 

3.  The  ancient  Germans  had  the  highest  veneration  for  the  priests  j 
or  druids.  It  was  natural  that  the  Franks,  after  their  conversion  to  j 
Christianity,  should  have  the  same  reverence  for  their  bishops,  to  ■ 
whom  accordingly  they  allowed  the  first  rank  in  the  national  as-  : 
sembly.  These  bishops  were  generally  chosen  from  among  the  na-  ; 
tive  Gauls;  for,  having  adopted  from  this  nation  their  new  religiorv  ] 
k  was  natural  that  their  priests  should  be  chosen  from  the  same  peo-  | 

K  ; 


110  MODERN  HISTORY. 

pie.  The  influence  of  the  clergy  contrilmted  much  to  ameliorate 
the  condition  of  the  conquered  Gauls,  and  to  hum.inize  their  conquer- 
ors ;  and  in  a  short  space  of  time  the  two  nations  were  thoroughly  in- 
corporated. 

4.  At  this  period  a  new  system  of  policy  is  visible  among  this  unit 
ed  people,  which  by  degrees  extended  itself  over  most  of  the  nations 
of  Europe.  This  is  the  feudal  system.  By  this  expression  is  properly 
iiieant  that  tenure  or  condition  on  which  the  proprietors  of  land  held 
their  possessions,  viz.,  an  obligation  to  perform  military  service, 
whenever  required  by  the  chief  or  overlord  to  whom  they  owed  al- 
legiance. 

Aany  modern  writers  attribute  tlie  origin  of  this  institution  or  poli- 
cy to  tne  kings  of  the  Franks,  who,  after  the  conquest  of  Gaul,  ire 
supposed  to  have  divided  the  lauds  among  their  followers,  on  this 
condition  of  military  service.  But  this  notion  is  attended  witli  insur- 
mountable diihculties.  For,  in  the  tirst  place,  it  proceeds  on  this  false 
supposition,  that  the  conquered  lands  belonged  in  property  to  the  king, 
and  that  he  had  the  rit^'ht  of  bestowing  them  in  gifts,  or  dividing  them 
among  his  followers;  whereas  it  is  a  certain  Tact,  that  among  the 
Franks  the  partition  of  conquered  lands  was  made  by  lot,  as  was  the 
division  even  of  the  spoil  or  booty  taken  in  battle;  and  that  the  king's 
share,  though  doubtless  a  larger  portion  than  that  of  his  captains,  was 
likewise  assigned  him  by  lot.  secondly,  if  we  should  suppose  the  king 
to  have  made  those  gitts  to  his  captains  out  of  his  own  domain,  the 
creation  of  a  very  few  benejicia  {benejices)  would  have  rendered  him 
a  poorer  man  than  his  subjects.  We  must  therefore  have  recourse 
to  another  supposition  for  the  origin  of  the  tiefs ;  and  we  shall  find 
that  it  is  to  be  traced  to  a  source  much  more  remote  thao  the  con- 
quest of  Gaul  by  the  Franks. 

5.  Among  all  barbarous  nations,  with  whom  war  is  the  chief  occu- 
pation, we  remark  a  strict  sul)ordination  of  the  members  oi  a  tribe  to 
their  chief  or  leader.  It  was  observed  by  Cajsar  as  peculiarly  strong 
among  the  Gaulish  nations,  and  as  subsisting  not  only  between  the 
soldiers  and  their  commander,  but  between  the  inferior  towns  or  vil- 
lages, and  the  canton  or  province  to  which  they  belonged.  In  peace 
every  man  cultivated  his  land,  free  of  all  taxation,  and  subject  to  no 
other  burden  but  that  of  mililiiry  service,  when  required  by  his  chief 
Wiien  the  province  was  at  war,  each  vihage,  though  taxed  to  furnish 
only  a  certain  nunjber  of  soldiers,  was  bound  to  send,  on  the  day  ap- 
pointed for  a  general  muster,  all  its  males  capable  of  bearing  arms; 
and  from  these  its  rated  number  was  selected  by  the  chief  of  the  prov- 
ince. Tliis  dientela  [vassaluge)  subsisted  among  the  Franks  as  well 
as  among  the  G-auls.  It  subsisted  among  the  Romans,  who,  to  check 
tide  inroads  of  the  barbarian  nations,  and  lo  secure  their  distant  con- 
quests, were  obliged  to  maintain  fixed  gai'risons  on  their  Ircntiers. 
To  each  otficer  in  those  garrisons  it  was  customary  to  assign  a  por- 
tion of  land  as  the  pledge  and  pay  of  his  service.  These  gitts  were 
termed  benejicia.,  and  their  proprietors  beneficiani.  Flin.  Ep.  lib.  10, 
ep.  32.  The  benejicia  were  at  tirsT  granted  only  for  life.  Alexander 
Severus  allowed  ihem  to  descend  to  heirs,  on  the  like  condition  of 
military  service. 

6.  When  Gaul  was  overrun  by  the  Franks,  a  great  part  of  the  lands 
was  possessed  on  this  tenure  by  the  Roman  soldiery,  as  the  rest  vviis 
by  the  native  Gauls.  The  conquerors,  accustomed  to  the  same  poli- 
fcV,  won\A  nUurally  adopt  it  in  the  partition  of  their  new  conquests; 
each  man,  on  receiving  his  share,  becoming  bound  to  miUtary  service, 


MODERN  HISTORY.  Ill 

as  a  condition  necessarily  annexed  tp  territorial  property.  With 
respect  to  those  Gauls  who  retained  their  possessions,  no  other 
change  was  necessary  but  to  exact  the  same  obligation  ot"  military 
vassalage  to  their  new  conquerors,  which  they  had  rendered  to  their 
former  masters  the  emperors,  and,  before  the  Roman  conquest,  to 
their  native  chiefs.  Thus  no  other  change  took  place  but  tliat  of 
the  overlord.  The  system  was  the  same  which  had  prevailed  for 
ages. 

7.  But  fhpse  bmefida^  or  fiefs,  were  personal  grants,  revocable  by 
the  sovereioii  or  overlord,  and  reverting  to  him  on  the  death  of  the 
vassal.  The  weakness  of  the  Frank  kings  of  the  Merovingian  race 
emboldened  the  possessors  of  tiefs  to  aspire  at  independence  and 
security  of  property.  In  a  convention  held  at  Andeli  in  587,  to  treat 
of  peace  between  Gohtran  and  Childebert  II.,  the  nobles  obliged 
these  princes  to  renounce  the  right  of  revoking  their  benetices, 
which  henceforward  passed  by  inheritance  to  their  eldest  male  issue. 

8.  It  was  a  necessary  consequence  of  a  fief  becoming  perpetual  and 
hereditary,  that  it  should  be  capable  of  subinfeudation ;  and  that  the 
vassal  himself,  holding  his  land  of  the  sovereign  by  the  tenure  of 
military  service,  should  be  enabled  to  create  a  train  of  inferior  vas- 
sals, by  giving  to  them  portions  of  his  estate  to  be  held  on  the  same 
condition,  of  following  his  standard  in  battle,  rendering  him  homage 
as  their  lord,  and  paying,  as  the  symbol  of  their  subjection,  a  small 
annual  present,  either  of  money  or  the  fruits  of  their  lands.  Thus, 
in  a  little  time,  the  whole  territory  in  the  feudal  kingdoms  was  either 
held  immediately  and  in  capite  of  the  sovereign  himsell',  or  mediately 
by  inferior  vassals  of  the  tenanls  in  capite. 

9.  It  was  natural  in  those  disorderly  times,  when  the  authority  of 
government  and  the  obligf.tion  of  general  laws  were  extremely  weak, 
that  the  superior  or  overlord  should  acquire  a  ci\il  and  criminal 
jurisdiction  over  his  vassals.  The  coniites^  to  whom,  as  the  chief 
magistrates  of  police,  the  administration  of  justice  belonged  of  right, 
paid  little  attention  to  the  duties  of  their  oflice,  and  shamefully  abused 
their  powers.  The  inferior  classes  naturally  chose,  instead  of  seek- 
ing justice  through  this  corrupted  channel,  to  submit  their  lawsuits  to 
the  arbitration  of  their  overlord  ;  and  this  jurisdiction,  conferred  at  first 
by  the  acquiescence  of  parties,  came  at  length  to  be  regarded  as 
founded  on  strict  right.  Hence  arose  a  perpetual  contest  of  jurisdic- 
tion between  the  greater  barons  in  their  own  territories  and  the  es- 
tablished judicatories ;  a  natural  cause  of  that  extreme  anarchy  and 
disorder  which  prevailed  in  France  during  the  greater  part  of  the 
BIcrovingian  period,  and  sunk  the  regal  authority  to  the  lowest  pitch 
of  abasement.  In  a  government  of  which  every  part  was  at  variance 
with  the  rest,  it  was  not  surprising  that  a  new  power  should  arise, 
which,  in  able  hands,  should  be  capable  of  bringing  the  whole  under 
subjection. 

10.  The  mayor  of  the  palace,  or  first  officer  of  the  household, 
gradually  usurped,  under  a  series  of  weak  princes,  the  whole 
powers  of  the  sovereign.  This  office,  from  a  personal  dignity,  be- 
came hereditary  in  the  family  of  Pepin  Heristel.  His  grandson, 
Pepin  le  brtf,  removed  from  the  throne  those  phantoms  of  the  Me- 
rovingian race,  assumed  the  title  of  king,  by  the  authority  of  a  pa- 

fal  decree,  and  reigned  for  seventeen  years  with  dignity  and  success, 
le  was  the  founder  of  the  second  race  of  the  trench  monarchs 
known  by  the  name  of  the  Carlovingian.  See  Kelt's  Element*  ot' 
General  Knowledge,  vol.  I. 


112  MODERN  HISTORY. 

SECTION  IV. 
CHARLEMAGNE.     THE  NEW  EMPIRE  OF  THE  WEST. 

1.  Pepin  le  bref^  with  the  consent  of  bis  nobles,  divided,  on  bis 
death-bed,  the  kingdom  of  France  between  Jiis  sons,  Charles  and 
Carloman,  A.  D.  768.  The  latter  died  a  ^^w  years  alter  bis  father, 
and  Charles  succeeded  to  the  undivided  sovereignty.  In  the  course 
of  a  reign  of  forty-live  yeai-s  Charlcituigne  (for  so  be  was  de- 
servedly styled)  extended  tiie  limits  of  his  empire  beyond  the  Dan- 
ube; subdued' Dacia,  Dahnutia,  and  Istria  ;  conquered  and  subjected 
all  the  barbarous  tiil)es  to  the  banks  of  the  Vistula  ;  made  himself  mas- 
ter of  a  great  portion  of  Italy  ;  and  successfully  encountered  the  arms 
•f  the  y.iracens,  the  Huns,  the  Bulgarians,  and  the  Saxons.  His 
war  with  the  Saxons  was  of  thirty  years'  duration,  and  their  final 
conquest  was  not  achieved  without  an  inhuman  waste  of  blood.  At 
the  reqiiest  of  the  pope,  and  to  discbarge  the  obbgation  of  bis  fither 
Pepin  to  the  holj  see,  Charlemagne  dispossessed  Desiderius  king  of 
the  Lombards  of  all  bis  doininions,  though  allied  to  him  by  marriage  ; 
and  put  a  final  period  to  the  Lombard  dominion  in  Italy,  A.  D.  774. 

2.  He  made  I'.is  entry  into  Rome  at  the  festival  of  Easter,  was 
there  crowned  king  of  France  and  of  the  Lombards,  and  was,  bv 
pope  Adrian  I,  invested  with  the  right  of  ratifying  the  election  of 
the  pop?s.  Irene,  empress  of  the  east,  sought  to  ally  herself  with 
Charlemagne,  by  the  mairiage  of  her  son  Constantine  to  bis  daugh- 
ter; but  her  subsequent  inhuman  conduct,  in  putting  Constantine  to 
death,  gave  ground  to  suspect  the  sincerity  of  her  desire  for  that 
alliance. 

3.  In  the  last  visit  of  Charlemagne  to  Italy  he  was  consecrated 
emperor  of  the  west  by  the  hands  of  pope  Leo  III.  It  is  probable 
that  if  he  bad  chosen  Rome  for  bis  resklence  and  seat  of  government, 
and  at  his  death  bail  transmitted  to  bis  successor  an  undivided  domhi- 
ion,  the  great  but  f  ulen  empire  of  the  Avcst  might  have  once  more 
been  restored  to  lustre  and  respect.  But  Charlemagne  had  no  fixed 
capital,  and  divided,  eren  in  his  lifetime,  his  dominions  among  his 
children,  A.  D.  806. 

4.  Tiie  economy  of  government  and  the  domestic  administration 
of  Charlemagne  merit  attention.  Pepin  Ic  brcf  had  introduced  the 
system  of  annual  assend)lies  or  parUaments,  held  at  first  in  March, 
and  afterwards  in  May,  where  the  chief  estates  of  clergy  and  nobles 
were  called  to  deliberate  on  the  public  atfaii-s  and  the  wants  of  the 
people.  Charlemagne  apoiiit^-d  these  assemblies  to  be  held  twice  in 
the  year,  in  spring  and  in  autumn,  in  the  latter  assembly  all  affaii's 
were  prepared  and  digested  ;  in  the  former  was  transacted  the  busi- 
ness of  legislation  ;  and  of  this  assembly  he  made  the  people  a  party, 
by  admitting  from  each  province  or  district  twelve  deputies  or  rep- 
resentatives. The  assembly  now  consisted  of  three  estates,  each  of 
which  formed  a  separate  chamber,  and  discussed  apart  the  concerns 
of  its  own  order.  They  afterwards  united  to  communicate  their 
resolutions,  or  to  deliberate  on  their  common  interests.  The  sove- 
reign wtis  never  present,  unless  when  called  to  ratify  the  decrees  of 
the  assembly, 

5.  Charlemagne  divided  the  empire  into  provinces,  and  the  prov- 
inces into  districts,  each  comprehending  a  certaw  nijpiber  of  coun- 


MODERIS  HISTORY.  no 

ties.  The  districts  were  governed  by  royal  envoys,  chosen  from  the 
clergy  and  nobles,  and  bound  to  an  exact  visitation  of  their  territories 
every  three  montlis.  These  envoys  held  annual  conventions,  at 
which  were  present  the  higher  clergy  and  barons,  to  discuss  the 
affairs  of  the  district,  examine  the  conduct  of  its  magistrates,  and 
redi'ess  the  grievances  of  individuals.  At  the  general  assembl}',  or 
c/iainp  lie  Alai,  the  ro}  al  envoys  made  their  I'eport  to  the  S()^  ereigu 
and  states;  and  thus  the  public  attention  was  constantly  directed  lo 
all  the  concerns  of  the  empire. 

6.  The  private  character  of  Charlemagne  was  most  amiable  and 
respectable.  His  secretary,  Eginhart,  has  pahited  his  domestic  life 
in  beautiful  and  simple  colours.  The  economy  of  his  family  is  char 
acteristic  of  an  age  of  great  simplicity ;  for  his  daughters  were  as- 
siduously employed  in  spinning  and  housewifery,  and  the  sons  were 
trained  by  their  father  in  the  practice  of  all  manly  exercises.  Thii 
illustrious  man  died  A.  D.  814,  in  the  seventy-second  year  of  his  age. 
Contemporary  with  him  was  Ilaroun  Alraschid,  cali])h  of  the  Sara 
tens,  equally  celebrated  for  his  conquests,  excellent  policy,  and  the 
wisdom  and  humanity  of  his  government. 

7.  Of  all  the  lawful  sons  of  Charlemagne,  Lewis  the  dcbonmiire 
was  the  only  one  who  survived  him,  and  who  therefore  succeeded 
without  dispute  to  all  the  imperial  dominions,  except  Italy,  which 
the  emperor  had  settled  on  Bernard,  his  grandson  by  Fejiin,  his 
second  son. 


SECTION  V. 

MANNERS,  GOVERNMENT,  AND  CUSTOMS  OF  THE  AGE  OF 
CHARLEMAGNE. 

1.  In  establishing  the  provincial  conventions  under  the  royal 
envoys,  Charlemagne  did  not  entirely  abolish  the  authority  of  the 
ancient  chief  magistrates,  the  dukes  and  counts.  They  continued 
to  command  the  troops  of  the  province,  and  to  make  the  levies  iu 
stated  numbers  from  each  district.  Cavalry  were  not  numerous  in 
the  imperial  armies,  twelve  farms  being  taxed  lo  furnish  only  one 
horseman  with  his  armour  and  accoutrements.  The  proA  ince  sup- 
plied six  months'  provisions  to  its  complement  of  men,  and  the  king 
maintaiued  them  during  the  rest  of  the  campaign. 

2.  The  engines  for  the  attack  and  delence  of  towns  were,  as  in 
former  times,  the  r;im,  the  balista,  catapulta,  testudo,  Lc.  Charle- 
magne had  his  ships  of  war  stationed  in  the  moutlit  of  all  the  larger 
rivers.  He  bestowed  great  attention  on  commerce.  The  merchants 
of  Italy  and  the  south  of  France  traded  to  the  Levant,  and  exchanged 
the  commodities  of  Europe  and  Asia.  Venice  and  Genoa  were 
rising  into  commercial  opulence;  and  the  manufactures  of  wool,  glass, 
and  iron,  were  successfully  cultivated  in  many  of  the  principal  towns 
hi  the  south  of  Europe. 

3.  The  value  of  money  was  nearly  the  same  as  in  the  Roman 
empire  in  the  age  of  Constantine  the  great.  The  numerary  livre, 
in  the  age  of  Charlemagne,  was  supposed  to  be  a  pound  of  silver,  in 
value  about  31.  sterling  of  Enghsh  money.  At  present  the  livre  is 
worth  10  l-2d.  English.  Hence  we  ought  to  be  cautious  in  Ibrming 
#ur  estimate  of  ancient  money  from  its  Dame.    From  the  waat  of 

Id 


1 1 4  MODERN  HISTORY . 

(his  caution  have  arisen  the  most  erroneous  ideas  of  the  commerce, 
riches,  and  strength  of  the  ancient  kingdoms. 

4.  The  capitalaria  {statute-books)  of  Cliarlemagne,  compiled  into  a 
body  A.  D.  827,  were  recovered  from  oblivion  in  1531  and  1545. 
They  present  many  circumstances  illustrative  of  the  manners  of  the 
times.  Unless  in  great  cities  there  were  no  inns :  the  laws  obliged 
every  man  to  give  accommodation  to  travellers.  The  chief  towns 
were  built  of  wood.  The  state  of  the  mechanic  arts  was  very  low 
in  Europe.  The  Saracens  had  made  more  progress  in  them.  Paint 
ing  atnd  sculpture  were  only  preserved  (com  absolute  extinction  by 
the  existing  remains  of  ancient  art.  Charlemagne  appears  to  have 
been  anxious  for  the  improvement  of  music ;  and  the  Italians  are  said 
to  have  instructed  his  French  pertormers  in  the  art  of  playing  on  the 
organ.  Architecture  was  studied  and  successfully  cultivated  in  that 
style  termed  the  Gothic,  which  admits  of  great  beauty,  elegance, 
and  magnitkence.  The  composition  of  Mosaic  appears  to  have  been 
an  invention  of  those  a^es. 

5.  The  knowledge  ot  letters  was  extremely  low,  and  confined  to  a 
few  of  the  ecclesiastics.  Charlemagne  gave  the  utmost  encourage- 
ment to  literature  and  the  sciences,  inviting  into  his  dominions  of 
France,  men  eminent  in  those  departments  trom  Italy,  and  from  the 
Britannic  isles,  which,  in  those  dark  ages,  preserved  more  of  the 
light  of  learning  than  any  of  the  western  kingdoms.  '"''A'eque  eniin 
silenda  Urns  Britannue^  Scotice,  et  Hiberniue^  quxe  studio  liberalium  artium 
eo  tempore  anteceltebant  reliquis  occidentalibus  regnis  ;  et  cura  prcesertitn 
monackonun^  qui  liierarum  gloriwn^  ulihi  aid  languentem  aut  depressain^ 
in  iis  regionibus  impigre  suscitabatit  atque  tuebantur.''''  Murat.  Antiq. 
Ital.  Diss.  43.  ^^  l  must  not  omit  tlie  praise  aue  to  England^  Scotland,, 
and  IrelandL,  which  at  tJuxt  time  excelled  the  other  western  kingdoms  in  the 
study  of  the  liberal  arts  :  and  especially  to  tlie  moihks^  by  wliose  care  and 
diligence  the  honour  of  literature,  whicli  in  other  countries  was  either 
languishing  or  depressed,  was  revived  and  protected  in  thescP  The 
scarcity  of  books  ia  those  times,  and  the  nature  of  their  sulyects, 
as  legends,  lives  of  the  saints,  &,c.,  evince  the  narrow  diffusion  of 
literature, 

6.  The  pecuniary  fines  for  homicide,  the  ordeal  or  judgment  of 
God,  and  judicial  combat,  were  striking  peculiarities  in  the  laws  and 
manners  of  the  northern  nations,  and  particularly  of  the  Franks.  By 
this  warlike,  barbarous  people,  revenge  was  esteemed  honourable  and 
meritorious.  The  high-spirited  warrior  chastised  or  vindicated  with 
his  own  hand  the  injuries  which  he  had  received  or  inflicted.  The 
magistrate  interfered,  not  to  punish,  but  to  reconcile,  and  was  sjitistied 
}f  he  could  persuade  the  aggressor  to  pay,  and  the  injured  party  to 
accept,  the  moderate  tine  which  was  imposed  as  the  price  of  blood, 
and  of  whicli  the  measure  was  estimated  according  to  the  rank,  the 
sex,  and  the  country  of  the  person  slain.  But  increasing  civilization 
abolished  those  barbarous  distinctions.  We  have  ret.iarked  the  equal 
severity  of  the  laws  of  the  Visigoths,  in  the  crimes  of  murder  and 
robbery;  and  even  among  the  Franks,  in  the  age  of  Charlemagne, 
deliberate  murder  was  punished  with  death. 

7.  By  their  ancient  laws,  a  party  accused  of  any  crime  was  al- 
lowed to  produce  compurgators,  or  a  certain  number  of  witnesses, 

-according  to  the  measure  of  the  offence ;  and  if  these  declared 
upon  oatii  their  belief  of  his  innocence,  it  was  held  a  suilicient  excul 
pation.  Seventy-two  compurgators  were  required  to  acquit  a  mur- 
derer or  an  incendiary.    The  flagrant  perjuries  occasiened  by  this 


MODERN  HISTORY.  115 

absurd  practice  probably  gave  rise  to  the  trial  by  ordeal,  which  was 
termed,  as  it  was  believed  to  be,  the  judgment  of  God.  The  crimi- 
nal was  ordered,  at  the  option  of  the  judge,  to  prove  his  innocence 
or  guilt,  by  the  ordeal  of  cold  Avater,  of  boiling  water,  or  red  hot 
iron.  He  was  tied  hand  and  foot,  and  thrown  into  a  pool,  to  sink  or 
swim ;  he  was  made  to  fetch  a  ring  from  the  bottom  of  a  vessel  of 
boiling  water,  or  to  walk  barefooted  everburning  ploughshares.  His- 
tory recortls  examples  of  those  wonderful  experiments  having  been 
made  without  injury  or  pain. 

8.  Another  peculiarity  of  the  laws  and  manners  of  the  northern 
nations  was  judicial  combat.  Both  in  civil  suits  and  in  the  trial  of 
crimes,  the  party  destitute  of  legal  proofs  might  challenge  his  antag- 
onist to  mortal  combat,  and  rest  the  cause  upon  its  issue.  This  san- 
guinary and  most  iniquitous  custom,  which  may  be  traced  to  this  day 
in  the  practice  of  duelling,  had  the  authority  of  law  in  the  court  of 
the  constable  and  marshal,  even  in  the  last  century,  in  France  and 
England. 


SECTION  VI. 

RETROSPECTIVE  VIEW  OF   THE   AFFAIRS  OF   THE  CHURCH 
BEFORE  THE  AGE  OF  CHARLEMAGNE. 

1.  The  Arian  and  Pelagian  heresies  divided  the  christian  church 
for  many  ages.  In  the  fourth  century,  Arius,  a  presbyter  of  Alexan- 
dria, maintained  the  separate  and  inferior  nature  of  the  second  per- 
son of  the  trinity,  regarding  Christ  as  the  noblest  of  created  beings, 
through  whose  agency  the  Creator  had  formed  the  universe,  liis 
doctrine  was  condemned  in  the  council  of  Nice,  held  by  Constantine 
A.  D.  .325,  who  afterwards  became  a  convert  to  it.  For  many  cen- 
turies it  had  an  extensive  influence,  and  produced  the  sects  of  the 
Eunomians,  Semi-Arians,  Eusebians,  &c. 

2.  In  the  beginning  of  the  tifth  century  Pelagius  and  Caslcstius, 
the  former  a  native  of  Britain,  the  latter  of  Ireland,  denied  the  doc- 
trine of  original  sin,  and  the  necessity  of  divine  grace  to  enlighten 
the  understanding,  and  purify  the  heart ;  and  maintained  the  suffi- 
ciency of  man's  natural  powers  for  the  attainment  of  the  highest 
degrees  of  piety  and  virtue.  These  tenets  were  ably  combated  by 
Su  Augustine,  and  condemned  by  an  ecclesiastical  council,  but  have 
ever  continued  to  find  many  supporters. 

3.  The  most  obstinate  source  oi"  controversy  in  those  ages  was  the 
worship  of  images ;  a  practice  whicii  was  at  tirst  opposed  by  the 
clergy,  but  was  afterwards,  from  interested  motives,  countenanced 
and  vindicated  by  them.  It  was,  however,  long  a  subject  of  division  in 
the  church.  The  emperor  Leo  the  Isaurian,  A.  D.  727,  attempted 
to  suppress  this  idolatry,  by  the  destruction  of  every  statute  and  pic- 
ture lound  in  the  churches,  and  by  punishment  of  their  worshippers; 
but  this  intemperate  zeal  rather  increased  than  repressed  the  super- 
stition. His  son  Constantine  Copronymus,  with  wiser  policy,  pro- 
cured its  condemnation  by  the  church. 

4.  From  the  doctrines  of  the  Platonic  and  Stoic  philosophy, 
which  recommended  the  purification  of  the  soul,  by  redeeming  it 
from  its  subjection  to  the  senses,  arose  the  system  ot  penances,  mor- 
tification, religious  sequestration,  and  monachism.  After  Constantine 
had  put  an  end  to  the  persecution  of  the  christians,  many  conceived 


116  MODERN  HISTORY. 

it  a  duty  to  procure  for  themselves  voluntary  grieyances  and  suffer- 
ings. They  retired  into  caves  and  hermitages,  and  there  practised' 
the  most  rigorous  mortifications  of  the  flesh,  by  tasting,  scourging, 
vigils,  &c.  This  phrensy  first  showed  itself  in  Egypt  in  the  fourth 
century,  whence  it  spread  over  all  the  east,  a  great  part  of  Africa, 
and  within  the  limits  of  the  bishopric  of  Rome.  In  the  time  of  The- 
odosius  these  devotees  began  to  torm  communities  or  cccnobia^  each 
associate  binding  himself  by  oath  to  observe  the  rules  of  his  order. 
St.  Benedict  introduced  monachism  into  Italy,  under  the  reign  of 
Totila ;  and  his  order,  the  Benedictine,  soon  became  extremely  nu- 
merous and  opulent.  Many  rich  donations  were  made  by  the  devout 
and  charitable,  who  believed  that  they  profited  by  the  prayers  of  the 
monks.  Benedict  sent  colonies  into  biciiy  and  France,  whence  they 
soon  spread  over  all  Europe. 

5.  In  the  east,  the  monacki  solitarii  (solitary  monks)  were  first  incor- 
porated into  coenobia  by  St.  Basil,  bishop  of  Ca>-sarea,  in  the  middle  of 
the  fourth  cenUiry  ;  and  some  time  before  that  period  the  first  monas- 
teries for  women  were  founded  in  Egypt  by  the  sister  of  St.  Facomo. 
From  these,  in  the  following  age,  sprung  a  variety  of  orders,  under 
different  rules.  The  rule  of  the  canons  regular  was  framed  after  the 
model  of  the  apostolic  life.  To  cliastity,  obedience,  and  poverty,  the 
mendicants  added  the  obligation  of  begging  amis.  The  military  reli- 
gious orders  were  unknown  till  the  age  of  the  holy  wars.  (Sect.  XVII, 
§  3.)  The  monastic  fraternities  owed  their  reputation  chieHy  to  the 
little  literary  knowledge  which,  in  those  ages  of  ignorance,  they  ex- 
clusively possessed.  (For  the  origin  of  monachism,  see  Varieties  of 
Literature.) 

6.  In  the  fifth  century  arose  a  set  of  fanatics  termed  stylitcs,  or  pil- 
lar-saints, who  passed  their  lives  on  the  tops  of  pillars  of  various  height. 
Simeon  of  Syria  lived  thirty-seven  years,  and  died  on  a  pillar  sixty 
feet  high.  This  phrensy  prevailed  in  the  east  for  many  centuries. 
(For  a  curious  account  of  the  fanaticism  of  the  Hindoos,  see  Tennant's 
Indian  Recreations.) 

7.  Auricular  confession,  which  had  been  abolished  in  the  east  in 
the  fourth  century,  began  to  be  in  use  in  the  west  in  the  age  of  Char- 
lemagne, and  has  ever  since  prevailed  in  the  Romish  church.  The 
canonization  of  saints  was,  for  near  twelve  centui'ies,  practised  by  ev- 
ery bishop.  Rope  Alexander  III,  one  of  the  most  vicix^us  of  men, 
bl|t  claimed  and  assumed  this  right,  as  the  exclusive  privilege  of  the 
successor  of  St.  Peter. 

8.  The  conquests  of  Charlemagne  spread  Christianity  in  the  north 
of  Europe;  but  all  beyond  the  limits  of  his  conquests  was  idolatrous. 
Britain  and  Ireland  had  received  the  light  of  Christianity  at  an  earlier 
period  ;  but  it  was  al'terwards  extinguished,  and  again  revived  under 
the  Saxon  heptarchy. 

SECTION  VII. 

EMPIRE  or  THE  WEST    UNDER  THE  SUCCESSORS  OF  CHAR- 
LEMAGNE. 

1.  Thb  empire  of  Charlemagne,  raised  and  supported  solely  by  his 
abilities,  fell  to  pieces  under  his  weak  posterity.  Lewis  {le  debonnaire). 
the  only  survivor  of  his  lawful  sons,  was  consecrated  emperor  and 
V>f>g  01  tiie  Franks  at  Aix  la  Chapelle,  A.  D.  816.    Among  the  first 


MODERN  HIST(JRY.  117 

acts  of  his  reign  was  the  partition  of  his  dominions  among  his  children. 
To  Pepin,  his  second  son,  he  gave  A<jiutaine,a  third  part  of  the  south 
of  France;  to  Lewis,  the  youngest,  Bavaria ;  and  he  associated  his 
eldest  son  Lolharius  with  himself  in  the  government  of  the  rest.  The 
three  princes  quarrelled  among  themselves,  agreeing  in  nothing  but 
in  hostility  against  their  father.  They  made  open  war  against  him, 
supported  by  pope  Gregory  IV.  The  pretence  was,  that  the  emper- 
or having  a  younger  son,  Charles,  born  after  this  partition  of  his 
states,  wanted  to  give  him  likewise  a  share,  which  could  not  be  done 
hut  at  the  expense  of  his  elder  brothers.  Lewis  was  compelled  to 
surrender  himself  a  prisoner  to  his  rebellious  sons.  They  conlined 
hi:n  for  a  year  to  a  monastery,  till,  on  a  new  quarrel  betw  een  Lewis 
the  younger  and  Pepin,  Lotharius  once  more  restored  his  father  to 
the  throne:  but  his  spirits  were  broken,  his  health  decayed,  and  he 
finished,  soon  after,  an  inglorious  and  turbulent  reign,  A.  D.  840. 

2.  The  dissensions  of  the  brothers  still  continued.  Lotharius,  now 
emperor,  and  Pepin  his  brother's  son,  having  taken  up  arms  against 
the  two  other  sons  of  Lewis  le  debaimaire,  Lewis  of  Bavaria  and 
Charles  the  bald,  were  defeated  by  them  in  tiie  battle  of  Fontenai, 
where  100,00(J  are  said  to  have  fallen  in  the  field.  The  church  in 
those  times  was  a  prime  organ  of  the  civil  policy.  A  council  of  bish- 
ops immediately  assembled,  and  solemnly  deposed  Lotharius.  At  the 
same  time  tliey  assumed  an  equal  authority  over  his  conquerors, 
whom  they  pennitted  to  reign,  on  the  express  condition  of  submissive 
obedience  to  the  supreme  spiritual  authority.  Yet  Lotharius,  though 
exconmiunicated  and  deposed,  found  means  to  accommodate  matters 
with  his  brothers,  Avho  agreed  to  a  new  partition  of  the  empire.  By 
\he  treaty  of  Verdun,  A.  D.  843,  the  western  part  of  France,  termeitl 
Keustria  and  Aquitaine,  was  assigned  to  Charles  the  bald  ;  Lotharins, 
^\'nh  the  title  of  emperor,  had  the  nominal  sovereignty  of  Italy,  and 
the  real  territory  ot  Lorraine,  Franche  Compte,  Provence,  and  the 
Lyonnois;  the  share  of  Lewis  was  the  kingdom  of  Germany. 

3.  Thus  was  Germany  finally  separated  from  the  empire  of  the 
Franks.  On  the  death  of  Lotbarius,  Charles  the  bald  assumed  the 
empire,  or,  as  is  said,  purchased  it  Irom  pope  John  VIII,  on  the  con- 
dition of  holding  it  as  a  vassal  to  the  holy  see.  Thjs  prince,  after  a 
weak  and  inglorious  reign,  died  by  poison,  A.  D.  877,  He  was  the 
first  of  the  French  monarchs  who  made  dignities  and  titles  hereditary. 
Under  the  distracted  reigns  of  the  Cadovin^ian  kings,  the  nobief  at- 
tained great  power,  and  commanded  a  tbrmidable  vassalage.  They 
strengthened  themselves  in  the|r  castles  and  fortresses,  and  bid  defi- 
ance to  the  arm  of  government,  while  the  country  was  ravaged  and 
desolated  by  tbeir  feuds, 

4.  In  the  reign  of  Charles  the  bald,  Fraiice  was  phmdered  by  the 
Normans,  a  iievy  race  of  Goths  from  Scandinavia,  \vho  had  begun 
their  depredations  even  in  the  time  of  Charlemagne,  and  were  oidy 
checked  m  their  progress  by  the  terror  of  his  arms.  A.  D.  843  they 
sailed  up  the  Seine,  and  plundered  Rouen  ;  while  another  lleet  enter 
ed  the  Loire,  and  laid  waste  the  country  and  its  vicinity,  carrying, 
together  with  its  spoils,  men,  women,  and  children,  into  captivity. 
In  the  following  year  they  attacked  the  coasts  of  England,  !>  ranee, 
and  Spain,  but  were  repelled  from  the  last  by  the  good  conduct  and 
courage  of  jts  Mahometan  rulers.  In  845  they  entered  the  Elbe, 
plundered  Hamburgh,  and  penetrated  far  into  Germany.  Eric,  king 
of  Denmark,  who  commanded  these  Normans,  sent  once  more  a  fleet 
into  the  Seine,  which  advanced  to  Paris.     Its  inhabitants  lied,  and  the 


118  MODERN  HISTORY. 

city  was  burnt.  Another  fleet,  with  little  resistance,  pillaged  Bour- 
deaiix.  To  avert  the  arms  of  these  ravagers,  Charles  the  bald  bribed 
them  ivrth  money,  and  his  successor,  Charles  the  gross,  yielded  them 
a  part  of  his  Flemish  dominions.  These  were  only  incentives  to 
fresh  depredation.  Paris  was  attacked  a  second  time,  but  gallantly 
defended  by  count  Odo  or  Eudes,  and  the  venerable  bishop  Gosiin. 
A  truce  was  a  second  time  concluded  ;  but  the  barbarians  only  chang- 
ed the  scene  of  their  attack :  they  besieged  Sens,  and  plundered 
Burgundy.  An  assembly  of  the  states  held  at  Meniz  deposed  the 
unworthy  Charles,  and  conferred  the  crown  on  the  more  deserving 
Eudes  :  who,  during  a  reign  often  years,  bravely  withstood  the  Nor- 
mans. A  great  part  of  the  states  of  f 'ranee,  however,  ret\ised  his 
title  to  the  crown,  and  gave  their  allegiance  to  Charles  surnamcd  the 
simple. 

5.  Rollo,  the  Norman,  in  912,  compelled  the  king  of  France  to 
yield  him  a  large  portion  of  the  territory  of  Neustrin,  and  to  give 
him  his  daughter  in  marriage.  The  new  kingdom  was  now  called 
Normandy,  of  which  Rouen  was  the  capital. 


SECTION  VIII. 

EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST    DURING   THE  EIGHTH   AND    NINTH 
CENTURIES. 

1.  While  the  new  empire  of  the  west  was  thus  rapidly  tending 
to  dissolution,  the  empire  of  Constantinople  still  retained  a  vestige  of 
its  ancient  grandeur.  It  had  lost  its  African  and  Syrian  dependencies, 
and  was  plundered  by  the  Saracens  on  the  eastern  frontier,  and  rav- 
aged on  the  north  and  west  by  the  Abari  and  Bulgarians.  The  capi- 
tal, though  splendid  and  refined,  was  a  constant  scene  cf  rebellions 
and  conspiracies  ;  and  the  imperial  family  itself  exhibited  a  series  of 
the  most  horrid  crimes  and  atrocities.  One  emperor  was  put  to 
death  in  revenge  of  murder  and  incest ;  another  was  poisoned  by  his 
queen  ;  a  third  was  assassinated  in  the  I  ath  by  his  own  domestics  ;  a 
fourth  tore  out  the  eyes  of  his  biother ;  the  empress  Irene,  respecta- 
ble for  her  talents,  was  infimious  for  the  murder  of  her  only  son. 
Of  such  complexion  was  that  series  of  princes  who  swayed  the  scep- 
tre of  the  east  nearly  200  years. 

2.  In  the  latter  part  of  this  period  a  most  violent  controversy  was 
maintained  respecting  the  worship  of  images,  which  were  alternately 
destroyed  and  replaced  according  to  the  humour  of  the  sovereign. 
The  female  sex  was  their  most  zealous  suppoi-ter.  This  was  not  the 
only  subject  of  division  in  the  christian  church  ;  the  doctrines  of  Man- 
iches  were  then  extremely  prevalent,  and  the  sword  was  firequent- 
ly  employed  to  support  and  propagate  their  tenets. 

3.  The  misfortunes  of  the  empire  were  increased  by  an  invasion 
of  the  Russians  from  Uie  Palus  IMoeotis  and  Euxine.  In  the  reign  of 
Leo,  named  the  philosopher,  the  Turks,  a  new  race  of  barbarians,  of 
Scythian  or  Tartarian  breed,  began  to  make  effectual  inroads  on  its 
territories.  About  the  same  time  its  domestic  calamities  were  aggra- 
vated by  the  separation  of  the  Greek  from  the  Latin  church,  of 
which  we  shall  treat  under  the  following  section. 


MODERN  HISTORY.  1 1 9 

SECTION  IX 

STATE    OF    THE    CHURCH    IN    THE     EIGHTH    AND    NINTH 

CENTURIES. 

1.  The  popes  had  begun  to  acquire  a  temporal  authority  under 
Pepin  le  bref  and  Charlemagne,  irom  the  donations  of  lernu-ry 
mide  by  those  princes,  atid  tlity  were  now  gradually  extei din^  a 
spriritua!  jurisdiction  over  all  l!ie  christian  kingdoms.  Nicholas  I. 
prociain:^"d  lo  the  whole  world  his  paramount  judgment  in  appeal 
from  tlie  sentences  ot  all  spiritual  judicatories;  his  power  of  as- 
sembUng  councils  tA  the  church,  and  of  regulating  it  by  the  canons 
of  those  councils ;  the  right  of  exercising  his  authority  by  legates  in 
al!  the  kingdoms  of  Europe,  and  the  control  of  the  pope  over  all 
princes  and  governors.  Literary  imposture  gave  its  support  to  these 
pretences  Certain  spurious  epistles  were  written  in  tiie  name  of 
Isidorus,  with  the  design  of  proving  the  justice  of  the  claims  of  the 
pope;  and  the  tbrgery  of  those  epistles  was  not  completely  exposed 
til!  the  sixteenth  century.  Among  the  prerogatives  of  the  popes  was 
the  reguLitiun  ol  the  marriages  of  all  the  crowned  heads,  by  the 
exirtnic  extension  of  the  pruhibitions  of  the  canon  law,  with  which 
they  alone  had  the  power  of  dispensing. 

2.  One  extraordinary  event  (if  true)  afforded,  in  the  ninth  cen- 
tury, a  ludicrous  interruption  to  the  boasted  succession  of  regular 
bisiiops  from  the  days  ol  St.  Peter,  the  election  of  a  female  pope, 
wiio  is  said  to  have  ably  governed  the  church  for  three  years,  till 
detected  by  the  birth  of  a  child.  Till  the  reformation  by  Luther 
this  event  was  not  regarded  by  the  catholics  as  incredible,  nor  dis- 
gvacei'ul  to  the  church :  since  that  time  its  truth  or  ialsehood  has 
been  the  subject  of  keen  controversy  between  the  protestants  and 
catholics ;  and  the  evidence  for  its  falsehood  seems  to  preponderate. 

3.  The  church  was  thus  gradually  extending  its  induence,  and 
its  head  arrogating  the  control  over  sovereign  princes,  wlio,  by  a 
singular  iulerchiinge  of  character,  seem,  in  those  ages,  to  have 
fixed  their  cluef  attention  on  spiritual  concerns.  Kings,  dukes,  and 
counts,  neglectiiig  their  temporal  duties,  shut  themselves  up  in  clois- 
ters, and  spent  tiieir  lives  in  prayers  and  penances.  Ecclesiastics 
were  employed  in  all  the  departments  of  secular  government;  and 
they  alone  conducted  all  puLiic  measures  and  state  negotiations, 
winch  of  course  they  directed  to  the  great  objects  of  advancing  the 
interests  of  the  ciiurch,  and  establishing  the  paramount  authority  oi 
tlie  holy  see. 

4.  At  this  period,  however,  when  the  popedom  seemed  to  have 
attained  its  highest  ascendancy,  it  sulfered  a  severe  wound  in  that 
remarkable  schism  which  separated  the  patriarchates  of  Rome  and 
Constantinople,  or  the  Greek  and  Latin  churches.  The  Roman  pon- 
tiff had  hitherto  claimed  the  right  of  nominating  the  patriarch  of 
Cunstantinople.  The  emperor  Michael  III.  denied  this  ri^ht,  and  de- 
posing the  pope's  patriarcn,  Ignatius,  appointed  the  celebrated  Photius 
in  his  stead.  Pope  Nicholas  1.  resented  this  affront  with  a  high  spirit 
and  deposed  and  excommunicated  Pnotms,  A.  1).  863,  who,  in  his 
turn,  pronounced  a  similar  sentence  against  the  pope.  The  church 
was  divided,  each  i>atriarch  being  supported  by  many  bishops  and 
tbeir  dependent  clergy.     The  Greek  and  Latin  bisxiops  had  long 


.20  MODERN  HISTORY. 

differed  in  many  points  of  practice  and  discipline,  as  the  celibacy  of 
tlie.  cierg^,  the  shaving  of  their  beards,  &c. ;  but  in  reality  the  prime 
source  ol  division  was  the  ambition  of  the  rival  pontiffs,  and  the  jeal- 
ousy of  ^be  Greek  emperors,  unwilling  to  admit  the  control  of 
Rome,  and  obstinately  asserting  every  prerogative  which  they  con- 
ceived to  be  annexed  to  the  capital  of  the  Roman  empire.  As  nei- 
ther party  would  yield  in  its  pretensions,  the  division  ot  the  Greek 
and  LatiLi  churches  became  iVom  thi<  time  permanent. 

5.  Amid  those  ambitious  contests  for  ecclesiastical  power  and  pre- 
eminence, the  christian  religion  itself  was  disgraced,  both  by  the 
practice  and  b}^  the  principles  of  its  teachers.  Worldly  ambition, 
gross  voluptuousness^  and  grosser  ignorance,  cimracterized  ail  ranks 
of  the  clergy ;  and  tne  open  saie  of  benefices  placed  them  often  in 
the  hands  of  the  hasest  and  most  protligate  of  men.  Yet  the  charac- 
ter of  Rhotius  forms  an  illusirious  exception.  Though  bred  a  states- 
man and  a  soldier,  and  in  boih  these  respects  of  great  reputation,  he 
attained,  fey  his  singular  abilities,  learning,  and  worth,  the  highest 
•lignity  of  the  cliurch.  His  Bibliothcca  is  a  monument  of  the  most 
various  knowledge,  erudition,  and  critical  judgment. 


SECTION  X. 

OF  THE  SARACENS  IN  THE  EIGHTH  AND  NINTH  CENTURIES. 

1.  In  the  beginning  of  the  eighth  century  the  Saracens  subverted 
fhe  monarchy  of  the  Visigoths  in  Spain,  and  easily  overnm  the  coun- 
try. They  had  lately  founded  in  Africa  the  empire  of  Morocco, 
which  was  governed  by  Muza,  viceroy  of  the  caliph  Valid  Almanzor. 
Muza  sent  his  general  Tarii)b  into  Spain,  who,  in  one  memorable 
battle,  fought  A.  D.  713,  stripped  the  Gothic  king  Rodrigo  of  his 
croAvn  and  life.  The  conquerors,  satisfied  with  the  sovereignty  of 
fhe  country,  left  the  vanquished  Goths  in  possession  of  their  proper- 
ty, laws,  and  religion.  Abdallah  the  Moor  married  the  widow  of 
ilodrigo,  and  the  two  nations  formed  a  perfect  union.  One  small 
part  of  the  rocky  country  of  Asturia  alone  adliered  to  its  christian 
prince,  Pelagius,  who  maintained  his  little  sovereignty,  and  transmit- 
ted it  inviol-.ite  to  his  successors. 

2.  The  Moors  pushed  their  conquests  beyond  the  Pyrenees ;  but 
division  arishig  among  their  emirs,  and  civil  wars  ensuing,  Lewis 
Ic  dcbonnairc  took  advantage  of  the  turbulent  state  of  the  country, 
and  in\aded  and  seized  Barcelona.  The  Mi^orish  sovereignty  in  the 
north  of  Spain  was  weakened  by  throwing  off  its  dependence  on 
the  caliphs;  and  in  tliis  juncture  the  christian  sovereignty  of  the 
Asturias,  under  Alpbonso  the  chaste,  began  to  make  vigorous  en- 
croacliments  on  the  territory  of  the  Moors.  Navaire  and  Arragon, 
roused  by  this  example,  chose  each  a  christiiui  king,  and  boldly  as- 
serted their  liberty  and  independence. 

3.  While  the  Moors  of  Spain  were  thus  losing  ground  in  the  north, 
they  were  highly  flourishing  in  the  southern  parts  of  the  kingdom. 
Abdalrahman,  the  last  heir  of  the  family  of  the  Ommiades  (the 
A-  r-'Sidaj  now  enjoying  the  caliphate),  was  recognized  as  the  tcne 
representative  of  the  ancient  line  by  the  southern  Moors.  He  fixed 
the  seat  of  his  government  at  Cordova,  which,  for  two  centuries  from 
that  time,  was  the  capital  of  a  splcndi'.l  monarchy.  Tbis  period, 
froni  the  middle  of  the  eighth  to  the  middle  of  the  tenth  century, 


MODERN  HISTORY.  lg|' 

IS  the  most  brilliant  aera  of  Arabian  magnificence.  Whilst  Haroun 
Alraschid  made  Bagdat  illustrious  by  the  splendour  of  the  arts  and 
sciences,  the  Moore  of  Cordova  vied  with  their  brethern  of  Asia 
in  the  same  honotarable  pursuits,  and  vvere  undoubtedly  at  this  period 
the  most  enhghtened  of  the  states  of  Europe.  Under  a  series  of 
able  princes"  they  gained  the  highest  reputation,  both  in  arts  and 
arms,  of  all  the  nations  of  the  west. 

4.  The  Saracens  were  at  this  time  extending  their  conquests  in 
almost  every  quarter  of  the  world.  The  Mabometau  religion  was 
professed  over  a  great  part  of  India,  and  all  along  the  eastern  and 
Mediterranean  coast  of^  Africa.  The  African  Saracens  invaded 
Sicily,  and  projected  the  conquest  of  Italy.  They  actually  loid 
siege  to  Rome,  which  was  nobly  defended  by  pope  Leo  IV'.  They 
were  repulsed,  their  ships  were  dispersed  by  a  storm,  and  their  army 
was  cut  to  pieces,  A.  D.  8 18. 

5.  The  Saracens  might  have  raised  an  immense  empiie,  if  they 
had  acknowledged  only  one  head  ;  but  their  states  were  always  dis- 
united. Egypt,  Morocco,  Spain,  and  India,  had  all  their  separate 
sovereigns,  vvlio  continued  to  respect  the  caliph  of  Bagdat  as  the 
successor  of  the  prophet,  but  acknowledged  no  temporal  subjection 
to  his  government. 


SECTION  XI. 

EMPIRE  OF   THE  WEST    AND    ITALY   IN  THE  TENTH  AND 

ELEVENTH  CENTURIES. 

1.  The  empire  founded  by  Charlemagne  now  subsisted  only  in 
name.  Arnold,  a  bastard  son  of  Carloman,  possessed  Germany. 
Italy  was  divided  between  Guy  duke  of  Spolctto  and  Berengarius 
duke  of  Priuli,  who  had  received  these  duchies  from  Charles  the 
baid.  France,  though  claimed  by  Arnold,  was  governed  by  Eudes. 
Thus  the  empire  in  reality  consisted  only  of  a  part  of  Germany, 
while  France,  Spain,  Italy,  Burgundy,  and  the  countries  between  the 
Maes  and  Rhine,  were  all  subject  to  aifferent  powers.  The  emper- 
ors were  at  this  time  elected  by  the  bishops  and  grandees,  all  of 
whom  claimed  a  voice.  In  this  manner  Lewis  the  son  of  Arnold, 
the  last  of  the  blood  of  Charlemagne,  was  chosen  emperor  after  the 
death  of  his  father.  On  his  demise  Otho  duke  of  Saxony,  by  his 
credit  with  his  brother  grandees,  conferred  tlie  empire  on  Conrad 
duke  of  Franconia,  at  whose  death  Henry  surnamed  the  fowler,  son 
of  the  same  duke  Otho,  was  elected  emperor,  A.  D.  918. 

2.  Henry  I.  (the  fowler),  a  prince  of  great  abilities,  introduced 
order  and  good  government  into  the  empire.  He  united  the  gran- 
dees, and  curbed  their  usurpations ;  built,  embellished,  and  fortified 
the  cities ;  and  enforced  with  great  rigour  the  execution  of  the  laws 
in  the  repression  of  all  enormities.  He  had  been  consecrated  by 
his  own  bishops,  and  maintained  no  correspondence  with  the  see  of 
Rome. 

3.  His  son  Otho  (the  great),  A.  D.  938,  again  united  Italy  to  the 
empire,  and  kept  the  popedom  in  complete  subjection.  He  made 
Denmark  tributary  to  the  imperial  crown,  annexed  the  crown  of  B<)- 
hemia  to  his  own  dominions,  and  seemed  to  aim  at  a  paramoual 
authority  over  all  the  sovereigns  of  Europe. 


122  MODERN  HISTORY. 

4.  Otho  owed  his  ascendancy  in  Italy  to  the  disorders  of  the  pa- 
pacy. Formosus,  twice  excommunicated  by  pope  John  VIIl.,  had 
arrired  at  the  triple  crown.  On  his  death  iiis  rival,  pope  Stephen 
VII.,  caused  his  body  to  be  dug  out  ot  the  grave,  and,  after  trial  for 
his  crimes,  condemned  it  to  be  flung  into  the  Tiber.  The  friends  oi 
Formosus  had  interest  to  procure  the  deposition  of  Stephen,  who 
was  strangled  in  prison.  They  sought  and  found  his  body,  and 
buried  it.  A  succeeding  pope,  Sergius  III.,  again  dug  up  this  ill-fated 
carcase,  and  threw  it  into  the  Tiber.  Two  infamous  women,  Marozia 
and  Theodora,  managed  for  many  years  the  popedom,  and  filled  the 
chair  of  St.  Peter  with  their  own  gallants,  or  their  adulterous  off- 
spring. Such  was  the  state  of  the  holy  see,  when  Berengarius  duke 
of  Priuli  disputed  the  sovereignty  of  Italy  with  Hugh  of  Aries. 
The  Italian  states  and  pope  John  Xll.,  who  took  part  agr.inst  Beren- 
garius, invited  Otho  to  compose  the  disorders  of  the  country.  He 
entered  Italy,  defeated  Berengarius,  and  was  consecrated  emperor 
by  the  pope,  with  the  titles  of  Caesar  and  Augustus :  in  return  for 
which  honours  he  confii-med  the  donations  made  to  the  holy  see  by 
his  predecessors,  Pepin,  Charlemagne,  and  Lewis  the  debonnaire, 
A.  D.  962. 

5.  But  John  XII.  was  false  to  his  new  ally.  He  made  his  peace 
with  Berengarius,  and  both  turned  their  arms  against  the  empeior. 
Otho  flew  back  to  Rome,  and  revenged  himself  by  the  trial  aiid 
deposition  of  the  pope ;  but  he  had  scarcely  left  the  city,  wiien 
John,  by  the  aid  of  his  party,  displaced  his  rival  Leo  VllI.  Oliio 
once  more  returned,  and  took  exemplary  vengeance  on  his  enemies, 
by  hanging  one  half  of  the  senate.  Calling  together  the  late  ran 
council,  he  created  a  new  pope,  and  obtained  from  the  assembled 
bishops  a  solemn  acknowledgment  of  the  absolute  right  of  the  em- 

fioror  to  elect  to  the  papacy,  to  give  the  investiture  of  the  crown  of 
taly,  and  to  nominate  to  all  vacant  bishoprics  ;  concessions  observed 
no  longer  than  while  the  emperor  was  present  to  enforce  thenj. 

6.  Such  was  the  state  of  liome  and  Italy  under  Otho  the  great ; 
and  it  continued  to  be  much  the  same  under  his  successors  for  a  cen- 
tury. The  emperors  asserted  their  sovereignty  over  Italy  and  the 
popedom,  though  with  a  constant  resistance  on  the  part  of  the 
Romans,  and  a  general  repugnance  of  the  pope,  when  once  establish- 
ed.    In  those  ages  of  ecclesiastical  profligacy  it  was  not  unusual  to 

Eut  up  the  popedom  to  sale.  Benedict  \  lil.  and  John  XIX.,  two 
rothers,  pubhcly  bought  the  chair  of  St.  Peter,  one  after  the  other ; 
and,  to  keep  it  in  their  family,  it  was  purchased  afterwards  by  their 
friends  for  Benedict  IX.,  a  child  of  twelve  years  of  age.  Three 
popes,  each  pretending  regular  election  and  equal  right,  agreed  fii-st 
to  divide  the  revenues  between  them,  and  afterwards  sold  all  their 
shares  to  a  fourth.  ' 

7.  The  emperor  Henry  III.,  a  prince  of  great  ability,  strenuously 
vindicated  his  right  to  supply  the  pontitical  chair,  and  created  three 

^lucceesive  popes  without  opposition. 


I 


MODERN  HISTORY.  136 


SECTION  Xll. 

HISTORY  OF  BRITAIN   FROM   ITS   EARLIEST   PERIOD   DOWN 
TO  THE  NORMAN  CONQUEST. 

1 .  The  history  of  Britain  has  been  postponed  to  this  time,  that  il 
mav  be  considered  in  one  connected  view  Irom  its  earliest  period  to 
the  end  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  government. 

We  strive  not  to  pierce  through  that  mist  of  obscurity  which  veils 
the  original  population  of  the  British  isles;  remarking  only,  as  a  mat- 
ter of  high  probability,  that  they  derived  their  tirst  inhabitants  from 
the  Celtai  of  Gaul.  Their  authentic  history  commences  with  the  first 
Roman  invasion ;  and  we  learn  from  Caesar  and  Tacitus,  that  the 
country  was  nt  that  period  in  a  state  very  remote  trom  barbarism. 
It  was  divided  into  a  number  of  small  independent  sovereignties,  each 
rince  having  a  regular  army  and  a  iixed  revenue.  The  manners, 
anguage,  and  religion  of  the  people,  were  the  same  as  those  of  the 
(Jaliic  Celts.  The  religion  was  the  druidical  system,  whose  in- 
fluence pervaded  evei'y  department  of  the  government,  and,  by  its 
power  over  the  minds  of  the  people,  supplied  the  imperfection  of 
laws. 

2.  Julius  Caesar,  after  the  conquest  of  Gaul,  turned  his  eyes 
towards  Britain.  He  landed  on  the  southern  coast  of  the  island,  65 
A.  C. ;  and  meeting  with  most  obstinate  resistance,  though  on  the 
wliole  gaining  some  advantage,  he  found  himself  obliged,  after  a 
short  campaign,  to  withdraw  tor  the  winter  into  Gaul.  He  returned 
in  the  following  summer  with  a  great  increase  of  force,  an  army  of 
2b',U00  foot,  a  competent  body  of  horse,  and  a  fleet  of  800  sail.  The 
indjpendent  chiefs  of  the  Britons  united  their  threes  under  Cassibe- 
lanus  king  of  the  Trinobantes,  and  encountering  the  legions  with 
great  resolution,  displayed  all  the  ability  of  practised  warriors.  But 
t!ie  contest  was  vain.  Caesar  advanced  into  the  country,  burnt  Veru- 
lamiuni,  the  capital  of  Cassibelanus,  and,  after  forcing  the  Britons 
into  articles  of  submission,  returned  to  Gaul. 

3-.  The  domestic  disorders  of  Italy  gave  tranquillity  to  the  Britons 
for  near  a  century  ;  but,  in  the  reign  of  Claudius,  the  conquest  of  the 
is!  ;!id  was  determined.  The  emperor  landed  in  Britain  and  com- 
pelled the  submission  of  the  south-eastern  provinces.  Ostorius  Scapula 
defeated  Caractacus,  who  was  sent  prisoner  to  Rome.  Suetonius 
Paulinus,  the  general  of  Nero,  destroyed  Mona  (Anglesey,  or  as 
others  think,  Idan),  the  centre  of  the  druidical  superstition.  The 
Iceni  (inhabitants  of  Norfolk  and  Suffolk),  under  their  queen  Boadicea, 
attacked  several  of  the  Roman  settlements.  London,  with  its  Roman 
garrison,  weis  burnt  to  ashes.  But  a  decisive  battle  ensued,  in  which 
80,000  of  the  Britons  fell  in  the  field,  A.  D.  61.  Thirty  years  after, 
in  the  reign  of  Titus,  the  reduction  of  the  island  was  completed  by' 
the  Roman  general,  Julius  Agricola.  He  secured  the  Roman  prov- 
ince against  invasion  from  the  Caledonituis,  by  walls  and  garrisons ; 
and  reconciled  the  southern  inhabitants  to  the  government  of  their 
conquerors,  by  the  introduction  of  Roman  arts  and  improvements. 
Under  Severus  the  Roman  province  was  extended  far  into  the  north 
of  Scotland. 

4.    With  the  decline  of  the  Roman  power  in  the  west,   th« 
southern  Britoas  recovered  their  liberty,  but  it  was  only  te  become 


124  MODERN  HISTORY. 

the  object  of  incessant  predatory  invasion  from  their  brethren  of  the 
north.  The  Romaixs,  after  rebuil'ling  the  wail  of  Severus,  tinally  bid 
adieu  to  Britain,  A.  D.  448.  The  Picts  and  Caledonians  now  broke 
dovvn  upon  the  south,  ravaging  and  desolating  the  country,  without  a 
purpose  of  conquest,  and  merely,  as  it  appears,  for  the  supply  of  their 
temporary  wants.  After  repeated  application  for  aid  trom  Rome 
without  success,  the  Britons  meanly  solicited  the  Saxons  for  succour 
and  protection. 

5.  The  Saxons  received  the  embassy  with  great  satisfaction.  Brit- 
ain had  been  long  known  to  them  in  their  piratical  voyages  to  its 
coasts.  They  landed  to  the  amount  of  1,600,  under  the  command  o( 
Hengist  and  Horsa,  A.  D.  450 ;  and  joining  the  South  Britons,  soon 
compelled  the  Scots  to  retire  to  their  mountains.  They  next  turned 
their  thoughts  to  the  entire  reduction  of  the  Britons,  and  received 
large  reinforcements  of  their  countrymen.  After  an  obstinate  contest 
»f  near  150  years,  they  reduced  the  whole  of  England  under  the  Sax- 
on government.  Seven  distinct  provinces  became  as  many  indepen- 
dent kingdoms. 

6.  The  liistory  of  the  Saxon  heptarchy  is  uninteresting,  from  its 
obscurity  and  conf;i!?ion.  It  is  sufficient  to  mark  the  duration  of  the 
several  kingdoms,  till  t.heir  union  under  Egbert.  Kent  began  in  456, 
and  lasted,  under  seventeen  princes,  till  827,  when  it  was  subdued  by 
the  West  Saxons.  Under  Etheibert,  one  of  its  kings,  the  Saxons 
were  converted  to  Christianity  by  the  monk  Augustine.  Northumber- 
land began  in  697,  and  lasted,  under  twenty-three  kings,  till  792. 
East  Anglia  began  in  675,  and  ended  in  793.  Mercia  subsisted  from 
582  to  827.  Essex  had  Iburteen  princes,  from  527  to  747.  Sussex 
had  five  kings  before  its  reduction  under  the  dominion  of  the  West 
Saxons,  about  600.  Wessex  (the  country  of  the  West  Saxons)  began 
in  519,  and  had  not  subsistea  above  eighty  years,  when  Cadwalia, 
king  of  Wessex,  conquered  Sussex,  and  annexed  it  to  his  dominions. 
As  there  was  no  tixed  rule  of  succession,  it  was  the  policy  of  the  Sax- 
on princes  to  put  to  death  all  the  rivals  of  their  intended  successor. 
From  this  cause,  and  from  the  passion  lor  celibacy,  the  royal  families 
were  nearly  extinguished  in  the  kingdoms  of  the  heptarchy ;  and  Eg- 
bert, prince  of  the  West  Saxons,  I'emained  the  sole  surviving  descendant 
of  the  Saxon  conquerors  of  Britain.  This  circumstance,  so  favourable 
to  his  ambition,  prompted  him  to  attempt  the  conquest  of  the  heptar- 
chy ;  and  he  succeeded  in  the  enterprise.  By  his  victorious  arms 
and  judicious  policy  all  the  separate  states  were  united  into  one  great 
kingdom,  A.  D.  827,  near  400  years  after  the  first  arrival  of  the  Sax- 
ons in  Britain, 

7.  England,  thus  united,  was  far  froni  enjoying  tranquillity.  The 
piratical  Normans  or  Danes  had  for  fifty  years  desolated  her  coasts, 
and  continued,  for  some  centuries  atler  this  period,  to  be  a  perpetual 
scourge  to  the  country.  Under  Alfred  (the  great),  grandson  of  Eg- 
bert, the  kingdom  was  from  this  cause  reduced  to  extreme  wretched- 
ness. The  heroic  Alfred  in  one  year  defeated  the  Danes  in  eight  bat- 
tles; but  a  new  irruption  of  their  countrymen  forced  him  to  solicit  a 
peace,  which  th«se  pirates  constantly  interrupted  by  new  hostilities. 
Alfred  was  compelled  to  seek  his  safety  for  many  months  in  an  obscure 
quarter  of  the  counti7,  till  the  disorders  of  the  Danish  army  otfered 
a  fair  opportunity  of  attacking  them,  which  he  improved  to  the  entire 
defeat  oi  his  enemies.  He  might  have  destroyed  them  all,  but  chose 
rather  to  spare  and  to  incorporate  them  with  his  English  su'^>ject3. 
This  clemency  did  not  restrain  their  countrymen  from  attempting  a 


MODERN  HISTORY.  126 

new  invasion.  They  were  again  defeated  with  immense  loss;  and 
the  extreme  severity  which  it  was  necessary  to  exercise  against  the 
vanquished,  had  tlie  eflect  of  suspending  the 'Danish  depredations  lor 
several  wars. 

8.  Alfred,  whether  considered  in  his  public  or  private  character, 
deserves  to  be  reckoned  among  the  best  and  greatest  of  princes.  He 
united  tlie  most  enterprising  and  heroic  spirit  with  consummate  pru- 
dence and  moderation,  the  utmost  vigour  of  authority  with  the  most 
engaging  gentleness  of  manner,  the  most  exemplary  justice  with  the 
greatest  lenity,  the  talents  of  the  statesman  and  the  man  of  letters 
with  the  intrepid  resolution  and  conduct  of  the  general.  He  found 
the  kingdom  in  the  most  miserable  condition  to  which  anarchy,  do- 
mestic barbarism,  and  tpreign  hostility,  could  reduce  it:  he  brougUt 
it  to  a  pitch  of  eminence  suipassing,  in  many  respects,  the  situation  of 
its  contemporary  nations. 

9.  Alfred  divided  l-Lngland  into  counties,  with  their  subdivisions  of 
hundreds  and  tithings.  The  tithing  or  decennary  consisted  of  t'ln 
families,  over  which  presided  a  tithing-mnn  or  borg-hoider ;  and  t^n 
ot  these  composed  the  hundred.  Every  house-holder  was  answerable 
for  his  family,  and  the  tithing-man  for  all  within  his  tithing.  In  the 
decision  of  ditfcrences  the  tithing-man  had  the  assistance  of  the  rest 
of  his  decennary.  An  appeal  lay  from  the  decennary  to  the  court  of 
the  hundred,  which  was  assembled  every  four  weeks ;  and  the  cause 
was  tried  by  a  jury  of  twelve  freeholders,  sworn  to  do  impartial  jus- 
tice. An  annual  meeting  of  the  hundred  was  held  for  the  regulati'-in 
of  the  pohce  of  the  district.  The  county-court,  superior  to  that  of 
the  hundred,  and  consisting  of  ail  the  freeholders,  met  twice  a  year, 
after  Michaelmas  and  Easter,  to  determine  appeals  from  the  hundreds, 
and  settle  disputes  between  the  inhabitants  of  different  hundreds. 
The  ultimate  appeal  from  all  these  courts  lay  to  (he  king  in  council; 
and  the  frequency  of  these  appeals  prompted  Alfred  to  extreme  cir- 
cumspection in  the  appointment  of  his  judges.  He  composed  for  the 
regulation  of  these  courts,  and  of  his  kingdom,  a  body  of  laws,  the 
basis  of  the  common  law  of  England. 

lU.  Alfred  gave  every  encouragement  to  the  cultivation  of  letters, 
as  the  best  means  of  eradicating  barbarism.  He  invited,  from  every 
quarter  of  Europe,  the  learned  to  reside  in  his  dominions,  established 
schools,  and  is  said  to  have  founded  the  university  of  Oxibrd.  He 
was  himself  a  most  accomplished  scholar  for  the  age  in  which  he 
lived,  as  appears  from  the  works  which  he  composed :  poetical  apo- 
logues, (he  translation  of  the  histories  of  Bode  and  Orosius  ;  and  of  Bo- 
etliius  on  the  consolation  of  philosophy.  In  every  view  of  his  char- 
acter we  must  regard  Alfred  the  great  as  one  of  the  best  and  w  isest 
men  that  ever  occmiied  the  regal  seat.  He  died  at  the  age  of  tifty- 
three,  A.  D.  901,  alter  a  glorious  reign  of  twenty-nine  years  and  a 
halt:  / 

11.  The  admirable  institutions  of  Alfred  were  partially  and  feebly 
enforced  under  his  successoi-s ;  and  England,  still  a  prey  to  the  rava- 
ges of  the  Danes  and  intestine  disorder,  relapsed  into  confusion  and 
barbarism.  The  reigns  of  Edward  the  elder,  the  son  of  Alfred,  and 
of  his  successors,  Aihelstan,  Edmund,  and  Edred,  were  tumultuous  and 
anarchical.  The  clergy  began  to  extend  their  authority  over  the 
throne,  and  a  series  of  succeeding  princes  were  the  obsequious  slaves 
of  their  tyranny  and  ambition.  In  the  reign  of  E'hflred,  A.  D.  981^ 
the  Danes  seriously  projected  the  conquest  of  England ;  and  led  by 
Sweyn  king  of  Denmark,  and  Olaus  king  ctf  Norway,  made  a  more 
L2 


126  MODERN  HISTORY. 

formidable  descent,  won  several  important  battles,  and  were  restrain* 
ed  from  the  destruction  of  Lonaon  only  by  a  dastardly  submission, 
and  a  promise  of  tribute  to  be  paid  by  the  inglorious  Ethelred.  The 
English  nobility  were  ashamed  of  their  prince,  and,  seeing  no  other 
relief  to  the  kingdom,  made  a  tender  of  the  crown  to  the  Danish 
monarch.  On  the  death  of  Sweyn,  Ethelred  attempted  to  regain  his 
kingdom,  but  found  in  Canute,  the  son  of  Sweyn,  a  prince  determined 
to  support  his  claims.  On  the  death  of  Ethelred,  his  son  Edmund 
Ironside  gallantly  but  ineffectually  opposed  Canute.  At  length  a 
partition  of  the  kingdom  was  made  between  Canute  and  Edmund, 
which,  after  a  few  months,  the  Danes  annulled  by  the  murder  of 
Edmund,  thus  securing  to  their  monarch  Canute  the  throne  of  all 
Endand,  A.  D.  1,017.  Edmund  left  two  children,  Edgar  Atheling, 
and  Margaret,  afterwards  wife  to  Malcolm  Canmore,  king  of  Scot- 
land. 

12.  Canute,  the  most  powerful  monarch  of  his  time,  sovereign  of 
Denmark,  Norway,  and  England,  swayed,  for  seventeen  years,  the 
sceptre  of  England  with  a  tirm  and  vigorous  hand.  He  was  severe 
in  the  beginning  of  his  reign,  while  his  government  was  insecure ; 
but  mild  and  equitable  when  possessed  of  a  settled  dominion.  He 
left,  A.  D.  1.036,  three  sons,  Sweyn,  who  was  crowned  king  of  Nor- 
way, Harold,  who  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  England,  and  Hardi- 
canute,  sovereign  of  Denmark.  Harold,  a  merciless  tyrant,  died  in 
the  fourth  year  of  his  reign,  and  was  succeeded  by  Hardicanute, 
who,  after  a  violent  administration  of  two  years,  died  in  a  tit  of  de- 
bauch. The  English  seized  this  opportunity  of  shaking  off  the 
Danish  yoke,  and  conferred  the  crown  on  Edward,  a  younger  son  of 
Ethelred,  rejecting  the  preferable  I'ight  of  Edgar  Athehng,  the  son 
of  Edmund,  who,  unfortunately  for  his  pretensions,  was,  at  this  time 
abroad  in  Hungary.  Edward,  surnamed  the  confessor,  A.  D.  1,041, 
reigned  weakly  and  ingloriously  for  twenty-five  years.  The  rebel- 
lious attempts  of  Godwin,  earl  of  Wessex,  aimed  at  nothing  less  than 
a  usurpation  of  the  crown;  and  on  his  death,  his  son  Harold,  cherish- 
ing secretly  the  same  views  of  ambition,  had  the  address  to  sectire  to 
his  interest  a  very  formidable  party  in  the  kingdom.  Edward,  to  de- 
feat these  views,  bequeathed  the  crown  to  William  duke  of  Nonnan- 
dy,  a  prince  whose  great  abilities  and  personal  prowess  had  rendered 
his  name  illustrious  over  Europe. 

13.  On  the  death  of  Edward  the  confessor,  1,066,  the  usurper 
Harold  took  possession  of  the  throne,  which  the  intrepid  Norman 
determined  immediately  to  reclaim  as  his  inheritance  of  ri^ht.  He 
made  the  most  formidable  preparations,  aided,  in  this  age  ot  roman- 
tic enterprise,  by  many  of  the  sovereign  princes,  and  a  vast  body  of 
the  nobility,  from  the  different  contineut.il  kingdoms.  A  Norwegian 
fleet  of  300  sail  entered  the  Humber  (a  river  on  the  eastern  coast 
of  England).  The  troops  were  disembarked,  and,  after  one  success- 
ful engagement,  were  defeated  by  the  English  army  in  the  interest 
of  Harold.  William  landed  his  army  on  the  coast  of  Sussex,  to  the 
amount  of  60,000 ;  and  the  English,  under  Harold,  flushed  with  their 
recent  success,  hastily  advanced  to  meet  him,  being  imprudently  re- 
solved to  venture  all  on  one  decisive  battle.  Thu  total  rout  and  dis- 
comfiture of  the  English  army  in  the  field  of  Hastings,  on  the  14th 
day  of  October,  1 ,066,  and  the  death  of  Harold,  after  some  fruitless 
attem^  of  further  resistance,  put  Wiiliana  duke  of  Normandy  in 
f«i9CS^0D  of  the  throoe  oi  Ln^iand. 


MODERN  HISTORY,  127 


SECTION  XIII. 

OF    THE   GOVERNMENT,     LAWS,    AND    MANNERS   OF    THE 
ANGLO-SAXONS. 

1.  The  government,  laws,  and  manners  of  the  Anglo-Saxons  have 
become  a  subject  of  inquiry  to  modern  vvritei's,  as  being  supposed  to 
have  had  influence  in  the  formation  of  the  British  constitution. 
The  government  of  the  Saxons  was  the  same  as  that  of  all  the  an- 
cient Germanic  nations,  and  they  naturally  retained,  in  their  new 
settlement  in  Britain,  a  policy  similar  to  their  accustomed  usages. 
Their  subordination  was  chieily  military,  the  king  having  no  more 
authority  than  what  belonged  to  the  general,  or  military  leader. 
There  was  no  strict  rule  of  succession  to  the  throne ;  for  though  the 
king  was  generally  chosen  from  the  family  of  the  last  prince,  yet 
the  choice  usually  fell  on  the  pei-son  of  the  best  capacity  for  govern 
ment.  In  some  instances  the  destination  of  the  last  sovereign  regu- 
lated the  choice.  We  know  very  little  of  the  nature  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  government,  or  of  the  distinct  rights  of  the  sovereign  and 
people. 

2.  One  institution  common  to  all  the  kingdoms  of  the  heptarchy  was 
the  wittenagemot,  or  assembly  of  the  wise  men,  whose  consent  was 
requisite  for  enacting  laws,  and  ratitying  the  chief  acts  of  public  ad- 
ministration. The  bishops  and  abbots  formed  a  part  of  this  assem- 
bly ;  also  the  aldermen,  or  earls,  and  governors  of  counties.  The 
wites,  or  wise  men,  are  discriminated  from  the  prelates  and  nobility, 
and  have  by  some  been  supposed  to  have  been  the  representatives 
of  the  commons.  But  we  hear  nothing  of  election  or  representation 
in  those  periods,  and  we  must  therefore  presume  that  they  were 
merely  landholders,  or  men  of  considerable  estate,  who,  from  their 
weight  and  consequence  in  the  country,  were  held  entitled,  without 
any  election,  to  take  a  share  in  the  public  deliberations. 

3.  The  Anglo-Saxon  government  was  extremely  aristocratical ; 
the  regal  authority  being  very  limited,  the  rights  of  the  people  little 
known  or  regarded,  and  the  nobility  posses::ing  much  uncontrolled 
and  lawless  rule  over  their  dependents.  The  otiices  of  government 
were  hereditary  in  their  families,  and  they  commanded  the  whole 
military  force  of  their  respective  provinces.  So  strict  was  the  dien- 
tcla  between  these  nobles  and  their  vassals,  that  the  murder  of  a  vas- 
sal was  compensated  by  a  tine  paid  to  his  lord. 

4.  There  were  three  ranks  of  the  people,  the  nobles,  the  free,  and 
the  slaves.  The  nobles  were  either  the  king's  thanes,  who  held 
their  lands  directly  from  the  sovereign,  or  less  thanes,  who  held  lands 
from  the  former.  One  law  of  Athelstan  declared,  that  a  merchant 
who  had  made  three  voyages  on  his  own  account  was  entitled  to  the 
dignity  of  thane ;  another  decreed  the  same  rank  to  a  ceorle,  or  hus- 
bandman, who  was  able  to  purchase  live  hides  of  land,  and  had  a 
chapel,  a  kitchen,  a  hall,  and  a  bell.  The  ceorles,  or  freemen  of  the 
lower  rank,  occupied  the  farms  of  the  thanes,  for  which  they  paid 
rent ;  and  they  were  removable  at  the  pleasure  of  their  lord.  The 
slaves  or  villains  were  either  employed  in  domestic  purposes,  or  in 
cultivating  the  lands,  A  master  was  hned  for  the  murder  of  his  slave  ; 
and  if  he  mutilated  him,  the  slave  recovered  his  freedom. 

5.  Under  this  aristocratical  govermu^ut  there  were  some  traces  ti 


128  MODERN  HISTORY. 

the  ancient  Germanic  democracy.  The  courts  of  the  decennary,  the 
hundred,  and  the  county,  were  a  considerable  restraint  on  the  pow- 
er of  the  nobles,  in  the  county-courts  the  freeholders  met  twice 
a  year  .o  determine  appeals  by  the  majority  ol"  suffrages.  The 
alderman  presided  in  those  courts,  but  had  no  vote :  he  received  a 
third  of  the  fines,  the  remaining  two-thirds  devolving  to  the  king, 
which  was  a  great  part  of  t!ie  royal  revenue.  Pecuniary  tines  w^ere 
the  ordinary  atonement  for  every  species  of  crime,  and  the  modes 
of  proof  were  the  ordeal  by  tire  or  water,  or  by  compurgators. 
(Part  11.,  Sect.  V.,  §  7.) 

6.  As  to  the  military  force,-  the  expense  of  defending  the  state  lay 
equally  on  all  the  land,  every  five  hides  or  ploughs  being  taxed  to 
furnish  a  soldier.  Tiiere  were  243,600  hides  in  England,  conse- 
quently the  ordinary  military  force  coni^isted  of  48,720  men. 

7.  The  king's  re\'enue,  besides  the  tines  imposed  by  the  courts, 
consisted  partly  of  his  demesnes  or  property-iands,  which  were  ex- 
tensive, and  partly  in  imposts  on  boroughs  and  sea-ports.  The  Dane- 
gelt  was  a  tax  imposed  by  the  s.t<ites,  either  for  payment  of  tribute 
exacted  by  the  Danes,  or  for  defending  the  kingdom  against  them. 
By  the  custom  of  gavelkind,  the  land  vv;is  divided  equally  among  all 
the  male  children  of  the  deceased  proprietor.  Lands  held  by  the 
tenure  of  Borough-Englisli,  on  the  death  of  the  tenant,  went  to  the 
youngest  son,  instead  of  the  eldeit.  Book-land  was  that  which  was 
held  by  charter,  and  folk-land  what  was  held  by  tenants  removable 
at  pleasure. 

8.  The  Anglo-Saxons  were  behind  the  Normans  in  every  point  ot 
civiuzation ;  and  the  conquest  was  therefore  to  them  a  real  advan- 
tage, as  it  led  to  material  improvement  in  arts,  science,  government, 
and  laws. 

SECTION  XIV. 

STATE  OF  EUROPE  DURING  THE  TENTH,   ELEVENTH,   AND 
TWELFTH  CENTURIES. 

1.  France,  from  the  extent  and  splendour  of  its  dominion  under 
Charlemagne,  had  dwindled  to  a  shadow  undvjr  Lis  weak  posterity. 
At  the  end  of  the  Carlovingian  period  France  comprehended  neither 
I^Jormandy,  Dauphine,  nor  Provence.  On  the  deatii  of  Lewis  V. 
(Faineant),  the  crown  ought  to  have  devolved  on  his  uncle,  Charles 
of  Brabant,  as  the  last  male  of  the  race  of  Charlemagne ;  but  Hugh 
Capet,  lord  of  Picardy  and  Champagne,  the  most  powerful  of  the 
French  nobles,  was  elected  sovereign  by  the  voice  of  his  brother 
peere,  A.  D.  987.  The  kingdom,  torn  by  parlies,  sutfered  much 
domestic  misery  under  the  reign  of  Hugh,  and  that  of  his  successoi 
Robert;  the  victim  of  papal  tyranny,  for  daring  to  marry  a  distant 
cousin  without  the  dispeasution  of  the  church. 

2.  The  prevailing  passion  of  the  times  was  pilgrimage  and  chiv- 
alrous enterprise,  in  this  career  of  adventure  the  IS  ormans  most 
remarkably  distinguished  themselves.  In  983  they  relieved  the 
prince  of  Salerno,-  by  expelling  the  Saracens  from  his  territory. 
They  did  a  similar  service  to  pope  Benedict  VIII.,  and  the  duke  of 
Capua ;  while  another  band  of  their  countrymen  fought  first  against 
the  Greeks,  and  d\ervvards  against  the  popes,  always  selling  their  ser- 
vices to  those  wiio  best  rewarded  them.  Willia.m  f  ierabras,  and  his 
biothers,  Humphrey,  Robert,  ;uMi  iiichard,  kept  tl»e  pope  a  prisoner 


MODERN  HISTORY.  128 

for  a  year  at  Benevento,  and  forced  the  court  of  Rome  to  yield  Capua 
to  Richard,  and  Apulia  and  Calabria  to  Robert,  with  the  investiture 
of  Sicily,  if  he  should  gain  the  country  from  the  Saracens.  In  1,101 
Rogero  the  Norman  completed  the  conquest  of  Sicily,  of  wiiich  the 
popes  continued  to  be  the  lords  paramount. 

5.  The  north  of  Europe  was  in  those  periods  extremely  barba- 
rous. Russia  received  the  christian  religion  in  the  eighth  century. 
Sweden,  after  its  conversion  in  the  ninth  centurj',  relapsed  into  idola- 
try, as  did  Hungary  and  Bohemia.  The  Constantinopolitan  empire 
defended  its  frontiers  with  difhculty  against  the  Bulgarians  on  the 
west,  and  against  the  Turks  and  Arabians  on  the  east  and  north. 

4.  In  Italy,  excepting  the  territory  of  tlie  popedom,  the  principali- 
ties of  the  independent  nobles,  and  the  states  of  Venice  and  Genoa,  the 
greater  part  of  the  country  was  now  in  the  possession  of  the  Nor- 
mans. Venice  and  Genoa  were  rising  gradually  to  great  opulence  from 
commerce.  Venice  was  for  some  ages  tributary  to  the  emperors  of 
Germany.  In  the  tenth  centui-y  its  doge  assumed  the  title  of  duke 
of  Dalmatia,  of  which  the  republic  had  acquired  the  property  by 
conquest,  as  well  as  of  Istria,  .Spalatro,  Ragusa,  and  Narenza. 

5.  Spain  was  chiefly  possessed  by  the  Moors;  the  christians  retain- 
ing only  about  a  fourth  of  the  kingdom,  namely,  Asturia,  pait  of  Castile 
and  Catalonia,  Navarre,  and  Arragon.  Portugal  Avas  likewise  occu- 
pied by  the  Moors.  Their  capital  was  Cordova,  the  seat  of  luxury 
and  magniticence.  In  the  tenth  century  the  Moorish  dominions  were 
split  among  a  number  of  petty  sovereigns,  v/ho  were  constantly  at 
war  with  one  another.  Such,  unfortunately,  was  likewise  the  situa- 
tion of  the  christian  part  of  the  kingdom  ;  and  it  was  no  uncommon 
policy  for  the  christian  princes  to  form  alliances  with  the  Moors 
against  one  another.  Besides  these  the  country  abounded  with  inde- 
pendent lords,  who  made  war  their  profession,  and  performed  the 
blfice  of  champions  in  deciding  the  quarrels  of  princes,  or  enlisted 
themselves  in  their  service  with  all  their  vassals  and  attendants.  Of 
these,  termed  cavalleros  aiulanies,  or  knights-errant,  the  most  dis- 
tinguished was  Rodrigo  the  cid,  who  undertook  for  his  sovereign, 
Alphonso  king  of  Old  Castile,  to  conquer  the  kingdom  of  New  Cas- 
tile, and  achieved  it  with  success,  obtaining  the  government  of  Va- 
lencia as  fne  reward  of  his  services. 

6.  The  contentions  between  the  imperial  and  papal  powers  made 
a  distinguished  tigure  in  those  ages.  Henry  111.  vindicated  the  im- 
perial right  to  till  the  chair  of  St.  Peter,  and  nominated  three  suc- 
cessive popes,  without  tlie  intervention  of  a  council  of  the  church. 
But  in  the  minority  of  his  son  Henry  IV.,  this  right  was  frequently  inter- 
rupted, and  Alexander  II.  kept  his  seat,  though  the  emperor  named 
another  in  his  place.  It  was  the  lot  of  this  emperor  to  experience 
the  utmost  extent  of  papal  insolence  and  tyranny.  Aiter  a  spirited 
contest  with  Gregory  \  11.,  in  which  the  pope  was  twice  his  prisoner, 
and  the  emperor  -as  often  excommunicated  and  deposed,  Henry  fell 
at  length  the  victim  of  ecclesiastical  vengeance.  Urban  II.,  a  succes- 
sor of  Gregory,  prompted  the  two  sons  of  Henry  to  rebel  against 
their  father;  and  his  misfortunes  were  terminated  by  imprisonment 
and  death  in  1,106.  The  same  contests  went  on  under  a  succession  of 

fopes  and  emperors,  but  ended  commonly  in  favour  of  the  foi-mer. 
'rederick  1.  (Barbarosea),  a  prince  of  high  spirit,  after  an  indignant 
denial  of  the  supremacy  of  Alexander  111.,  and  a  refusal  ot  the  cus- 
tomarjr  homage,  was  at  length  compelled  to  kiss  his  feet,  and  appease 
hia  holiness  by  a  large  cession  of  territory.    Pope  Celeslinus  kicked 

17 


130  MODERN  HISTORY. 

off  the  imperial  crown  of  Henry  VI.,  while  doing  homage  on  his 
knees,  but  made  amends  for  this  insolence  by  the  gift  of  Naples  and 
Sicily,  from  which  Henry  had  expelled  the  Normans.  These  terri- 
tories now  became  an  appanage  of  the  empire,  1,194.  The  suC' 
ceeding  popes  rose  on  the  pretensions  of  their  predecessors,  till  at 
length  Innocent  III.,  in  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century,  estab- 
lished the  power  of  the  popedom  on  a  settled  basis,  and  obtained  a 
positive  acknowledgment  of  the  papal  supremacy,  or  the  right  priiir 
cipaliter  et  finaliter  [principally  and  finally)  to  confer  the  imperial 
crown.  It  was  the  same  pope  Innocent  whom  we  shall  presently 
see  the  disposer  of  the  crown  of  England  in  the  reign  of  the  tyrant 
John. 


SECTION  XV. 

HISTORY  OF  ENGLAND  IN  THE  ELEVENTH,  TWELFTH,  AND 
PART  OF  THE  THIRTEENTH  CENTURIES. 

1.  TiiE  consequence  of  the  battle  of  Hastings  was  the  submission 
ef  all  England  to  William  the  conqueror.  The  character  of  this 
prince  was  spirited,  haughty,  and  tyrannical,  yet  not  without  a  por- 
tion of  the  generous  affections.  He  disgusted  his  English  subjects 
by  the  strong  partiality  which  he  showed  to  his  Norman  followers, 
preferring  them  to  ah  olhces  of  trust  and  dignity.  A  conspiracy 
arose  from  these  discontents,  which  William  defeated,  and  avenged 
with  signal  rigour  and  cruelty.  He  determined  henceforward  to 
treat  the  English  as  a  conquered  people,  a  policy  that  involved  his 
reign  in  perpetual  commotions,  which,  while  they  robbed  him  of  all 
peace  of  maid,  aggravated  the  tyranny  of  his  disposition.  To  his 
own  children  he  owed  the  severest  of  his  troubles.  His  eldest  son 
Robert  rose  in  rebellion,  to  wrest  from  him  the  sovereignty  of 
Maine ;  and  his  foreign  subjects  took  part  with  the  rebel.  William 
led  against  them  an  army  of  the  English,  and  was  on  the  point  of 
perishing  in  fight  by  his  son's  hand.  Philip  I.  of  France  had  aided 
tliis  rebellion,  which  was  avenged  by  William,  who  carried  havoc  and 
devastation  into  the  heart  of  his  kingdom,  but  was  killed  in  the  en- 
terprise by  a  fall  from  his  horse,  1,U87.  He  bequeathed  England  to 
William  his  second  son ;  to  Robert  he  left  Normandy ;  and  to  Henry, 
his  youngest  son,  the  properly  of  his  mother  Matilda. 

2.  William  the  conqueror  introduced  into  England  the  feudal  law, 
'dividing  the  whole  khigdom,  except  the  royal  demesnes,  into  baron- 
ies, and  bestowing  the  most  of  these,  under  the  tenure  of  military 
service,  on  his  Norman  followers.  By  the  forest  laws  he  reserved 
to  himself  the  exclusive  privilege  of  killing  game  over  all  the 
kingdom;  a  restriction  resented  by  his  subjects  above  every  other 
mark  of  servitude.  Preparatory  to  the  introduction  of  the  feudal 
tenures,  he  planned  and  accomplished  a  general  survey  of  all  the 
lands  in  the  kingdom,  with  a  distinct  specification  of  their  extent,  na- 
ture, value,  names  of  their  proprietors,  and  an  enumeration  of  every 
clas?  of  inhabitants  who  lived  on  them.  This  most  valuable  record, 
called  Dooinsday-book^  is  preserved  in  the  English  exchequer,  and  is 
now  printed. 

3.  William  II.  (Rufus)  inherited  the  vices,  without  any  of  the 
virtues,  of  his  father.  His  reign  is  distinguished  by  no  event  of  im- 
portance) and,  after  the  defeat  of  one  conspiracy  in  its  outset,  pre- 


MODERN  HISTORY.  131 

sents  nothing  but  a  dull  career  of  unresisted  despotism.  After  a  reign 
of  thirteen  years  he  was  killed  when  hunting  by  the  random  shot  of 
an  arrow,  1,100.  The  crown  of  England  would  have  devolved  on  his 
elder  brother  Robert ;  but  his  absence  on  a  crusade  in  Palestine  made 
way  for  the  unopposed  succession  of  his  younger  brother  Henry, 
who,  by  his  marriage  with  Matilda,  the  niece  of  Edgar  Atheling,  unit- 
ed the  last  remnant  of  the  Saxon  with  the  Norman  Une.  With  most 
criminal  ambition,  he  now  invaded  his  brother''?  dominions  of  Norman- 
dy; and  Robert,  on  his  return,  was  defeated  in  battle,  and  detained 
for  life  a  prisontr  in  England.  The  crimes  of  Henry  were  expiated 
bv  his  misfortunes.  His  only  son  was  drowned  in  his  passage  from 
Normandy.  His  daughter  Matilda,  married  lirst  to  the  emperor  Hen- 
rj  v.,  and  afterwards  to  Geoffrey  Planiagenet  of  Anjou,  was  destined 
to  be  his  successor ;  but  th?  popularity  of  bis  nephew  Stephen,  son 
of  the  count  of  Blois,  defeated  these  intentions.  Henry  I.  died  in  Nor- 
mandy, after  a  reign  of  thirty-five  years,  A.  D.  1,136;  and,  in  spite  of 
his  destination  to  Matilda,  Stephen  seized  the  vacant  throne.  The 
party  of  Matilda,  headed  by  her  natural  brother,  the  earl  of  Glouces-' 
ter,  engaged,  detisated,  ancl  made  Stephen  prisoner.  Matilda  in  her 
turn  mounted  the  throne ;  but,  unpopular  from  the  tyranny  of  her 
disposition,  she  was  solemnly  deposed  by  the  prevailing  party  of  her 
rival ;  and  Stephen  was  once  more  restored.  He  found,  liowever,  in 
Henry  Plantagenet,  the  son  of  Matilda,  a  more  formidable  competitor. 
Of  a  noble  and  intrepid  spirit,  he  resolved,  while  yet  a  boy,  to  reclaim 
his  hereditary  crown ;  and,  landing  in  England,  won  by  his  prowess, 
and  the  favour  of  a  just  cause,  a  great  part  of  the  kingdom  to  his  in- 
terest. By  treaty  with  Stephen,  who  was  allowed  to  reign  for  life- 
he  secured  the  succession  at  his  death,  which  soon  after  ensued, 
1,154. 

4.  Henry  II.,  a  prince  in  every  sense  deserving  of  the  throne,  began 
his  reign  with  the  reformation  of  all  the  abuses  of  the  government  of 
his  predecessors  ;  revoking  all  impolitic  grants,  abohshing  partial  im- 
munities, regulating  the  administration  of  justice,  and  establishing  the 
freedom  of  the  towns  by  charters,  which  are  at  this  day  the  basis  of 
the  national  liberty.  Happy  in  the  affections  of  his  people,  and  pow- 
erful in  the  vast  extent  of  additional  territory  which  he  enjoyed  on 
the  continent  in  right  of  his  father  and  of  his  wife,  the  heiress  of  a 
great  portion  of  France,  his  reign  had  every  promise  of  prosf>erity 
and  happiness;  but  from  one  fatal  source  these  pleasing  prospects 
were  all  destroyed.  Thomas  Becket  was  raised  by  Henry  from  ob- 
scurity to  the  office  of  chancellor  of  England.  On  the  vacancy  of  the 
see  of  Canterbury  the  king,  desirous  of  his  aid  in  the  correction  of 
ecclesiastical  abuses,  conferred  the  primacy  on  his  favourite  ;  and  the 
arrogant  Becket  availed  himself  of  that  autnority  to  abase  the  prerog- 
ative of  his  sovereign,  and  exalt  the  spiritual  power  above  the  crown 
It  was  disputed,  whether  a  priest  could  be  tried  for  a  murder,  and  pun 
ished  by  the  civil  court.  It  was  detennined  in  the  affirmative  by  the 
council  of  Clarendon,  against  the  opinion  of  Becket.  Pope  Alexander 
III.  annulled  the  decree  of  the  council;  and  Becket,  wno  took  part 
with  the  pope,  was  deprived  by  Henry  of  all  his  dignities  and  estates. 
He  avenged  himself  by  the  excommunication  of  the  king's  ministers 
and  Henry,  in  return,  prohibited  all  intercourse  with  the  see  of  Rome 
At  length  both  parties  found  it  their  interest  to  come  to  a  good  under- 
standing. Becket  was  restored  to  favour,  and  reinstated  in  his  primacy, 
when  the  increasing  insolence  of  his  demeanour  drew  from  the  king 
lome  hasty  expressions  of  indignation,  which  his  servants  interpreted 


132  MODERN  HISTORY. 

into  a  sentence  of  proscription,  and,  trusting  that  the  deed  would  be 
grateful  to  their  master,  murdered  the  prelate  while  in  the  act  of 
celebrating  vespers  at  the  altar.  For  tiiis  shocking  action  Henry 
expressed  the  regret  which  he  sincerely  felt,  and  the  pope  indulgent- 
ly granted  his  pardon,  on  the  assurance  of  his  dutiful  obedience  to 
the  holy  church. 

5.  The  most  important  event  of  the  reign  of  Henry  II.  was  the 
conquest  of  Ireland.  The  Irish,  an  early  civilized  people,  and  among 
the  tirst  of  the  nations  of  the  west  who  embraced  the  christian  reli- 
gion, were,  by  frequent  invasions  of  the  Danes,  and  their  owm  domes- 
tic commotions,  replunged  into  barbarism  tor  many  ages.  In  the 
twelfth  century  the  kingdom  consisted  of  five  separate  sovereignties, 
Ulster,  Leinster,  Munster,  Meath,  and  Connaught;  but  these  vvei'e 
subdivided  among  an  infinite  number  of  petty  chiefs,  owing  a  very 
weak  allegiance  to  their  respective  sovereigns.  Dermot  Macmor- 
rogh,  expelled  from  his  kingdom  of  Leinster  for  a  rape  on  the  daugh- 
ter of  the  king  of  Meath,  sought  protection  from  Henry,  and  engaged 
to  become  his  leudatory,  if  he  should  recover  his  kingdom  by  the  aid 
of  the  English.  Henry  empowered  his  subjects  to  invade  Ireland, 
and,  while  Strongbow  earl  of  Pembroke  and  his  followers  were  lay- 
ing waste  the  country,  landed  in  the  island  in  1,172,  and  received  the 
submission  of  many  of  the  independent  chiefs.  Roderick  O'Connor, 
prince  of  Connatight,  whom  the  Irish  elected, nominal  sovereign  of 
all  the  provinces,  resisted  lor  throe  years  the  arms  of  Henry,  but 
finally  acknowledged  his  dominion  by  a  solemn  embassy  to  the  king 
at  Windsor.  The  terms  of  the  submission  were,  an  annual  tribute  of 
every  tenth  hide  of  land,  to  be  applied  for  the  support  of  government, 
and  an  obligation  of  allegiance  to  the  crown  of  England;  on  which 
conditions  the  Irish  should  retain  their  possessions,  and  Roderick  liis 
kingdom ;  except  the  territory  of  the  Pale,  or  that  part  which  the 
English  barons  had  subdued  before  the  arrival  of  Henry. 

6.  Henry  divided  Ireland  into  counties,  appointed  sheriffs  in  each, 
and  introduced  the  laws  of  Engl;ind  into  the  territory  of  the  Pale. 
The  rest  of  the  kingdom  was  regulated  by  their  ancient  laws,  till  the 
reign  of  Edward  I.,  when,  at  the  request  of  the  nation,  the  English 
laws  were  extended  to  the  whole  kingdom.  In  the  first  Irish  parlia- 
ment, which  was  held  in  the  same  reign, sir  John  Wogan  presided  as 
deputy  of  the  sovereign.  From  that  time  there  was  little  intercourse 
between  the  two  kingdoms  lor  some  centuries ;  nor  was  the  island 
considered  as  fully  subdued  till  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  and  of  her  suc- 
cessor James  I. 

7.  The  latter  part  of  the  reign  of  Henry  U.  was  clouded  by  domes- 
tic misfortunes.  His  children,  Henry,  Richard,  Geoflrey,  and  John, 
instigated  by  their  unnatural  mother,  rose  in  rebellion,  and,  with  the 
aid  of  Louis  Vll.,  king  of  France,  prepared  to  dethrone  their  father. 
While  opposing  them  with  spirit  on  the  continent,  his  kingdom  was 
invaded  by  the  Scots  under  William  (the  lion).  He  hasteneJback  to 
England,  defeated  the  Scots,  and  made  their  king  his  prisoner.  Two 
of  his  sons,  Henry  and  Geoffrey,  expiated  their  offences  by  an  early 
death ;  but  Richard,  once  reconciled,  was  again  seduced  from  his  al- 
legiance, and,  in  league  with  the  king  of  France,  plundered  his  fa- 
ther's continental  dominions.  Tlie  spirit  of  Henry  was  unequal  to  hi3 
domestic  misfortunes,  and  he  died  of  a  broken  heart  in  the  58th  year 
of  his  age,  1,'189,  an  omament  to  the  English  throne,  and  a  prince  sur- 
passing all  his  contemporaries  in  the  valuable  qualities  of  a  sovereign. 


BIODERN  HISTORY.  133 

To  him  England,  owed  her  first  permanent  improvement  in  arts,  in 
laws,  in  government,  and  in  civil  liberty. 

8.  Richard  I.  (coeur  de  lion)  immediately  on  his  accession  embark- 
ed for  the  Holy  Land,  on  a  crusade  agaiast  the  infidejs,  after  plunder- 
ing his  subjects  of  an  immense  sum  of  money  to  defray  the  charges 
of  the  enterprise.  Forming  a  league  with  i-*hilip  Augustus  of  France, 
the  two  monarchs  joined  iheir  forces,  and  a(;ling  for  some  time  in 
concert,  were  successful  in  the  taking  of  Acraor  Ptolemais;  but  Phil- 
ip, jeiloas  of  his  rivaFs  glory,  soon  returned  to  France,  while  Richard 
had  the  honour  of  defeating  the  heroic  Saladin  in  the  battle  of  Asca- 
loii,  with  prodigious  slaughter  of  his  enemies.  He  prepared  now  for 
the  siege  of  Jerusalem;  but,  tinding  nis  army  wasted  with  famine  !ind 
latigue,  he  was  compelled  to  end  tue  war  by  a  truce  with  Saladin,  in 
which  lie  obtaineJi  a  free  passage  to  the  Holy  Land  tor  every  chris- 
tian pilgrim.  Wrecked  in  his  voyage  honieward,  and  travelling  in 
disguise  through  Germany,  Richard  whs  seized,  and  detained  in  pris- 
on, by  command  of  the  emperor  Henry  VL  The  king  of  France  un- 
generously opposed  his  release,  as  did  his  unnatural  .brother  .tohn, 
from  seliish  ambition  ;  but  he  was  at  length  ransomed  by  his  subjects 
for  the  sum  of  150,000  merks,  and,  after  an  absence  of  nine  years,  re- 
turned to  his  dominions.  His  traitorous  brother  was  pardoned  after 
some  submission ;  and  Richard  employed  the  short  residue  of  his 
reign  in  a  spirited  revenge  against  his  rival  Pbiiip.  A  truce,  howevr 
er,  was  concluded  by  the  mediation  of  Rome  ;  and  Richard  was  soon 
after  killed,  while  storming  tiie  castle  of  one  of  his  rebellious  vassal^ 
in  the  Limosin.  He  died  in  the  tenth  year  of  his  reign,  and  forty- 
second  of  his  age,  1,199. 

9.  John  (lack-land)  succeeded  to  the  throne  on  the  death  of  his 
brother,  bat  ibund  a  competitor  in  his  nephew  Arthur,  the  son  of 
Ge^jffrey,  supported  by  Philip  of  France.  vVar  was  of  course  renev\- 
ed  «ith  that  country.  Arthur,  with  fatal  confidence,  throwing  him- 
self into  the  hands  of  his  uncle,  was  removed  by  poison  or  the  sword  : 
a  deed  which,  juined  to  the  known  tyranny  of  his  character,  rendered 
John  the  detestation  of  his  subjects.  He  was  stripped  by  Philip  oi 
his  continental  dominions,  and  he  made  the  pope  his  enemy  by  an  ava- 
ricious attack  on  the  treasures  of  the  church.  After  an  ineffectual 
menace  of  vengeance.  Innocent  III.  pronounced  a  sentence  of  interdict 
against  the  kingdom,  which  put  a  stop  to  all  the  ordinauc  :s  of  religion, 
to  baptism,  and  the  burial  of  the  dead.  He  next  excommunicated 
John,  and  absolved  his  sui^jects  from  their  allegiance  ;  and  he  tinaiiy 
depo.sed  him,  and  made  a  gift  of  the  kingdom  to  Philip.  John,  intimi- 
d.ited  into  submission,  declared  himself  the  pope's  vassal,  swore  alle- 
giance on  his  knees  to  the  papal  legate,  and  agreed  to  hold  his  king- 
dom tributary  to  the  holy  see.  On  these  conditions,  which  ensurv^d 
the  universal  hatred  and  contempt  of  his  people,  he  made  his  peace 
with  the  church.   It  was  natural  that  his  subjects,  thus  trampled  upon 

"and  sold,  should  vindicate  their  rights.  The  barons  of  the  king- 
dom assembled,  and,  binding  themselves  by  oatli  to  a  union  of  mea^>- 
ures,  resolutely  demanded  irom  the  king  a  ratification  of  a  charter  of 
privileges  granted  by  Henry  I.  John  appealed  to  the  pope,  who,  iu 
support  of  his  vassal,  prohibited  the  confederacy  of  the  barons  as  re- 
bellious. The  barons  were  only  the  more  resolute  in  their  pvrpose, 
and  the  sword  was  their  last  resource.  At  length  John  was  compelled 
to  yielcj  to  their  demands,  and  signed  at  Runymede,  on  the  19th 
day  of  June,^  l^-l^i  that  solemn  charter,  which  is  the  fcundatioD  aud 
bulwark  of  English  liberty,  Mugna  Charta  {tJie  great  dicerierj. 


134  MODERN  HISTORY. 

10.  By  this  great  charter,  l,the  freedom  of  election  to  benefices 
was  secured  to  the  clergy ;  2,  the  tines  to  the  overlord  on  the  suc- 
cession of  vassals  were  regulated;  3,  no  aids  or  subsidies  were  allow- 
ed to  be  levied  from  the  subject,  without  the  consent  of  the  great 
council,  unless  in  a  few  special  cases ;  4,  the  crown  shall  not  seize 
the  lands  of  a  baron  for  a  debt,  while  lie  has  personal  property 
sufficient  to  discharge  it;  5,  all  the  privileges  granted  by  the  king  to 
his  vassals  shall  be  communicated  by  them  td  their  inferior  vassals; 
6,  one  weight  and  one  measure  shall  be  used  throughout  the  king- 
dom; 7,  all  men  shall  pass  from  and  return  to  the  realm  at  their 

f>leasure ;  8,  all  cities  and  boroughs  shall  preserve  their  ancient 
iberties ;  9,  the  estate  of  every  freeman  shall  be  regulated  by  his 
will,  and,  if  he  die  intestate,  by  the  law;  10,  the  king's  court  shall  be 
fitiitionary,  and  open  to  all ;  1 1 ,  every  freeman  shall  be  tined  only  in 
proportion  to  his  offence,  and  no  tine  shall  be  imposed  to  his  utter 
ruin;  12,  no  peasant  shall,  by  a  tine,  be  deprived  of  his  instruments 
of  husbandry ;  13,  no  person  shall  be  tried  on  suspicion  alone,  but 
on  the  evidence  of  lawful  witnesses;  14,  no  person  shall  be  tried 
or  punished  unless  by  the  judgment  of  his  peers  and  the  law  of  the 
land. 

1 1.  John  gr;>nted  at  the  same  time  the  Charta  de  Foresta  {the  char- 
ier concerning  foresls)^  which  abolished  the  royal  privilege  of  killing 
game  over  all  the  kingdom,  and  restored  to  the  lawful  proprietoi-s 
their  woods  and  forests,  which  they  were  now  allowed  to  enclose 
nnd  use  at  their  pleasure.  As  compulsion  alone  had  extorted  these 
concessions,  John  was  determined  to  disregard  them,  and  a  foreign 
force  was  brought  into  the  kingdom  to  reduce  the  barons  to  submis- 
sion. The  barons  applied  for  aid  to  France,  and  Philip  sent  his  son 
Lewis  to  England  wiih  an  army ;  and  such  was  the  people's  hatred 
of  their  sovereign,  that  they  swore  allegiance  to  this  foreigner.  At 
this  critical  period  John  died  at  Newark,  in  1,216,  and  an  instant 
change  ensued.  His  son  Henry  IH.,  a  boy  of  nine  years  of  age,  was 
crowned  at  Bristol ;  and  his  uncle,  the  earl  of  Pembroke,  was  appoint- 
ed protector  of  the  realm.  The  disaffected  barons  returned  to  their 
allegiance ;  the  people  hailed  their  sovereign  ;  and  Lewis  with  his 
army,  alter  an  ineffectual  straggle,  made  peace  with  the  protector, 
and  evacuated  the  kingdom. 


SECTION  XVI. 

STATE    OF    GERMANY   AND    ITALY     IN    THE    THIRTEENTH 
CENTURY. 

1.  Fredkrick  II.,  son  of  Henry  VI.,  was  elected  emperor  on  the 
resignation  of  Otho  IV^,  in  1,212.  At  this  perioil  Naples,  Sicily,  and 
Lombardy,  were  all  appanages  of  the  empire ;  and  the  contentions 
between  the  imperial  and  papal  powers  divided  the  states  of  Italy 
into  factions,  known  by  the  name  of  Guelphs  and  Ghibellines;  the 
former  maintaining  the  supremacy  of  the  pope,  the  latter  that  of  the 
emperor.  The  opposition  of  Frederick  to  four  successive  popes 
was  avenged  by  excommunication  and  deposition ;  yet  he  kept  posses- 
sion of  his  throne,  and  vindicated  his  authority  with  great  spirit. 
Frequent  attempts  were  made  against  his  lite,  by  assassination  and 
poison,  which  he  openly  attributed  to  papal  resentment.  On  his 
#2ath,  in  1,250,  the  splendour  of  the  empire  was  for  many  years  ob- 


^  MODERN  HISTORY.  136 

scared.  It  was  a  prey  to  incessant  factions  and  civil  war,  the  fruit  of 
contested  claims  of  sovereignty.  Yet  the  popes  gained  nothing  by- 
its  disorders,  for  the  troubles  of  Italy  were  equally  hostile  to  their 
ambition.  We  have  seen  the  turbulent  state  of  England.  France 
was  equally  weak  and  anarchical ;  and  Spain  was  ravaged  by  the 
contests  of  the  Moors  and  christians.  Yet,  distracted  as  appears  the 
situation  of  Europe,  one  great  project  gave  a  species  of  union  to  this 
discordant  mass,  of  which  we  now  proceed  to  give  an  account. 


SECTION  XVII. 

THE  CRUSADES,  OR  HOLY  WARS. 

1.  The  Turks  or  Turcomans,  a  race  of  Tartars  from  the  regions 
of  Mount  Taurus  and  Imaus,  invaiied  the  dominions  of  Moscovy 
in  the  eleventh  century,  and  came  down  upon  the  banks  of  the 
Caspian.  The  caliphs  employed  Turkish  mercenaries,  and  they 
acquired  the  reputation  of  able  soldiers  in  the  wars  that  took  place 
on  occasion  of  the  contested  caliphate.  The  caliphs  of  Bagdat,  the 
Abassids,  were  deprivetl  of  Syria,  Egypt,  and  AlVica,  by  their  rival 
caliplis  of  the  race  of  Omar;  ami  the  Turks  stripped  of  their  do- 
minions Ijoth  the  Abassidas  and  Ommiades.  Bagdat  was  taken  by  the 
Turks,  and  the  empire  of  the  caiiplis  overthrown  in  1,055  ;  and  these 
princes,  from  temporal  monarchs,  became  now  the  supreme  pontiflfe 
of  the  Mahometan  faith,  as  the  popes  of  the  christian.  At  the  time 
ol"  the  tirst  crusade,  in  the  end  ot  the  eleventh  century,  Arabia  was 
governed  by  a  Turkish  sultan,  as  were  Persia  and  the  greater  por- 
tion of  Lesser  Asia. — The  eastrrn  empire  was  tlius  abridged  of  its 
Asiatic  territory,  and  had  lost  a  great  part  of  its  dominions  in  Europe. 
It  retained,  however,  Greece,  Mactdoijit,  Thrace,  andlilyria;  and 
Constantinople  itself  was  populous,  opulent,  and  luxurious.  Palestine 
was  in  the  possession  of  the  Turks ;  and  its  capital  Jerusalem,  falleu 
from  its  ancient  cf^nsequence  and  splendour,  was  yet  held  in  re 
spect  by  its  conquerors  as  a  holy  city,  and  constantly  attracted  the  re 
sort  of  Mahometans  to  the  mosque  of  Omar,  as  of  christian  pilgrims 
to  the  sepulchre  of  our  Saviour. 

2.  Peter  the  hermit,  a  native  of  Amiens^  on  his  return  from  this 
pilgrimage,  complained  in  loud  terms  of  the  grievances  which  the 
christiiiu-;  suft'ered  from  the  Turks;  and  Urban  II.  pitched  on  this 
enthusiast  as  a  tit  person  to  commence  the  execution  of  a  grand  de- 
sign which  the  popes  had  long  entertained,  of  arming  all  Christen- 
dom, and  extermin:iting  the  inlldels  froui  the  Holy  Land.  The  project 
was  opened  in  two  general  councils  held  at  Placentia  and  Clermont. 
The  French  possessa.1  more  ardour  th,  ,i  the  Italians;  and  an  im 
mense  multitude  of  ambitious  and  disorderly  nobles,  with  all  their 
dependents,  eager  for  enterprise  and  plunder,  aid  assured  of  eternal 
salvation,  immediately  took  the  cross.  Peter  tht'  hermit  led  80,000 
under  his  banners,  and  ihey  began  their  march  towards  the  east  in 
1,095.  Their  progress  was  marked  by  rapine  and  hostility  in  eveiy 
christian  country  through  which  they  passed ;  and  the  army  of  the 
hermit,  on  its  arrival  at  Constantinople,  was  wasted  down  to  20,000. 
The  emperor  Alexius  Comnenus,  to  whom  the  crusaders  behaved 
with  the  most  provoking  insolence  and  folly,  conducted  himself  with 
admirable  moderation  and  good  sense.  He  hastened  to  get  rid  of 
this  disorderly  multitude,  by  furnishing  them  with  every  aid  which 


136  MODERIS  HISTORY. 

• 

they  required,  and  cheerfully  lent  his  ships  to  transport  them  acrpss 
the  Bospiiorus.  The  sultan  Solyman  met  them  in  the  plain  of 
JNicea,  and  destroyed  tha  army  of  the  hermit.  A  new  host  in  the 
mean  time  arrived  at  Constantinople,  led  by  more  illustrious  com- 
manders ;  by  Godfrey  of  Bouillon  duke  of  Brabant,  Raymond  count 
of  Thoulouse,  Robert  of  Normandy,  son  of  William  king  of  Eng- 
land, Bohemond,  son  of  Robert  Guiscard,  the  conqueror  of  Sicily, 
and  other  princes  of  high  reputation.  To  these,  who  amounted  to 
some  hundred  thousands,  Alexius  manifested  the  same  prudent  con- 
duct, to  accelerate  their  departure.  The  Turks,  overpowered  by 
ftumoers,  were  twice  defeated;  and  the  crusaders,  pursuing  their  suc- 
cesses, penetrated  at  length  to  Jerusalem,  which  after  a  siege  of  six 
weeks,  they  took  by  storm,  and  with  savage  fury  massacred  the 
whole  of  its  Mahometan  and  Jewish  inhabitants,  A.  D.  1.099.  Godfrey 
was  hailed  king  of  Jerusalem,  but  was  obUged  soon  after  to  cede  his 
kiogdom  to  the  pope's  legate.  The  crusaders  divided  Syria  and 
Palestine,  and  formed  four  separate  states,  which  weakened  their 
power.  The  Turks  began  to  recover  strength ;  and  the  christians 
«f  Asia  soon  found  it  necessary  to  solicit  aid  from  Europe. 

3.  The  second  crusade  set  out  from  the  west  in  1,146,  to  the 
amount  of  200,U0U  French,  Germans,  and  Italians,  led  by  Hugh, 
brother  of  Philip  1.  of  France.  These  met  with  the  same  fate 
which  attended  the  army  of  Peter  the  hermit.  The  garrison  of 
Jerusalem  was  at  this  time  so  weak,  that  it  became  necessary  to 
embody  and  arm  the  monks  for  its  defence ;  and  hence  arose  the 
military  orders  of  the  knights  templars  and  hospitallers,  and  soon 
after  the  Teutonic,  from  the  German  pilgrims.  Meantime  pope 
Eugenius  III.  employed  St.  Bernard  to  preach  a  new  crusade  in 
France,  which  was  headed  by  its  sovereign  Lewis  Vll.,  (the  young), 
who,  in  conjunction  with  Conrad  III.,  emperor  of  Germany,  mus- 
tered jointly  300,000  men.  The  Germans  were  extirpated  by  the 
sultan  of  Iconium;  the  French  were  totally  defeated  near  Laodicea; 
and  the  two  monarchs,  after  much  disaster,  returned  with  shame  to 
their  dominioas. 

4.  The  illustrious  Saladin,  nephew  of  the  sultan  of  Egypt,  formed 
the  design  of  recovering  Palestine  from  the  christians;  and  besieging 
Jerusalem,  he  took  the  city,  and  made  prisoner  its  sovereign,  Guy 
of  Lusignan.  I'ope  Clement  III.,  alarmed  at  the  successes  of  the 
infidels,"  begem  to  slir  up  a  new  crusade  iVom  France,  England,  and 
Germany ;  and  the  armies  of  each  coimtry  were  headed  by  their 
respective  sovereigns,  Philip  Augustus,  Richard  I.,  and  Ffederick 
Barbarossa.  In  this  thinl  crusade  the  emperor  Jrederick  died  in 
Asia,  and  his  aru\y,  l>y  repeated  defeats,  mouldered  to  nothing. 
The  English  and  French  were  more  successful :  they  besieged  and 
l,ook  Ptolemais ;  but  Richard  and  Piuiip  quarrelled  from  jealousy  of 
each  others  glory^  and  the  French  monarch  returned  in  disgust  to 
his  country.  Rictiard  nobly  sustained  the  contest  with  Sahidin, 
whom  he  deteated  near  Ascalon ;  but  his  army  was  reduced  by  1am- 
ine  and  fatigjie.  He  concluded  a  treaty,  at  least  not  dishonourable, 
with  his  enemy,  and  was  forced  at  length  to  escape  from  Palestine 
with  a  single  ship.  (See  Sect.  XV.,  ^  8.)  Saladin,  revered  even  by 
the  christians,  died  in  1,195. 

5.  A  fourth  crusade  was  fitted  out  in  1,202,  under  Baldwin  count 
of  Flanders,  of  which  the  object  was  not  the  extirpation  of  the  inli- 
dels,  but  the  destruction  of  the  empire  of  the  east.  Constantinople, 
embroiled  by  civil  war  and  revolution  from  disputed  claims  to  the 


MODERN  HISTORY.  137 

sovereignty,  was  besieged  and  taken  by  the  crusaders ;  and  Baldwin, 
their  chiefi  was  elected  emperor,  to  be  within  a  few  months  dethron- 
ed and  murdered.  The  imperial  dominions  were  shared  among  the 
princii)al  leaders ;  and  the  Venetians,  who  had  lent  their  ships  for  the 
expedition,  got  the  isle  'M^Candia  (anciently  Crete)  for  their  reward. 
Alexius,  of  the  imperial  family  of  tlie  Commeni,  founded  a  new  sove- 
reignty in  Asia,  which  he  termed  the  empire  of  Trebizond.  The  ob- 
ject of  a  fifth  crusade  was  to  lay  waste  Egypt,  in  revenge  for  an 
attack  oil  Palestine,  by  its  sultan  Saphadin.  Partial  success  and  ulti 
mate  ruin  was  the  issue  of  this  expedition,  as  of  all  the  preceding. 

6.  At  this  period,  1,227,  a  great  revolution  took  place  in  Asia. 
Gengi^kan  with  his  Tartars  broke  down  from  the  north  upon  Persia 
and  Syria,  and  massacred  indiscriminately  Turks,  Jews,  and  Chris- 
tians, who  opposed  them.  The  christian  knights,  templars,  hospital- 
lers, and  Teutonic,  made  a  desperate  but  ineffectual  resistance  ;  and 
Palestine  must  have  been  abandoned  to  these  invaders,  if  its  late  had 
not  been  for  a  while  retarded  by  the  last  crusade  under  Lewis  IX.  of 
France.  This  prince,  summoned  by  Heaven,  as  he  believed,  after 
four  years'  preparation,  set  out  for  the  Holy  Land,  with  his  queen, 
his  three  brothers,  and  all  the  knights  of  France.  His  arnjy  began 
their  enterprise  by  an  attack  on  Egypt,  where,  after  some  consider- 
able successes,  they  were  at  length  utterly  defeated ;  and  the 
French  monarch,  with  two  of  his  brothers,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
enemy.  He  purchased  his  libcrtj-  at  an  immense  ransom,  and,  return- 
ing to  France,  reigned  prosperously  and  wisely  for  thirteen  years. 
But  the  same  phrensy  again  assailing  him,  he  embarked  on  a  crusade 
against  the  Moors  in  Africa,  nhcre  he  and4iis  amiy  were  destroyed 
by  a  pestilence,  1,270.  it  is  computed  that,  in  the  whole  of  the 
crusades  to  Palestine,  two  millions  of  Europeans  were  buried  in  the 
ea.st. 

7.  Effects  of  the  crusades.  One  consequence  of  the  holy  wars  is 
supposed  to  have  been  ihe  improvement  of  European  manners;  but 
the  times  immediately  succeeding  tlse  crusades  exhibit  no  such  actual 
improvement.  Two  centuries  of  barbarism  and  darkness  elapsed 
between  the  termination  of  those  enterprises  and  the  tall  of  the 
Greek  empire  in  1,453,  the  asra  of  the  revival  of  letters,  and  the 
commencement  of  civilization.  A  certain  consequence  of  the  cru- 
sades was  the  change  of  territorial  propeity  in  all  the  feudal  king- 
doms, the  sale  of  the  estates  of  the  nobles,  and  their  division  among 
a  number  of  smaller  proprietors.  Hence  the  feudal  aristocracy  was 
weakened,  and  the  lower  classes  began  to  acquire  weight,  and  a 
spirit  of  independence.  The  towns  hitherto  bound  by  a  sort  ot  vassal- 
age to  the  nobles,  began  to  purchase  their  immunity,  acquired  the 
right  of  electing  their  own  magistrates,  and  were  governed  by  their 
own  municipal  laws.  The  church  in  some  respects  gained,  and  in 
others  lost  by  those  enterprises.  The  popes  gained  a  more  extend- 
ed jurisdiction ;  but  the  tatal  issue  of  those  expeditions  opened  the 
eyes  of  the  world  to  the  selfish  and  interested  motives  which  had 
prompted  them,  and  weakened  the  sway  of  superstition.  Many  of  the 
religious  orders  acquired  an  increase  of  we;dth ;  but  this  was  bal» 
anced  by  the  taxes  imposed  on  the  clergy.  The  coin  was  altered 
and  debased  in  most  of  the  kingdoms  ol  Europe,  from  the  scarcity 
of  specie.  The  Jews  were  supposed  to  have  hoarded  and  concealed 
it,  and  hence  they  became  the  victims  of  general  pei-secutiop.  The 
most  substantial  gainers  by  the  crusades  were  the  Italian  states  of 
Genoa,  Pisa,  and  Venice,  from  the  increased  tnvde  to  the  Levant 

M2  18 


138  MODERN  HISTORY. 

for  the  supply  of  those  immense  armies.  Venice,  as  we  have  seen, 
took  an  active  concern,  and  obtained  her  share  of  the  conquered 
territory. 

The  age  of  the  crusades  brought  chivalry  to  its  perfection  and  gave 
rise  to  romantic  fiction. 

See  Kett'a  Elements  of  General  Knowledge,  vol.  t 


SECTION  XVIIl. 

OF  CHIVALRY  AND  ROxMANCE. 

1.  Chivalry  arose  naturally  from  the  condition  of  society  in  those 
ages  in  which  it  prevailed.  Among  the  Germanic  nations  the  profes- 
sion of  arms  was  esteemed  the  sole  employment  that  deserved  the 
name  of  manly  or  honourable.  The  initiation  of  the  youth  to  this  pro- 
fession was  attended  with  peculiar  solemnity  and  appropriate  cere- 
monies. The  chief  of  the  tribe  bestowed  the  sword  and  armour  on 
his  vassal,  as  a  symbol  of  their  devotion  to  his  service.  In  the  prog- 
ress of  the  feudal  system  these  vassals,  in  imitation  of  their  chief,  as- 
sumed the  power  of  conferring  arms  on  their  sub-vassals,  with  a 
similar  form  of  mysterious  and  pompous  ceremonial.  The  candidate 
for  knighthood  underwent  his  preparatory  fasts  and  vigils,  and  re- 
ceived on  his  knees  the  accolUulc  and  benediction  of  his  chief  Arm- 
ed and  caparisened,  he  sallied  forth  in  quest  of  adventure,  which, 
whether  just  or  not  in  its  purpose,  was  ever  esteemed  honourable  in 
proportion  as  it  was  perilous. 

2.  The  esteem  of  the  female  sex  is  characteristic  of  the  Gothic 
manners.  In  those  ages  of  barbarism  the  castles  of  the  greater  bar- 
ons were  the  courts  of  sovereigns  in  miniature.  The  society  of  the 
ladies,  who  found  only  in  such  fortresses  a  security  from  outrage,  pol- 
ished the  manners  ;  and  to  protect  the  chastity  and  honour  of  the  fair, 
was  the  best  employ  and  the  highest  merit  of  an  accomplished  knight. 
Romantic  exploit  therefore  had  always  a  tincture  of  gallantry. 

It  hath  teen  through  all  ages  ever  seen, 

That  with  the  praise  of  arms  and  chivalry 
The  prize  of  beauty  still  hath  joined  been, 

And  that  for  reasons  special  privity  : 
For  either  doth  on  other  much  rely  ; 

For  he,  me  seems,  most  fit  the  fair  to  serve, 
That  can  her  best  defend  from  villany  ; 

And  she  most  fit  his  service  doth  deserve 
That  fairest  is,  and  from  her  faith  will  never  swerve. 

Spensek's  Fairy  Queen. 

3.  To  the  passion  for  adventure  and  romantic  love  was  added  a 
kigh  regard  for  morality  and  religion ;  but  as  the  latter  were  ever 
jiubordinate  to  the  former,  we  may  presume  more  in  favour  of  the 
Tefinement  than  of  the  purity  of  the  knights.  It  was  the  pride  of  a 
knight  to  redress  wrongs  and  injuries ;  but  in  that  honourable  employ- 
ment he  made  small  account  of  those  which  he  committed.  It  was 
easy  >  expiate  the  greatest  offences  by  a  penance  or  a  pilgrimage, 
which  furnished  only  a  new  opportunity  for  adventurous  exploit. 

4.  Chivalry,  whether  it  began  with  the  Moors  or  Nonnans,  attain- 
ed its  perfection  at  the  period  of  the  crusades,  which  presented  a  no- 


MODERN  HISTORY.  139 

ble  object  of  adventure,  and  a  boundless  field  for  military  glory. 
Few  indeed  returned  from  those  desperate  enterprises  ;  but  those  had 
a  high  reward  in  the  admiration  of  their  countrymen.  The  bards  and 
romancers  sung  their  praises,  and  recorded  their  exploits,  with  a 
thousand  circumstances  of  fabulous  embellLshment. 

5.  The  earliest  of  the  old  romances  f  so  termed  from  the  Romance 
language,  a  mixture  of  the  Frank  and  Latin,  in  which  they  were 
written)  appeared  about  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century,  the  period 
of  the  second  crusade.  But  those  more  ancient  compositions  did  not 
record  contem{>orary  events,  whosf  known  truth  would  have  preclud- 
ed all  liberty  of  fiction  or  exaggeration.  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth,  and 
the  author  who  assumed  the  name  of  archbishop  Turpin,  had  free 
scope  to  their  fancy,  by  celebrating  the  deeds  of  Arthur  and  the 
knights  of  the  round  table,  and  the  exploits  of  Charlemagne  and  his 
twelve  peers.  From  the  fruitful  stock  of  those  first  romances  sprung 
a  numerous  offspring  equally  wild  and  extravagant. 

6.  Philosophers  have  analyzed  the  pleasure  arising  from  works  of 
fiction,  and  have  endeavoured,  by  various  hypotlieses,  to  account  for 
the  interest  which  we  take  in  the  description  of  an  event  or  scene 
which  is  known  to  be  utterly  impossible.  'I'he  fact  oniy  be  simply 
explained  as  ibUows.  Every  narration  is  in  some  degree  attended 
with  a  dramatic  deception.  We  enter  for  the  time  into  the  situation 
of  the  persons  concerned ;  and,  adopting  their  passions  and  feelings, 
we  lose  ail  sense  of  the  absurdity  of  tiieir  cause,  while  we  see  the 
agents  themselves  hold  it  for  reasonable  and  adequate.  The  most  in- 
credulous sceptic  may  sympathize  strongly  with  the  feelings  of  Ham- 
let at  the  sight  of  his  father's  spectre. 

7.  Thus  powerfully  affected  as  we  are  by  sympathy,  even  against 
the  conviction  of  our  reason,  ho^v  much  greater  must  have  been  the 
effect  of  such  works  of  the  imaj^ination  in  those  days,  when  popular 
superstition  gave  full  credit  to  the  reahty,  or  eit  least  the  possibility, 
of  all  tnat  they  describeil !  And  hence  we  nr;-;t  censure,  as  both  un- 
necessary and  improbable,  the  theory  of  Dr.  iiurd,  which  accounts 
for  all  the  wiidness  of  the  old  romances,  on  the  supposition  that  their 
fictions  were  entirely  allegorical ;  which  explains  the  giants  and  sav- 
ages into  the  oppressive  feudal  lords  and  their  barbarous  dependents; 
as  M.  Mallet  construes  the  serpents  and  dragons  which  guarded  the 
enchanted  castles,  into  their  winding  walls,  tosses,  and  battlements. 
It  were  sufricient  to  say,  that  many  of  those  old  romances  are  inex- 
plicable by  allegory.  They  \^re  received  by  the  popular  belief  as 
truths ;  and  even  their  contrivers  believed  in  the  pos^ribility  of  the 
scenes  and  actions  which  they  described.  In  latter  ages,  and  in  the 
wane  of  superstition,  yet  while  it  stiil  retained  a  powerful  influence, 
the  poets  adopted  allegory  as  a  vehicle  of  moral  instruction :  and  to 
this  period  belong  those  political  romances  which  bear  an  allegorical 
explanation ;  as  the  Fairy  (^ueeu  of  Spenser,  the  Orlando  of  Ariosto, 
and  the  Gierusalemine  Liberata  of  Tasso. 

8.  In  more  modem  times  the  taste  for  romantic  composition  declin- 
ed with  popular  credulity ;  and  the  fastidiousness  of  philosophy  affect- 
ed to  treat  all  supernatural  fiction  with  coqtempf.  But  it  was  at 
length  perceived  that  this  refinement  nad  cut  of!"  a  source  of  very 
high  mental  enjoyment.  The  public  taste  now  took  a  new  turn ;  and 
this  moral  revolution  is  at  present  lending  to  its  extreme.  We  are 
,gone  back  to  the  nursery  to  listen  to  tales  of  hobgobhns ;  a  change 
which  Mre  may  safely  prognosticate  can  be  of  no  duration. 


140  MODERN  HISTORY. 


SECTION  XIX. 

STATE  OF  EUROPE  IN  THE  THIRTEENTH  AND  FOURTEENTH 
CENTURIES. 

1.  Constantinople,  taken  in  1,202  by  the  crusaders,  was  possessed 
only  for  a  short  time  by  its  conquerors.  It  was  governed  by  French 
emperors  for  the  space  of-sixty  years,  and  was  retaken  by  the 
Greeks  in  1,261,  under  Michael  Palaeoiogns,  who,  by  imprisoning  and 
putting  out  the  eyes  of  his  pupil  Theodore  Lascaris,  secured  to  him- 
self the  sovereignty. 

2.  In  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century  Germany  was 
governed  by  Frederick  II.,  who  paid  homage  to  the  pope  for  the 
kingdom  of  Naples  and  Sicily,  which  was  possessed  by  his  son  Con- 
rad, and  afterwards  by  his  brother  Manfred,  who  usurped  the  crown 
in  violation  of  the  right  ot^his  >\8phew  Conradin.  Pope  Clement  IV., 
jealous  of  the  dominion  of  the  imperial  family,  gave  the  investiture 
of  Naples  and  Sicily  to  Charles  of  Anjou,  brother  of  Lewis  IX.  of 
France,  who  defeated  and  put  to  death  his  competitors.  The  Sicil- 
ians revenged  this  act  of  UNurpation  and  cruelty  by  the  murder,  in 
one  night,  of  every  Frenchman  in  the  island.  'Fhis  shocking  massa- 
cre, ternfed  the  Sicilian  vespers^  happened  on  Easter  Sunday,  1,282. 
It  was  followed  by  every  evil  that  comes  in  the  train  of  civil  war  and 
revolution. 

3.  The  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century  had  been  signalized 
by  a  new  species  of  crusade.  The  Aibigenses,  inhabitants  of  Alby 
in  the  Fays  de  Vaud,  were  bold  enough  to  dispute  many  of  the  tenets 
of  the  catholic  church,  judging  them  contrary  to  the  doctrines  oi 
scripture.  Innocent  III.  established  a  holy  commission  at  Thouionse, 
with  power  to  try  and  punish  those  heretics.  The  count  of  Thou 
louse  opposed  this  persecution,  and  was,  lor  the  punislniicnt  of  his 
ofi'encc,  compelled  by  the  pope  to  assist  in  a  crusade  against  his  own 
vassals.  Simon  de  Monlbrt  was  the  leader  of  this  pious  enterprise, 
which  was  marked  by  the  most  atrocious  cruelties.  The  benefits  of 
the  holy  commission  were  judged  by  the  popes  to  be  so  great,  that  it 
became  from  that  time  a  permanent  establishment,  known  by  the 
name  of  the  inguisitian. 

4.  The  rise  of  the  house  of  Ausfltta  may  be  dated  from  1,274, 
when  Rodolphus  of  Ilapsbourg,  a  Swiss  barou,  was  elected  emperor 
of  Germany.  He  owed  his  elevation  to  the  jealousies  of  the  elec- 
toral princes,  who  could  not  agr^e  in  the  choice  of  any  one  of  them- 
selves. The  king  of  Bohemia,  to  whom  Kodolphus  had  been  stew- 
ard of  the  household,  could  ill  brook  the  supremacy  of  his  former  de- 
pendent ;  and  refusing  him  the  customary  homage  for  bis  Germanic 
possessions,  Rodolphus  stripped  him  of  Austria,  which  has  ever  since 
remained  in  the  family  of  its  conqueror. 

5.  The  Italian  states  of  Venice,  Genoa,  and  Pisa,  were  at  this  time 
flourishhig  and  opulent,  while  most  of  the  kingdoms  of  Europe  (if 
we  except  England  under  Edward  I.,)  were  exhausted,  feeble,  and 
disorderly.  A  dawning  of  civil  liberty  began  to  appear  in  France 
under  Philip  IV.  (/e  belV  who  summoned  the  third  estate  to  the 
national  assemblies,  whicn  had  hitherto  consisted  of  the  nobility  and 
clergy,  1,303.  Philip  established  perpetual  courts  of  judicature  in 
France,  under  the  name  of  parliaments.    Over  tiiese  the  parliament 


MODERN  HISTORY.  141 

of  Paris  possessed  a  jurisdiction  by  appeal ;  but  it  was  not  till  later 
times  that  it  assuaied  any  authority  in  matters  of  State. 

6.  The  parliament  of  England  had  before  this  era  begun  to  assume 
its  present  constitution.  The  commons,  or  the  representatives  of 
counties  and  boroughs,  were  first  called  to  pailiament  by  Henry 
III.  Before  that  time  this  assembly  consisted  only  of  the  greater 
barons  and  clergy.  B<it  of  the  rise  and  progress  ot  the  constitution 
of  England  we  siiall  afterwards  treat  more  paticularly  in  a  separate 
section. 

7.  The  spirit  of  the  popedom,  zealous  in  the  maintenance  and  ex- 
tension of  its  prerogatives,  continued  much  the  same  in  the  thirteenth 
and  fourteenth,  as  we  have  seen  it  hi  the  three  preceding  centuries. 
Philip  the  fair  had  subjected  his  clergy  to  bear  their  share  of  the 
public  taxes,  and  prohil.ited  all  contributions  to  be  levied  by  the  pope 
m  his  dominions.  This  double  oti'ence  was  highly  resented  by  Boni- 
face VIll.,  who  expressed  his  indignation  by  a  sentence  of  excom- 
munication and  interdict,  and  a  solemn  transterence  of  the  kingdom 
of  France  to  the  emperor  Albert.  Pliiiip,  in  revenge,  sent  his  gen- 
eral Nogaret  to  Rome,  who  threw  the  pope  into  prison.  The 
French,  however,  were  overpowered  by  the  papal  troops;  and  the 
death  of  Boniface  put  an  end  to  the  quarrel. 

8.  It  is  less  easy  to  justify  the  conduct  of  Philip  the  iair  to  the 
knights  templars  than  his  behaviour  to  pone  Boniface.  The  whole 
of  this  order  had  incurred  his  resentment,  Irom  suspicion  of  harbour- 
ing treasonable  designs.  He  had  intiuence  with  Clement  V.  to  pro- 
cure a  papal  bull  warranting  their  extirpation  from  all  the  christian 
kingdoms :  and  this  infamous  proscription  was  carried  into  effect 
over  all  Europe.  Those  unfortunate  men  were  solemnly  tried,  not 
for  their  real  offence,  but  for  protended  impieties  and  idolatrous  prao- 
tices,  and  committed  to  the  flames  1,309 — 1,312. 


SECTION  XX. 
REVOLUTION  OF  SWITZERLAND. 

1.»Thk  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century  was  distinguished  by 
the  revolution  of  Switzerland,  and  the  rise  of  the  Helvetic  republic- 
The  emperor  Rodolphus  of  Hapsbourg  whs  hereditary  sovereign 
of  several  of  the  Swiss  cantons,  and  governed  bis  states  with  much 
equity  and  moderation.  His  successor  Albert,  a  tyrannical  prince, 
formed  the  design  of  annexing  the  whole  of  the  provinces  to  his 
do.itiinion,  and  of  erecting  them  into  a  principality  for  one  of  his 
sons.  The  cantons  of  Schweitz,  Ury,  and  Undervvald,  which  had 
always  resisted  the  authority  of  Austria,>  combined  to  assert  their 
freedom  ;  and  a  small  army  of  400  or  500  hien  defeated  an  immense 
host  of  the  Austrians  in  the  pass  of  Morgate,  1,315.  The  rest  of  the 
cantons  by  degrees  joined  the  association.  With  invincible  persever- 
ance the  united  cantons  won  and  secured  tlicir  dear-bought  liberty, 
after  sixty  pitched  battles  with  their  enemies. 

2.  Constitution  of  Switzerland,  t  The  thirteen  cantons  were  united 
by  a  solemn  treaty,  which  stipulated  the  proportional  succours  to  be 
furnished  by  each  in  the  case  of  foreign  hostility,  and  the  measures 
to  be  followed  for  securing  the  union  of  the  states,  and  accommodat- 
ing domestic  differences.  With  respect  to  its  internal  government 
and  ecoaoni^j  each  canton  was  independent.    Of  some  the  constitution 


142  MODERN  HISTORY. 

was  monarchical,  and  of  others  republican.  All  matters  touching  * 
the  general  league  were  transacted  either  by  letters  sent  to  Zurich,  ' 
and  thence  officially  circulated  to  all  the  cantons,  or  by  conferences. 
The  general  diet,  where  two  deputies  attended  from  each  canton,  was  >, 
neld  once  a  year,  the  first  deputy  of  Zurich  presiding.  The  catnolic  -' 
and  protestant  cantons  likewise  held  their  separate  diets  on  occasional  : 
emergencies.  '' 

3.  The  Swiss,  when  at  peace,  employed  their  troops  for  hire  in  ) 
foreign  service,  judging  it  a  wise  policy  to  keep  alive  the  military  \ 
spirit  of  the  nation ;  and  the  armies  thus  employed  have  been  equally  ; 
distinguished  for  their  courage  and  fidelity.  The  industry  and  I 
economy  of  the  Swiss  are  proverbial ;  and  their  country  supports  an 
abundant  population,  frqm  the  zealous  promotion  of  agriculture  and 
manufactures. 


SECTION  XXL 


STATE  OF  EUROPE  IN  THE  THIRTEENTH,  FOURTEENTH,  AND 
PART  OF  THE  FIFTEENTH  CENTURIES. 

1.  The  rival  claims  of  superiority  between  the  popes  and  em- 
perore  still  continued.  •  Henry  VII.,  the  successor  of  Albei't,  vindicat- 
ed his  right  by  the  sword,  triumphantly  fought  his  way  to  Rome, 
where  he  was  solemnly  crowned,  and  imposed  a  tribute  on  all  the 
states  of  Italy.  His  sudden  death  was  suspected  to  be  the  consequence 
of  papal  resentment.  "In  his  time  the  seat  of  the  popedom  was  trans- 
ferred by  Clement  V.  from  Rome  to  Avignon,  1,309,  where  it  re- 
mained till  1,377.  The  factions  of  Italy  were  the  cause  of  this  re- 
moval. Lewis  of  Bavaria,  the  successor  of  Henry,  deposed  and  ex- 
communicated by^John  XXII.,  revenged  himself  by  deposing  the 
pope.  This  pontiff,  who  had  originally  been  a  cobbler,  surpassed 
most  of  his  predecesisors  in  pride  nnd  tyranny.  He  kept  his  seat  on 
the  papal  chair,  and  left  at  his  death  an  in.mense  treasure  accumu- 
lated by  the  sale  of  benefices ;  while  his  rival  the  emperor  died  in 
indigence. 

2.  His  successor  in  the  empire,  Charles  IV.,  published,  in  1,355, 
the  imperial  constitution,  termed  the  golden  bidl^  the  fundamental  law 
of  the  Germanic  body,  which  reduced  the  number  of  electors  to 
seven,  and  settled  on  them  all  the  hereditary  offices  of  state.  The 
electors  exemplified  their  new  rights  by  deposing  his  son  Wenceslaus 
for  incapacity,  1,400.  Three  separate  factions  of  the  French  and 
Italian  cardinals  having  elected  three  separate  popes,  the/emperor 
Sigismund  judged  this  division  of  the  church  to  be  a  fat  opportunity 
for  his  interference  to  reconcile  all  differences,  and  establish  his  own 
supremacy.  He  summoned  a  general  council  at  Constance  in  1,414, 
and  ended  the  dispute  by  degrading  all  the  three  pontiffs,  and  naming 
a  fourth,  Martin  Colonna.  This  division  of  the  paoacy  is  termed 
the  great  schism  of  the  zicest. 

3.  The  spiritual  business  of  the  council  of  Constance  Was  no  less 
important  than  its  temporal.  'John  Huss,  a  disciple  of  Wicklilf,  was 
tried  for  hei'esy,  in  denying  the  hierarchy,  and  satirizing  the  im- 
moralities of  the  popes  and  bishops.  He  did  not  deny  the  charge, 
and,  refusing  to  confess  his  errors,  was  burnt  alive.  A  similar  fate 
was  the  portion  of  his  friend  and  disciple,  /Jerom  of  Prague,  wb© 


MODERN  HISTORY.  143 

displayed  at  his  execution  the  eloquence  of  an  apostle,  and  the  con- 
stancy of  a  martyr,  1,416.  Sigismund  felt  the  consequence  of  these 
horrible  proceedings ;  for  the  Boiiemians  opposed  his  succession  to 
their  vacant  crown,  and  it  cost  him  a  war  of  sixteen  years  to  attain  it. 
4.  Whatever  was  the  imperial  power  at  this  time,  it  derived  but 
small  consequence  from  its  actual  revenues.  The  wealth  of  the 
Germanic  states  was  exclusively  possessed  by  their  separate  sove- 
reigns, and  the  emperor  had  little  more  than  what  he  drew  from 
Bohemia  and  Hungary.  The  sovereignty  of  Italy  was  an  empty 
title.  The  interest  of  the  emperor  in  that  country  furnished  only  a 
source  of  faction  to  its  priticei=,  and  embroiled  the  states  in  perpetual 
quarrels.  A  series  of  conspiracies  and  civil  tumults  form  the  annals 
of  the  principal  cities  for  above  200  years.  Naples  and  Sicily  were 
ruined  by  the  weak  and  disorderly  government  of  the  two  Joannas. 
A  passion  which  the  younger  of  these  conceived  for  a  soldier  of  the 
name  of  Sforza  raised  him  to  the  sovereignty  of  Milan ;  and  her 
adoption,  first  of  Alphonzo  of  Arragon,  and  afterwards  of  Lewis  ol 
Anjou,  laid  the  foundation  of  those  contests  between  Spain  and 
France  for  the  sovereignty  of  the  two  Sicilies,  which  afterwards 
agitated  all  Europe. 


ff)^  SECTION  XXII. 

HISTORY  OF  ENGLAND  IN  THE  THIRTEENTH  CENTURY, 

1.  On  (he  death  of  John,  his  son  Henry  III.  succeeded  to  the 
crown  of  England  at  nine  years  of  age. '  He  was  a  prince  of  ami- 
able dispositions,  but  of  weak  understanding.  His  preference  ot 
foreign  fixvonritcs  disgusted  his  nobles ;  and  the  want  of  economy  in  his 
government,  and  op})ressive  exactions,  deprived  him  of  the  affection 
of  his  people.  Montfort  earl  of  Leicester,  son  of  the  leader  of  the 
crusade  against  the  Albigenses,  and  brother-in-law  of  the  king,  con- 
ceived a  plan  for  usurping  the  government.  He  formed  a  league 
with  the  barons,  on  the  pretext  of  reforming  abuses,  and  compelled 
Henry  to  delegate  all  the  regal  power  into  the  hands  of  twenty-four 
of  their  number.  These  divided  among  themselves  the  offices  of 
government,  and  new-modelled  the  parliament,  by  summoning  a  cer- 
tain number  of  knights  chosen  from  each  county.  This  measure 
was  fatal  to  their  own  power ;  for  these  knights  or  representatives 
of  the  people,  indignant  at  Leicester's  usurpation,  determined  to 
restore  the  royal  authority ;  and  calk?d  on  prince  Edward,  a  youth 
of  intrepid  spirit,  to  avenge  his  father's  wrongs  and  save  the  king- 
dom. 

^  2.  Leicester  raised  a  formidable  force,  and  defeated  the  royal 
army  at  Lewes,  in  Sussex,  1,264,  and  made  both  the  king  and  prince 
Edward  his  prisoners.  He  now  compelled  the  impotent  Henry  to 
ratify  his  authority  by  a  solemn  treaty.  He  assumed  the  character 
of  regent,  and  calledi  a  parliament,  summoning  two  knights  from 
each  of  the  counties,  and  deputies  from  the  principal  boroughs,  the 
first  regular  plan  of  the  English  house  of  commons.  This  assembly 
exercising  its  just  rights,  and  asserting  with  firmness  the  re-establish- 
ment of  tne  ancient  goveniment  of  the  kingdom,  Leicester  judged  it 
prudent  to  release  the  prince  from  his  confinement.  Edward  wa» 
no  sooner  at  liberty  than  he  took  the  field  against  the  usurper,  who 
was  defeated  and  slain  in  the  battle  of  Evesham,  on  the  4th  day  of 


144  MODERN  HISTORY. 

August,  1,265.  Henry  was  now  restorrd  to  his  throne  hy  the  urms 
of  Jiis  gallant  son,  who,  after  establishing  doine:^iic  tiv-jni'iiiiity,  eni- 
barked  in  the  last  crusade  with  Lewis  IX.,  and  sign;',!ized  his  provvei« 
by  m?)ny  valorous  expioiis  in  Palestine.  He  had  the  honour  of  con- 
cUidiiig  an  a.lvaiitageoi.'.s  truce  for  ten  years  witii  tiie  suitan  of  Luby- 
lon.  and  was  on  Lis  return  to  England  when  he  received  intt-lligence 
of  nis  accession  to  the  crown  by  the  death  of  his  father,  ],v^72. 

3.  Edward  i.  projected  tiie  conquest  of  Wales  in  the  beginning 
of  his  reign.  ^I  he  Weish,  the  descendants  of  the  ancient  riritons 
who  had  escaped  the  Roman  and  Saxon  conquests,  preserved  tlieir 
lilif'rty,  hiws,  manners,  and  language.  Their  prince,  Lewellyn, 
refcseil  his  custoniary  hotnage  to  the  king  of  England.  Edward  in- 
vaded Wales,  and,  surrounding  the  army  of  the  prince,  who  retreated 
to  the  mountains,  cut  oft'  all  his  supplies,  and  compelled  him  to  an 
unquaiilied  submission.  The  terms  demanded  were,  the  surrender 
of  a  part  of  the  country,  a  large  sum  of  money,  and  an  obligation  of 
perpetual  fealty  to  the  crown  of  England.  The  Welsh  infringed 
this  treaty,  and  Edward  marched  his  army  into  the  heart  of  the 
country,  where  the  troops  of  Lewellyn  made  a  most  desperate  but  in- 
eiTectual  resistance,  hi  a  decisive  engagement,  in  1,'283,  the  prince 
was  slain.  His  brother  I)avjd,  betrayed  into  the  hands  of  the  con- 
queror, was  inhumanly  executed  on  a  gibbet ;  and  Wales,  complete- 
ly subdued,  was  annexed  to  the  crown  of  England.  With  a  policy 
equally  absurd  and  cruel,  Edward  ordered  the  Welsh  bards  to  be  put 
to  death  wherever  found;  therebv  ensuring  the  perpetuation  of  their 
heroic  songs,  and  increasing  the  abhorrence  of  tlie  vanquished  people 
for  their  barbarous  conqueror. 

4.  The  conquest  ot  Wales  inflamed  the  ambition  of  Edward,  and 
inspired  him  with  the  design  of  extending  his  dominion  to  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  island.  The  designs  of  tlii«  enterprising  monarch  on 
the  kingdom  of  Scolland  invite  our  attention  to  that  quarter. 


SECTION  XXIII. 

HISTORY    OF   SCOTLAND    FROM   THE    ELEVENTH    TO    THE 
FOURTEENTH  CENTURY. 

I.  Thk  history  of  Scotland  before  the  reign  of  Malcolm  III.,  sur- 
named  Canmore,  is  obscure  and  fabulous.  'Inis  prince  succeeded  to 
the  throne  in  1,057  by  the  defeat  of  Macbeth,  the  murderer  of  his 
father  Duncan.  Fi^pousing  the  cause  of  Edgar  Atheling,  heir  of  the 
Saxon  kings  of  England,  whose  sister  he  married,  he  thus  provoked 
a  war  with  W^ilham  the  conqueror,  which  was  equally  prejudicial 
to  both  kingdoms.  In  an  expedition  ol  Malcolm  into  England  it  is 
alleged,  that,  after  concluding  a  truce,  he  was  compelled  by  William 
to  do  homage  for  his  kingdom.  The  truth  is,  that  this  homage  was 
done  for  the  territories  in  Cumberland  and  Northumberland  won  by 
the  Scots,  and  held  in  vassalage  of  the  English  crown ;  though  this 
homage  was  afterwards  absurdly  made  the  pretext  of  a  claim  of 
feudal  sovereignty  over  all  Scotland.  In  a  reign  of  twenty-seven 
years  Malcolm  supported  a  spirited  contest  with  England,  both  under 
WilUam  I.  and  his  son  Rufus ;  and  to  the  virtues  of  his  queen  Mar- 
garet, his  kingdom,  in  its  domestic  poUcy,  owed  a  degree  of  civiliza- 
tion remarkable  m  those  ages  of  barbarism. 


MODERN  HISTORY.  146 

S.  Alexander  I.,  his  son  and  successor,  defended,  wi(h  equal  spirit 
and  good  policy,  the  independence  of  his  kingdom;  and  his  son 
David  1.,  celebrated  even  by  the  democratic  Buchanan  as  an  honour 
to  his  country  and  to  monarchy,  won  from  Stephen,  apd  annexed  to 
his  crown,  the  whole  earldom  of  Northuniberland.  In  those  reigns 
we  hear  of  no  claim  of  the  feudal  subjection  of  Scotland  to  the 
crown  of  England;  though  the  accidental  fortune  of  war  afterwards 
furnished  a  ground  for  it.  William  1.,  (the  lion),  taken  prisoner  at 
Alnwick  l)y  Henry  11.,  was  compelled,  as  the  price  of  his  release,  to 
do  homage  for  his  whole  kingdom ;  an  obligation  which  his  succes- 
sor Richard  voluntarily  discharged,  deeming  it  to  have  been  unjustly 
extorted. 

3.  On  the  death  of  Alexander  111.  without  male  issue,  in  1 ,285, 
Bruce  and  Baliol,  descendants  of  David  I.  by  the  female  line,  were 
competitors  for  the  crown,  and  the  pretensions  of  each  were  support- 
ed by  a  formidable  party  in  the  kingdom.  Edward  I.  of  England, 
chosen  umpire  of  the  contest,  arrogated  to  himself,  in  that  character, 
the  feudal  sovereignty  of  the  kingdom,  compelling  all  the  barons  to 
swear  allegiance  to  him,  and  taking  actual  possession  of  the  country 
by  his  troops-a("  He  then  adjudged  the  crown  to  Baliol,  on  the  express 
condition  of  his  swearing  fealty  to  him  as  lord  paramount.  Baliol, 
however,  soon  after  renouncing  his  allegiance,  the  indignant  Edward 
invaded  Scotland  with  an  immense  force,  and  compelled  the  weak 
prince  to  abdicate  the  throne,  and  resign  the  kingdom  into  his  hands. 

4.  William  Wallace,  one  of  the  greatest  heroes  whom  history  re- 
cords, restored  the  fallen  honours  of  his  country.  Joined  by  a  few 
patriots,  his  tirst  successes  in  attacking  the  English  garrisons  brought 
numbers  to  his  patriotic  standard.  Iheir  successes  were  signal  and 
conspicuous.  Victory  followed  upon  victory.  While  Edward  was 
engaged  on  the  continent,  his  troops  were  utterly  defeated  in  a  des- 
perate engagement  at  Stirling,  and  tbrced  to  evacuate  the  kingdom. 
Wallace,  the  deliverer  of  his  country,  now  assumed  the  title  of  gov- 
ernor of  Scotland  under  Baliol,  who  was  Edward's  prisoner;  a  dis- 
tinction which  was  followed  by  the  envy  and  disaifection  of  many  ol 
the  nobles,  and  the  consequent  diminution  of  his  army.  The  Scots 
were  defeated  at  Falkirk.  Edward  returned  with  a  vast  accession  ot 
force.    After  a  fruitless  resistance  the  Scottish  barons  finally  obtained 

Eeace  by  a  capitulation,  from  which  the  brave  Wallace  was  excepted 
y  name.  A  fugitive  for  some  time,  he  was  betrayed  into  the  hands  ot 
Edward,  who  put  him  to  death,  with  every  circumstance  of  cruelty 
that  barbarous  revenge  could  dictate,  1,304. 

5.  Scotland  found  a  second  champion  and  deliverer  in  Robert 
Bruce,  the  grandson  of  the  competitor  with  Baliol;  who,  deeply  re- 
senting the  humiliation  of  his  country^  once  more  set  up  the  standard 
of  war,  and  gave  defiance  to  the  English  monarch,  to  whom  bis 
father  and  grandfather  had  meanly  sworn  allegiance.  Under  this  fn 
trepid  leader  the  spirit  of  the  nation  was  roused  at  once.  The  Eng- 
lish were  attacked  in  every  quarter,  and  once  more  entirely  driven 
out  of  the  kingdom.  Robert  Bruce  was  crovraed  king  at  Scone, 
1,3U6.  Edward  was  advancing  with  an  immense  army,  and  died  at 
Carlisle  on  the  7th  day  of  July,  1,307.  He  enjoined  it  with  his  last 
breath  to  his  son,  Edward  II.,  to  prosecute  the  war  with  the  Scots  te 
the  entire  reduction  of  the  country. 

N  19 


i4«  MODERN  HISTORY. 

SECTION  XXIV. 

HISTORY  OF  ENGLAND  IN  THE  FOURTEENTH  CENTURY. 

1.  In  the  reign  of  Edward  I.  we  observe  the  constitution  of  Eng- 
land gradually  advancing.  The  commons  had  been  admitted  to  par- 
liament In  the  latter  period  of  his  faiher  Henry  111.    A  statute  was 

f)a«sed  by  Edward,  which  declared,  that  no  tax  or  impost  should  be 
evied  without  the  consent  of  lords  and  commons.  Edward  ratified 
the  Magna  Charta  no  less  than  eleven  times  in  the  course  of  his  reign ; 
and  henceforward  this  fundamental  law  began  to  be  regarded  as  sa- 
cred and  unalterable. 

2.  Edward  II.  was  in  chardcter  the  very  opposite  of  his  father ; 
weak,  indolent,  and  capricious ;  but  of  humane  and  benevolent  affec- 
tions. He  disgusted  his  nobles  by  his  attachment  to  mean  and  unde- 
serving favourites,  whom  he  raised  to  the  highest  dignities  of  the 
state,  and  honoured  with  his  exclusive  confidence.  Piers  Gaveston, 
a  vicious  and  trifling  minion,  whom  the  king  appointed  regent  when 
on  a  journey  to  Paris  to  marry  Isabella,  daughter  of  Philip  the  fair, 
djigusted  the  barons  to  such  a  pitch,  that  they  compelled  the  king  to 
delegate  all  the  authority  of  government  to  certain  commissioners,  and 
to  abandon  his  favourite  to  their  resentment.  He  was  doomed  to 
perpetual  imprisonment,  and,  on  attempt  to  escape,  was  seized  and 
beheaded. 

3.  Edward,  in  obedience  to  his  father's  will,  invaded  Scotland  with 
an  army  of  100,000  men.  King  Robert  Bruce  met  this  immense 
force  with  30,000  men  at  Bannockburn,  and  defeated  them  with  pro- 
digious slaughter.  This  important  victoi-y  secured  the  independence 
of  Scotland.  Edward  escaped  by  sea  to  his  own  dominions.  Anew 
favourite,  Spenser,  supplied  the  place  of  Gaveston;  but  his  undeser\'- 
ed  elevation  and  overoearing  character  completed  the  disaffection  of 
the  nobles  to  their  sovereign.  The  queen^  a  vicious  adulteress,  join- 
ed the  malcontents,  and,  passing  over  to  France,  obtained  from  her 
brother  Charles  IV.  an  army  to  invade  England,  and  dethrone  her 
husband.  Her  enterprise  was  successful.  Speuser  and  his  father 
were  betrayed  into  the  hands  of  their  enemies,  and  perished  on  a 
scaffold.  The  king  was  taken  prisoner,  tried  by  parliament,  and  sol- 
emnly deposed ;  and  being  coutined  to  prison,  was  soon  after  put  to 
death  in  a  manner  shocking  to  humanity,  1,327. 

4.  Edward  111.,  crowned  at  fourteen  years  of  age,  could  not  submit 
to  the  regency  of  a  mother  stained  with  the  foulest  of  crimes.  His 
father's  death  was  revenged  by  the  perpetual  imprisonment  of  Isabel- 
la, and  the  public  extcution  of  her  paramour  Mortimer.  Bent  on  the 
conquest  of  Scotland,  Edward  marched  to  the  north  with  a  prodigious 
annv,  vanquished  the  Scots  in  the  battle  of  Halidoun-hill,  and  placed 
on  the  throne  Edward  Baliol,  his  vassal  and  tributary.  But  the  king- 
dom was  as  repugnant  £3  ever  to  the  rule  of  England,  and  a  favoura- 
ble opportunity  was  taken  for  the  renewal  of  hostilities,  on  the  depart- 
ure of  Edward  for  a  foreign  enterprise,  which  gave  full  scope  to  his 
aimbition. 

5.  On  the  death  of  Charles  IV.  without  male  issue,  the  crown  of 
France  was  claimed  by  Edward  III.  of  England,  in  rignt  of  his  moth- 
er, the  sister  of  Charles,  whUe,  in  the  mean  time,  the  throne  was  oc- 
•upied  by  the  male  heir,  Philip  of  Valois.    Edward  fitted  out  ao  ixor 


MODERN  HISTORY.  147 

mense  afmament  by  sea  and  land,  and,  obtaining  a  signal  victory  over 
the  French  fleet,  landed  on  the  coast  of  Normandy,  and  with  his  son, 
the  black  prince,  ran  a  career  of  the  most  glorious  exploits.  Philip, 
with  100,000  men,  met  the  English  with  30,000,  and  was  entirely  de- 
feated in  the  field  of  Cressy,  August  26,  1,348.  Calais  was  taken  by 
the  English,  and  remained  in  their  possession  210  years.  The  En- 
glish are  said  to  have  first  used  artillery  in  the  battle  of  Cressy.  Fire 
arms  were  then  but  a  recent  invention  (1,340),  and  have  much  con- 
tributed to  lessen  both  the  slaughter  and  the  frequency  of  wars.  Mr. 
Hume  well  observes  that  war  is  now  reduced  nearly  to  a  matter  c4 
calculation.  A  nation  knows  its  power,  and,  when  overmatched, 
either  yields  to  its  enemies,  or  secures  itself  by  alliance. 

6.  The  Scots  in  the  mean  time  invaded  Engrand,  and  were  defeated 
in  the  battle  of  Durham  by  Philippa,  the  heroic  queen  of  Edward  III. ; 
and  their  sovereign  David  11.  was  led  prisoner  to  London.  A  truce 
concluded  between  Edward  and  Philip  was  dissolved  by  the  death  of 
the  latter.  Philip  was  succeeded  by  his  son  John,  who  took  the  field 
with  60,000  men  against  the  black  prince,  and  was  defeated  by  him 
with  a  far  inferior  number  in  the  signal  battle  of  Poictiers,  September 
19.  1,356.  John  king  of  France  was  led  in  triumph  to  London,  the 
fellow-prisoner  of  David  king  of  Scotland.  But  England  derived  from 
those  victories  nothing  but  honour.  The  French  continued  the  war 
with  great  \  igour  during  the  captivity  of  their  sovereign,  who  died 
in  London  in  1,364.  'They  obtained  a  peace  by  the  cession  to  the 
English  of  Poitou,  St.  Onge,  Perigord  and  other  provinces ;  and  Ed- 
ward consented  to  renounce  his  claim  to  the  crown  of  France.  The 
death  of  the  black  prince,  a  most  heroic  and  virtuous  man,  plunged 
the  nation  in  grief,  and  broke  the  spirits  of  his  father,  who  did  not  long 
survive  him. 

7.  Richard  II.  succeeded  his  grandfather,  in  1,377,  at  the  age  of 
eleven.  Charles  VI.  soon  after  became  king  of  France  at  the  age 
of  twelve.  Both  kingdoms  sufiered  from  the  distractions  attending  a 
regal  minority.  In  England  the  contests  for  power  between  the 
king's  uncles,  Lancaster,  York,  and  Gloucester,  embroiled  all  public 
measures ;  and  the  consequent  disorders  required  a  stronger  hand  to 
compose  them  than  that  of  the  weak  and  facile  Richard.  Taking 
advantage  of  the  king''s  absence,  then  engaged  in  quelling  an  insur- 
rection in  Ireland,  Henry  of  Lancaster  rose  in  open  rebellion,  and 
compelled  Richard,  at  his  return,  to  resign  the  crown.  The  parlia- 
ment confirmed  his  deposition,  and  he  was  soon  after  privately  assas- 
sinated. Thus  began  the  contentions  between  the  houses  of  York 
and  Lancaster. 


SECTION  XXV. 

ENGLAND    AND    FRANCE    IN    THE    FIFTEENTH    CENTURY. 

STATE  OF  MANNERS. 

I.  Henry  IV.  ascended  the  throne  on  the  deposition  of  Richard  II., 
1,399 ;  and  had  immediately  to  combat  a  rebellion  raised  by  the  eari 
of  Northumberland,  for  placing  Mortimer,  the  heir  of  the  house  of 
York,  on  the  throne.  The  Scots  and  Welsh  took  part  with  the  rebels, 
but  their  united  forces  were  defeated  at  Shrewsbury,  and  their  lead- 
er, young  Percy  (Hotspur),  killed  on  the  field.    A  second  rebeUion 


148  MODERN  HISTORY. 

headed  by  the  archbishop  of  York,  was  quelled  by  the  capital  punish- 
ment of  its  author.  The  secular  arm  was  rigorously  extended 
against  the  followers  of  Wickliff,  and  this  reign  saw  the  first  detestable 
examples  of  religious  persecution.  The  life  of  Henry  was  imbitter- 
«d  by  the  youthful  disorders  of  his  son  the  prince  of  Wales,  who 
afterwards  nobly  redeemed  hig  character.  Henry;  IV.  died  in  1,413, 
at  the  age  of  forty-six. 

2.  Henry  V.  took  advantage  of  the  disorders  of  France,  from  the 
temporary  insanity  of  its  sovereign  Charles  VI.,  and  the  factious 
itruggles  for  power  between  the  dukes  of  Burgundy  and  Orleans, 
to  invade  the  kingdom  with  a  large  army,  which  a  contagious  dis- 
temper wasted  down  to  a  fifth  of  its  numbers  ;  yet  with  this  handful 
of  resolute  and  hardy  troops,  he  defeated  the  French  army  of  60,000, 
under  the  constable  D' Albert,  in  the  famous  battle  of  Agincourt,  in 
which  10,000  of  the  enemy  were  slain,  and  14,000  made  prisoners, 
October  24,  1,415.  Returning  to  England  to  recruit  his  forces,  he 
kinded  again  with  an  army  of  25,000,  and  fought  his  way  to  Paris. 
The  insane  monarch,  with  his  court,  fled  to  Troye,  and  Henry  pur- 
suing, terminated  the  war  by  a  treaty  with  the  queen-mother  of 
the  duke  of  Burgundy,  by  which  it  was  agreed  that  he  should  marry 
the  daughter  of  Charles  VI.,  and  receive  the  kingdom  of  France  as 
her  dowry,  which,  till  the  death  of  her  father,  he  should  govern  as 
regent. 

3.  Mean  time  the  return  of  Henry  to  England  gave  the  dauphin 
hopes  of  the  recovery  of  his  kingdom.  He  was  victorious  in  an 
engagement  with  the  English  under  the  duke  of  Clarence  ;  but  his 
success  was  of  no  longer  duration  than  the  absence  of  the  English 
sovereign,  who  was  himself  hastening  to  the  period  of  his  triumphs. 
Seized  with  a  mortal  distemper,  Henry  died  in  the  34th  year  of  his 
age,  1,422,  one  of  the  most  heroic  princes  that  ever  swayed  the 
sceptre  of  England.  His  brother,  the  duke  of  Bedford,  was  declared 
regent  of  France,  and  Henry  VI.,  an  infant  nine  months  old,  was  pro- 
claimed king  at  Paris  and  at  London,  1,422. 

4.  Charles  VII.  recovered  France  by  slow  degrees.  With  the  aid 
©f  a  young  female  enthusiast,  the  maid  of  Orleans,  whom  the  credu- 
lity of  the  age  supposed  to  be  inspired  by  Heaven,  he  gained  several 
important  advantages  over  the  English,  which  the  latter  inhumanly 
revenged,  by  burning  this  heroine  as  a  sorceress.  Her  death  was  of 
equal  advantage  to  the  French  as  her  life  had  been.  The  govern- 
ment of  the  English  was  universally  detested.  After  a  struggle  of 
many  years,  they  were  at  length,  in  1,450,  deprived  of  all  that  they 
had  ever  possessed  in  France,  except  Calais  and  Guignes.  Charles, 
when  he  had  restored  his  kingdom  to  peace,  governed  it  with  admi- 
rable wisdom  and  moderation. 

5.  The  state  of  England  and  of  France,  the  two  most  polished 
kingdoms  in  Europe,  furnishes  a  good  criterion  of  the  condition  of 
society  in  those  ages  of  which  we  have  been  treating.  Even  in 
the  large  cities  the  houses  were  roofed  with  thatch,  and  had  no 
chimnies.  Glass  windows  were  extremely  rare,  and  the  floors 
were  covered  with  straw.  In  England  wine  was  sold  only  in  the 
shopfs  of  the  apothecaries.  Paper  made  from  linen  rags  was  first 
manufactured  in  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century ;  and  the  use 
of  linen  for  shirts  was  at  that  time  a  very  rare  piece  of  luxury. 
Yet  even  before  that  age  the  progress  of  luxury  had  excited  a  se- 
rious alarm,  for  the  parliament  under  Edward  III.  found  it  necessary 
to  prohibit  the  use  of  gold  and  silver  in  apparel  to  all  wh^  i'^<i  0<?t 


MODERN  HISTORY.  14S 

a  hundred  pounds  a  year ;  and  Charles  VI.  of  France  ordained,  that 
none  should  presume  to  entertain  with  more  than  two  dishes  and  a 
mess  of  soup.  Before  the  reign  of  Edward  I.  the  whole  country  of 
England  was  plundered  by  robbers  in  great  bands,  who  laid  waste 
entire  villages ;  and  some  of  the  household  officers  of  Henry  ill. 
excused  themselves  for  robbing  on  the  highway,  because  the  king 
allowed  them  no  wages.  In  1,303  the  abbot  and  monks  of  Westmin- 
ster were  indicted  for  robbing  the  king's  exchequer,  but  acquitted. 
The  admirable  laws  of  Edward  1.,  which  acquired  him  the  title  of 
the  English  Justinian,  give  strong  testimony  of  the  miserable  policy 
and  barbarism  of  the  preceding  times. 


SECTION  XXVI. 

DECLINE  AND  FALL  OF  THE  GREEK  EMPIRE. 

1.  In  the  fourteenth  century  the  Turks  were  proceeding  by  de- 
grees to  encroach  on  the  frontiers  of  the  Greek  empire.  The  sul- 
tan Ottoman  had  fixed  the  seat  of  his  government  at  Byrsa  in  Bi- 
thynia ;  and  his  son  Orcan  extended  his  sovereignty  to  the  Propontis, 
and  obtained  in  marriage  the  daughter  of  the  emperor  John  Canta- 
cuzenos.  About  the  middle  of  the  century  the  Turks  crossed  over 
into  Europe,  and  took  Aiirianopie.  The  emperor  John  Palaeologus, 
after  meanly  soliciting  aid  from  the  pope,  concluded  a  humiliating 
treaty  with  sultan  Amurat,  and  gave  his  son  as  a  hostage  to  serve  in 
the  Turkish  army. 

2.  Bajazet,  the  successor  of  Amurat,  compelled  the  emperor  to 
destroy  his  fort  of  Galata,  and  to  admit  a  Turkish  judge  into  the  city. 
He  prepared  now  to  besiege  Constantinople  in  form,  when  he  was 
forced  to  change  his  purpose,  and  defend  himself  against  the  victorious 
Tamerlane. 

3.  Timur-bek  or  Tamerlane,  a  prince  of  the  Usbek  Tartars,  and 
descended  from  Gengiskan,  after  the  conquest  of  Persia,  a  great  part 
of  India  and  Syria,  was  invited  by  the  Asiatic  princes,  enemies  of 
Bajazet,  to  protect  them  against  the  Ottoman  power,  which  threaten- 
ed to  overwhelm  them.  Tamerlane,  flattered  by  this  request,  im- 
periously summoned  the  Turk  to  renounce  his  conquests ;  but  the 
message  was  answered  with  a  proud  defiance.  The  armies  met  near 
Angoria  (Ancyra)  m  Phrygia,  and  Bajazet  was  totally  defeated  and 
made,  prisoner  by  Tamerlane,  1,402.  The  conqueror  made  Samar- 
cand  the  capital  of  his  empire,  and  there  received  the  homage  of  all 
the  princes  of  the  east.  Tamerlane  was  illiterate,  bi*t  yet  was  solici- 
tious  for  the  cultivation  of  literature  and  science  in  his  dominions. 
Samarcand  became  for  a  while  tlae  seat  of  learning,  politeness,  and 
the  arts ;  but  was  destined  to  relapse,  after  a  short  period,  into  its 
ancient  barbarism. 

4.  The  Turks,  after  the  death  of  Tamerlane,  resumed  their  pur- 
pose of  destroying  the  empire  of  the  east.  Amurat  II.,  a  prince  of 
singular  character,  had,  on  the  faith  of  a  solemn  treaty  with  the 
king  of  Poland,  devoted  his  days  to  retirement  and  study.  A  viola* 
tion  of  the  treaty,  bv  an  attack  from  the  Poles  on  his  dominions,  made 
him  quit  his  solitude.  He  engaged  and  destroyed  the  Polish  army, 
with  their  perfidious  sovereign,  and  then  calmly  returned  to  his  re- 
treat, till  a  similar  crisis  of  p«bUc  expediency  once  more  brought 
turn  into  active  life.    He  >e1t  his  domicioDs  to  bis  sod  Mahomet  U., 

N2  -:- 


160      '  MODERN  HISTORY. 

eumamed  the  great,  who  resumed  the  project  for  the  destruction  of 
Ccnsi;ntinople  ;  but  its  fall  was  a  second  time  retarded  by  the  neces- 
sity ui  which  the  Turks  were  unexpectedly  placed,  of  defending 
tiieir  own  dominions  against  a  powerful  invader. 

5.  Scanderbeg  (John  Castriot)  prince  of  Albania,  whose  territories 
had  been  seized  by  Amurat  II.,  was  educated  by  the  sultan  as  his 
own  child,  and  when  of  age,  intrusted  with  the  command  of  an 
army,  which  he  employed  in  wresting  from  Amurat  his  paternal 
kingdom,  1 ,443.  By  great  talents  and  military  skill  he  maintained 
his  independent  sovereignty  against  the  whole  force  of  the  Turkish 
empire. 

6.  Mahomet  II.,  son  of  the  philosophic  Amurat,  a  youth  of  twen- 
ty-one years  of  age,  resumed  the  plan  of  extinguishing  the  empire 
of  the  Greeks,  and  making  Constantinople  the  capital  of  the  Otto- 
man power.  Its  indolent  inhabitants  made  but  a  feeble  preparation 
for  defence,  and  the  powers  of  Europe  looked  on  with  supine  indif- 
ierence.  The  Turks  assailed  the  city  both  by  land  and  sea ;  and, 
battering  down  its  walls  with  their  cannon,  entered  sword  in  hand, 
and  massacred  all  who  opposed  them.  The  emperor  Constantine 
was  slain ;  the  city  surrendered ;  and  thus  was  finally  extinguished 
the  eastern  empire  of  the  Romans,  A.  D.  1,453,  which,  from  the 
building  of  its  capital  by  Constantine  the  great,  had  subsisted  1,123 
Tears.  The  imperial  edifices  were  preserved  from  destruction. 
The  churches  were  converted  into  mosques;  but  the  exercise  of 
their  religion  was  allowed  to  all  the  christians.  From  that  time  the 
Greek  christians  have  regularly  chosen  their  own  patriarch,  whom 
the  sultan  instals ;  though  his  authority  continues  to  be  disputed  by 
the  Latin  patriarch,  who  is  chosen  by  the  pope.  Mahomet  the  great 
liberally  patronized  the  arts  and  sciences ;  and,  to  compensate  for 
the  migration  of  those  learned  Greeks,  who,  on  the  fall  of  the  empire, 
spread  themselves  over  the  countries  of  Europe,  invited  both  artists 
and  men  of  letters  to  his  capital  from  other  kingdoms. 

/"  7.  The  taking  of  Constantinople  was  followed  by  the  conquest  of 
Greece  and  Epirus.  Italy  might  probably  have  met  a  similar  fate,  but 
by  means  of  their  fleet  the  Venetians  opposed  the  arms  of  Mahomet 
with  considerable  success,  and  even  attacked  him  in  Greece.  I'he 
contending  powers  soon  after  put  an  end  to  hostilities  by  a  treaty. 
Mahomet  the  great  died  at  the  age  of  fifty-one,  1,481. 


SECTION  XXVIl. 

GOVERNMENT  AND  POLICY  OF  THE  TURKISH  EMPIRE. 

1.  The  government  of  Turkey  is  an  absolute  monarchy,  the 
whole  legislative  and  executive  authority  of  the  state  centering  in 
the  sultan,  whose  power  is  subject  to  no  constitutional  control.  It  is, 
however,  Umited  in  some  degree  by  religious  opinion ;  the  precepts 
©fthe  Coran  inculcating  certain  duties  on  the  sovereign,  which  it 
would  be  held  an  impiety  to  transgress.  It  is  yet  more  strongly  limit- 
ed by  the  fear  of  deposiiion  and  assassination.  Lndsr  these  restraints 
the  prince  can  seldom  venture  on  an  extreme  abuse  of  power. 

2.  The  spirit  of  the  people  is  fitted  for  a  subjection  bordering  on 
flJavery.  Concubinage  being  agreeable  to  the  law  of  Mahomet,  the 
grand  seignior,  the  viziers,  are  born  of  female  slaves  :  and  there  ie 
tcarcely  a  sul^ject  of  the  empire  of  ingenuous  blood  by  both  parent*. 


ODERN  HISTORY.  151 

It  is  a  fundamental  maxim  of  the  Turkish  policy,  that  all  the  officers 
of  state  should  be  such  as  the  sultan  can  entirely  command,  and  at 
any  time  destroy,  wichout  danger  to  himself. 

J^.  3.  Tne  grand  vizier  is  usually  entrusted  with  the  whole  functions 
of  government,  and  of  course  subjected  to  the  sole  responsibility  for 
all  public  measures.  Subordinate  to  him  are  six  viziei'S  of  the  bench, 
who  are  his  counsel  and  asse?sors  in  cases  of  law,  of  which  h"  is 
supreme  judge.  The  power  of  the  grand  vizier  is  absolut*.  over  all 
the  subjects  of  the  empire ;  but  he  cannot  put  to  dealb  a  beglf  r- 
beg  or  a  bashaw  without  the  imperial  signature  ;  nor  punish  a  imi- 
zary,  unless  through  the  medium  of  his  military  commanoer.  The 
beglerbegs  are  the  governors  of  several  provinces,  the  b  ashaws  of 
a  single  province.  AH  dignities  in  the  Tukish  empire  are  personal, 
and  dependent  on  the  sovereign's  pleasui'e. 

.  ^  4.  The  revenues  of  the  grand  seignior  arise  from  taxes  and  cus- 
toms laid  on  the  subject,  annual  tributes  paid  by  the  Tarta  s,  stilted 
gifts  from  the  governors  of  the  provinces,  and,  above  all,  tb"  -^onhs- 
cations  of  estates,  from  the  viziers  and  bashaws  downwan^"  to  the 
lowest  subjects  of  the  empire.  The  certain  and  tixed  revr"«ies  of 
the  sovereign  are  small  in  comparison  of  those  which  are  a>  luirary. 
His  absolute  power  enables  him  to  execute  great  projects  at  a  small 
expense. 


SECTION  XXVIII. 

FRANCE  AND    ITALY    IN    THE     END   OF    THE   FIFTEENTH 
CENTURY. 

1.  Scarcely  any  vestige  of  the  ancient  feudal  government  notv 
remained  in  France.  The  only  subsisting  fiefs  were  Burgundy  and 
Brittany.  Charles  the  bold,  duke  of  Burgundy,  who  sought  to  in- 
crease his  territories  by  the  conquest  of  Switzerland  and  Lorraine, 
was  defeated  by  the  Swiss,  and  killed  in  battle.  He  left  no  son,  and 
Lewis  XI.  of  France  took  possession  of  Burgundy  as  a  male  fief, 
1,447.  The  duke's  daughter  married  Maximilian,  son  of  the  empe- 
ror Frederick  III.,  who,  by  this  marriage,  acquired  the  sovereignty 
of  the  Netherlands. 

/  2.  The  acquisition  of  Burgundy  and  of  Provence,  which  was  be- 
queathed to  France  by  the  count  de  la  Marche,  increased  very  great- 
ly the  power  of  the  crown.  Lewis  XL,  an  odious  compound  of  vice, 
cruelty,  and  superstition,  and  a  tyrant  to  his  people,  was  the  author 
of  many  wise  and  excellent  regulations  of  public  policy.  The  bar- 
barity of  the  pubhc  executions  in  his  reign  is  beyond  all  belief;  yet 
the  wisdom  of  his  laws,  the  encouragement  which  he  gave  to  com- 
merce, the  restraints  which  he  imposed  on  the  oppressions  of  the 
nobility,  and  the  attention  which  he  bestowed  in  regulating  the  courts 
of  justice,  must  ever  be  mentioned  to  his  honour. 

3.  The  count  de  la  Marche,  beside  the  bequest  of  Provence  to 
Lewis  XL,  left  him  his  empty  title  of  sovereign  of  the  Two  Sicilies. 
Lewis  was  satisfied  with  the  substantial  gift;  but  his  son  Charles 
Vlll.  Wcis  dazzled  with  the  shadow.  In  the  beginning  of  his  reign 
he  projected  the  conquest  of  Naples,  and  embarked  in  the  enterprise 
with  the  most  improvident  precipitancy. 

4.  The  dismemhered  state  of  Italy  was  favourable  to  bis  view9- 


152  MODERN  HISTORY. 

The  popedom,  during  the  transference  of  its  seat  to  Avignon,  had 
lost  many  of  its  territories.  Mantua,  Modena,  and  Ferrara,  had  their 
independent  sovereigns.  Piedmont  belonged  to  the  duke  of  Savoy ; 
Genoa  and  Milan  to  the  family  of  Sforza.  Florence,  under  the  Medi- 
ci, had  attained  a  very  high  pitch  of  splendour.  Cosmo,  the  founder 
of  that  family,  employed  a  vast  fortune,  acquired  by  commerce,  in 
the  improvement  of  his  country,  in  acts  of  public  munificence,  and  in 
the  cultivation  of  the  sciences  and  elegant  arts.  His  higa  reputation 
obtained  for  himself  and  his  posterity  the  chief  authority  in  his  native 
state.  Peter  de  Medici,  his  great  §r mdson,  ruled  in  Florence  at  the 
period  of  the  expedition  of  Charles  Vill.  into  Italy. 

5.  The  papacy  w;is  enjoyed  at  this  time  by  Alexander  VL,  a  mon- 
ster of  wickedness.  The  pope  and  the  duke  of  Milan,  who  had  invited 
Charles  to  this  enterprise,  immediately  betrayed  him,  and  joined  the 
interest  of  the  king  of  iS^apies.  Charles,  after  besieging  the  pope  in 
Ro.ne,  and  forcing  him  to  submission,  devoutly  kissed  hi;  ket.  He 
now  marched  against  JSaples,  while  its  timed  prince  Alpho  .:o  fled  to 
Sicily,  and  his  son  to  the  isle  of  Ischia,  after  absolving  Ins  subjects 
from  their  allegiance.  Charles  entered  Naples  in  triumph,  and  was 
hailed  emperor  and  Augustus:  but  he  lost  his  new  kingdom  iu  almost 
as  short  a  time  as  he  had  gaineil  it.  A  league  was  termed  against 
France  between  the  pope^  t|ie  emperor  Maximilian,  Ferdinand  of  Ar- 
ragon,  Isabella  of  Castile,  and  the  Venetians ;  and  on  the  return  of 
Charles  to  France,  the  troops  which  he  had  left  to  guard  his  conquest 
were  entirely  driven  out  of  Italy. 

6.  It  has  been  remarked  that,  from  the  decisive  effect  of  this  con- 
federacy against  Charles  VIII.,  the  sovereigns  of  Europe  derived  a 
useful  lesson  of  policy,  and  first  adopted  the  idea  of  preserving  a  bal- 
ance of  power,  by  that  tacit  league  which  is  understood  to  be  always 
subsisting,  for  the  prevention  of  the  inordinate  aggrandizement  of  any 
particular  state. 

7.  Charles  VIll.  died  at  the  age  of  twenty-eight,  1,498  ;  and,  leav- 
ing no  children,  the  duke  of  Orleans  succeeded  to  the  throne  of 
France  by  the  title  of  Lewis  XII. 


SECTION  XXIX. 

HISTORY  OF  SPAIN  IN    THE  FOURTEENTH  AND    FIFTEENTH 
CENTURIES. 

J.  We  go  back  a  little  to  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century,  to 
trace  the  history  of  Spain.  Peter  of  Castile,  sumamed  the  cruel,  for 
no  other  reason  but  that  he  employed  severe  means  to  supjport  his 
just  rights,  had  to  contend  against  a  bastard  brother,  Henry  of  Trans- 
tamarre,  who,  with  the  aid  of  a  French  banditti,  called  Malandrins, 
led  by  bertrand  du  Guesclin,  strove  to  dispossess  him  of  his  kingdom. 
Peter  was  aided  by  Edward  the  black  prince,  then  sovereign  of  Gui* 
cnne,  who  defeated  Transtamarre,  and  took  Bertrand  prisoner;  but, 
on  the  return  of  the  prince  to  England,  Peter  was  attacked  by  his 
former  enemies,  and  entirely  defeated.  Unable  to  restrain  his  rage 
in  the  first  view  with  Transtamarre,  the  latter  put  him  to  death  with 
his  own  hand,  1,368  ;  and  thus  this  usurper  secured  for  himself  and 
his  posterity  the  throne  of  Castile. 

2.  The  weakness  and  debauchery  of  one  of  his  descendants,  Heu- 
17  IV.  of  Caatile,  occasioned  a  rerolutioa  ia  the  kingdom.    The  ma^ 


MODERN  HISTORY.  153 

jBrity  of  the  nation  rose  in  rebellion ,  the  assembly  of  the  nobles  sol- 
eDUiIy  deposed  their  king,  and,  on  the  alleged  ground  of  his  daughter 
Joanna  being  a  bastard,  compelled  him  to  settle  the  crown  on  his  sis« 
ter  Isabella.  They  next  brought  about  a  marriage  between  Isabella 
and  Ferdinand  of  Arragon,  which  united  the  monarchies  of  Arragon 
and  Castile.  After  a  ruinous  civil  war  the  revolution  was  at  length 
completed  by  the  death  of  the  deposed  sovereign,  1,474,  and  the  re- 
tirement of  his  daughter  Joanna  to  a  monastery,  1,479. 

3.  At  the  accession  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  to  the  thrones  of  Ar- 
ragon and  Castile,  Spain  was  in  a  state  of  gi'eat  disorder,  from  the 
lawless  depredations  of  the  nobles  and  their  vassals.  It  was  the  first 
object  of  the  new  sovereigns  to  repress  these  enormities,  by  subject 
ins  the  offenders  to  the  utmost  rigour  of  law,  enforced  by  the  sword. 
Tne  holy  brotherhood  was  instituted  for  the  discovery  and  punishment 
of  crimes;  and  the  inquisition  (Sect.  XIX,  6  3),  under  the  pretext  of 
extirpating  heresy  and  impiety,  afforded  the  most  detestable  exam- 
ples of  sanguinary  persecution. 

4.  The  5loorish  kingdom  of  Granada,  a  most  splendid  monarchy, 
but  at  that  time  weakened  by  faction,  and  a  prey  to  civil  war,  offered 
a  tempting  object  to  the  ambition  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella.  Alboa- 
cen  was  at  war  with  his  nephew  Aboabdeli,  who  wanted  to  dethrone 
him ;  and  Ferdinand  aided  Aboabdeli,  in  tne  view  of  ruining  both ; 
for  no  sooner  was  the  latter  in  possession  of  the  crovrn  by  the  death 
of  Alboacen,  than  Ferdinand  invaded  his  ally  with  the  whole  force  ot 
Arragon  and  Castile.  Granada  was  besieged  in  1,491,  and,  after  a 
blockade  of  eight  months,  surrendered  to  the  victor.  Aboabdeli,  by 
a  mean  capitulation,  saved  his  life,  and  purchased  a  retreat  for  his 
countrymen  to  a  mountainous  part  of  the  kingdom,  where  they  were 
suffered  to  enjoy  unmolested  their  laws  and  their  rehgion.  Thus 
ended  the  dominion  of  the  Mooi-s  in  Spain,  which  had  subsisted  for 
800  years. 

5.  Ferdinand,  from  that  period,  took  the  title  of  king  of  Spain.  In 
1,492  he  expelled  all  the  Jews  from  his  dominions,  on  the  absurd 
ground,  that  they  kept  in  their  hands  the  commerce  of  the  kingdom; 
and  Spain  thus  lost  above  150,000  of  the  most  industrious  of  her  in- 
habitants. The  exiles  spread  themselves  over  the  other  kingdoms  of 
Europe,  and  were  often  the  victims  of  a  persecution  equally  inhuman. 
It  would  appear  that  Spain  has  felt,  even  to  the  present  times,  the  ef- 
fects of  this  folly,  in  the  slow  progress  of  the  arts,  and  that  deplora- 
ble inactivity  which  is  the  characteristic  of  her  people.  Even  the 
discovery  ot  the  new  world,  which  happened  at  this  very  period,  and 
which  stimulated  the  spirit  of  enterprise  and  industry  in  all  the  neigh- 
bouring kingdoms,  produced  but  a  feeble  impression  on  that  nation, 
which  might  in  a  great  degree  have  monopolized  its  benefits.  Of 
that  great  discovery  we  shall  afterwards  treat  in  a  separate  sectioa. 


SECTION  XXX. 

FRANCE,    SPAIN,   AND    ITALY,    IN    THE   END    OF   THE    FIF- 
TEENTH AND  BEGINNING  OF  THE   SIXTEENTH  CENTURY. 

1.  Lewis  XII.,  eagerly  bent  on  vindicating  his  right  to  Naples, 
courted  the  interest  of  pope  Alexander  VI.,  who  promised  his  aid  oa 
condition  that  his  natural  son,  Caesar  Borgia,  should  receive  from 
Lewis  the  duchy  of  Valentinois,  with  the  king  of  Navarre's  sister  m 

20 


154  MODERN  HISTORY. 

marriage.  Lewis  crossed  the  Alps,  and  in  the  space  of  a  few  days 
was  master  of  Milan  and  Genoa.  Sforza  duke  oi  Milan  became  his 
prisoner  for  life.  Afraid  of  the  power  of  Ferdinand  of  Spain,  Lewis 
joined  with  him  in  the  conquest  of  Naples,  and  agreed  to  divide 
with  him  the  conquered  dominions,  the  pope  making  no  scruple  to 
sanction  the  partition.  But  the  compromise  was  of  no  duration; 
for  Alexander  VI.,  and  Ferdinand,  judging  it  a  better  policy  to  share 
Italy  between  themselves,  united  their  interest  to  deprive  Lewis 
of  his  new  territories.  The  Spaniards,  under  Gonsalvo  de  Cordova, 
defeated  the  French,  under  the  duke  de  ISemours  and  the  chevalier 
Bayard ;  and  Lewis  irrecoverably  lost  his  share  of  the  kingdom  of 
Naples. 

2.  History  relates  with  horror  the  crimes  of  pope  Alexander  VI, 
and  his  son  Caesar  Borgia ;  their  murders,  robberies,  profanations, 
incests.  They  compassed  their  ends  in  attaining  every  object  of 
their  ambition,  but  with  the  universal  abhorrence  of  mankind,  and 
linaliy  met  with  an  ample  retribution  for  their  crimes.  The  pope 
died  by  poison,  prepared,  as  was  alleged,  by  himself  for  an  enemy ; 
and  Borgia,  stripped  of  all  his  possessions  by  pope  Julius  II.,  and  sent 
prisoner  to  Spain  by  Gonsalvo  de  Cordova,  perished  in  miserable 
obscurity. 

3.  Julius  II.,  the  successor  of  Alexander,  projected  the  formidable 
.league  of  C;imi)ray,  1,508,  with  the  emperor,  the  kings  of  France 

and  Spain,  the  duke  of  Savoy,  and  king  of  Hungary,  for  the  destruc- 
tion of  Venice,  and  the  division  of  her  territories  among  the  confed- 
erates. They  accomplished  in  part  their  design,  and  Venice  was  on 
tlie  verge  of  annihilation,  when  the  pope  changed  his  politics. 
Having  made  the  French  subservient  to  his  views  of  plundering  the 
Venetians,  he  now  formed  a  new  league  with  the  Venetians,  Ger- 
mans, and  Spaniards,  to  expel  the  French  from  Italy,  and  appropriate 
ai!  their  conquests.  The  Swiss  ^nd  the  English  co-operated  in  this 
design.  The  French  made  a  brave  resistance  under  their  generals 
Bayard  and  Giiston  de  Foix,  but  were  finally  overpowered.  Lewis 
was  compelled  to  evacuate  Italy  ;  Ferdinand,  with  the  aid  of  Henry 
VIll.  of  England,  stripped  him  of'Navarre,  and  forced  him  to  pur- 
chase a  peace.  He  died  in  1,615.  Though  unfortunate  in  his  milita- 
ry enterprises,  from  the  superior  abilities  of  his  rivals  pope  Julius 
and  Ferdinand,  yet  he  was  justly  esteemed  by  his  subjects  for  the 
virisdom  and  equity  of  iiis  government 


SECTION  XXXI. 

HISTORY  OF  ENGLAND  FROM  THE  MIDDLE  OF  THE 
FIFTEENTH  TO  THE  BEGINNING  OF  THE  SIXTEENTH 
CENTURY.     CIVIL  WARS  OF  YORK  AND  LANCASTER. 

1 .  We  have  seen  France  recovered  from  the  English  in  the  early 
part  of  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.,  by  the  talents  and  proweas  of  Charles 
VIII.  During  the  minority  of  Henry,  who  was  a  prince  of  no  capa- 
city, England  was  embroiled  by  the  factious  contention  for  po>yer 
between  his  uncles,  the  duke  of  Gloucester  and  the  cardinal  ot  Win- 
chester. The  latter,  to  promote  his  own  views  of  ambition,  married 
Henry  to  Margaret  of  Anjou,  daughter  of  Regner  the  titular  king  ot 
Naples,  a  woman  of  great  mental  endowments  and  singular  heroism 


MODERN  HISTORY.  1&6 

<>f  character,  but  whose  severity  in  the  persecution  of  her  enemies 
alienated  a  great  part  of  the  nobles  from  their  allegiance,  and  in- 
creased the  partisans  of  a  rival  claimant  of  the  crown. 

2.  This  was  Richard  duke  of  York,  descended  by  his  mother  from 
Lionel,  second  son  of  Edward  111^  and  elder  brother  to  John  of  Gaunt, 
Ihe  progenitor  of  Henry  VI.  The  white  rose  distinguished  the  fac- 
tion of  York,  and  the  red  rose  that  of  Lancaster.  The  party  of 
YoiSv  gained  much  strength  from  the  incapacity  of  Henry,  who  was 
subject  to  periodical  madness ;  and  Richard  was  appointed  lieutenant 
and  protector  of  the  kingdom.  The  authority  of  Henry  was  now 
annihilated;  but  Margaret  roused  her  husband,  in  an  interval  of 
sanity,  to  assert  his  right;  and  the  nation  was  divided  in  arms  be- 
tween the  rival  parties.  In  the  battle  of  St.  Albans  5,000  of  the 
Lancastrians  were  slain,  and  the  king  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  duke 
of  York,  on  the  22d  day  of  May,  1,455.  Yet  the  parliament,  while 
it  confirmed  the  authority  of  the  protector,  maintained  its  allegiance 
to  the  king. 

3.  The  spirit  of  the  queen  reanimated  the  royal  party ;  and  the 
Lancastrians  gained  such  advantage,  that  the  duke  of  York  fled  to 
Ireland,  while  his  cause  was  secretiy  maintained  in  England  by  Guv 
earl  of  Warwick.  In  the  battle  of  Northampton  the  party  of  York 
again  prevailed,  and  Henry  once  more  was  ])rought  prisoner  to  Lon- 
don ;  while  his  dauntless  queen  still  nobly  exerted  herself  to  retrieve 
his  fortunes.  York  now  claimed  the  crown  in  open  parliament,  but 
prevailed  only  to  have  his  right  of  succession  ascertained  on  Henry's 
death,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  royal  issue. 

4.  In  the  next  battle  the  duke  of  York  was  slain,  and  his  party  de- 
feated ;  but  his  successor  Edward,  supported  by  Warwick,  avenged 
this  disaster  by  a  signal  victory  near  Touton,  in  Yorkshire,  in 
which  40,000  of  the  Lancastrians  were  slain.  York  ivas  proclaimed 
king  by  the  title  of  Edward  IV.,  while  Margaret,  with  her  dethroned 
husband  and  infant  son,  tied  into  Flanders. 

5.  Edward,  who  owed  his  crown  to  Warwick,  was  ungrateful 
to  his  benefactor;  and  the  imprudence  and  injustice  of  his  conduct 
forced  that  nobleman  at  length  to  take  part  with  the  faction  of  I^n- 
caster.  The  consequence  was,  that,  after  some  struggles,  Edward 
was  deposed,  and  Henry  VI.  once  more  restored  to  the  throne  by 
the  hands  of  Warwick,  now  known  by  the  epithet  of  the  king-maker. 
But  this  change  was  of  no  duration.  The  party  of  York  ultimately 
prevailed.  The  Lancastrians  were  defeated  in  the  battle  of  Bamet, 
and  the  brave  Warwick  was  slain  in  the  engagement,  1,472. 

6.  The  intrepid  Margaret,  whose  spirit  was  superior  to  every 
change  of  fortune,  prepared  to  strike  a  last  blow  for  the  crown  of 
England  in  the  battle  of  Tewksbury.  The  event  was  fatal  to  her 
hopes :  victory  declared  for  Edwardf.  Margaret  was  sent  prisoner  to 
the  tower  of  London ;  and  the  prince  her  son,  a  youth  of  high  spirit, 
when  brought  into  the  presence  of  his  conqueror,  having  nobly  dared 
to  justify  his  enterprise  to  the  face  of  his  rival,  was  barbarously  mur- 
dered by  the  dukes  of  Gloucester  and  Clarence,  Henry  VI.  was 
soon  after  privately  put  to  death  in  the  Tower.  The  heroic  Margaret, 
ransomed  oy  Lewis  XL,  died  in  France,  1,482. 

7.  Edward  IV.,  thus  secured  on  the  throne  by  the  death  of  all  his 
competitors,  abandoned  himself  without  reserve  to  the  indulgence  of 
a  vicious  and  tyrannical  nature.  He  put  to  death,  on  the  most  frivo- 
lous pretence,  his  brother  Clarence,    rreparing  to  gratify  his  subject* 

J  a  war  with  France,  he  died  suddenly  in  the  forty-second  year  ot* 


156  MODERN  ffiSTOKY. 

his  age,  poisoned,  as  was  suspected,  by  his  brother  Richard  duke  of 
Gloucester,  1,483. 

8.  Edward  left  two  sons,  the  elder,  Edward  V,,  a  boy  of  thirteen 
years  of  age.  Richard  duke  of  Gloucester,  named  protector  in  the 
minority  of  his  nephew,  hired,  by  means  of  Buckinghnm,  a  mob  of 
the  dregs  of  the  popuhice  to  declare  their  wish  for  his  assum.ption 
of  the  crown.  H<^  yielded,  wiih  ritlected  reluctance,  to  this  voice  of 
the  nation,  and  was  proclaimed  king  by  the  title  of  Richard  II!.,  1,483. 
Edvyard  V.,  after  a  reign  of  two  mcnths,  with  his  brother  the  duke 
of  lork,  were,  by  command  of  the  usurper,  smothered  while  asleep, 
and  privately  buried  in  the  Tower. 

9.  These  atrocious  crinies  found  an  avenger  in  Henry  earl  of 
Richmond,  the  surviving  heir  of  the  house  of  Lancaster,  who,  aided 
by  Charles  V'lII.  of  France,  landed  in  England,  and  revived  the  spirits 
of  a  party  almost  extinguished  in  the  kingdom.  He  gave  battle  to 
Richard  in  the  field  of  liosworth,  and  entirely  defeated  the  army  of 
the  usurper,  who  was  slain  while  fighting  with  the  most  desperate 
courage,  August  22, 1,485.  The  crown  which  he  wore  in  the  engage- 
ment was  immediately  placed  on  the  head  of  the  conqueror.  This 
auspicious  day  put  an  end  to  the  civil  wars  of  York  and  Lancaster. 
Henry  MI.  united  the  rights  of  both  families  by  his  marriage  with 
Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Edward  IV. 

10.  The  reign  of  Henry  Vll.  was  of  twenty-four  years'  dgration; 
and  under  his  wise  and  poiilic  go\  ernment  the  kingdom  recovered 
all  the  wounds  which  it  had  sustained  in  those  unhappy  contests. 
Industry,  good  order,  and  perfect  subordination,  were  the  fruit  of  the 
excellent  laws  passed  in  this  reign  ;  though  the  temper  of  the  sove- 
reign was  despotic,  and  his  avarice,  in  the  latter  part  of  his  reign, 
prompted  to  the  most  oppressive  exactions.  . 

11.  The  government  of  Henry  was  disturbed  by  two  very  singular 
enterprises;  the  attempt  of  Lambert  Simnel,  the  son  of  a  baker,  to 
counterfeit  the  person  of  the  earl  of  VVarAvick,  son  of  the  duke  of 
Clarence;  and  the  similar  attempt  of  Perkin  VVarbeck,  son  of  a 
Flemish  Jew,  to  counterfeit  the  duke  of  York,  who  had  been  smother- 
ed in  the  Tower  by  Richard  HI.  Both  imposFors  found  consideral'le 
support,  but  were  finally  deleated.  Simnel,  after  being  crowned 
king  of  England  and  Ireland  at  Dublin,  ended  his  days  in  a  menial 
office  of  Henry's  household.  Perkin  supported  his  cause  by  force 
of  arms  for  five  years,  and  was  aided  by  a  great  proportion  of  the 
English  nobility.  Overpowered  at  length  he  surrendered  to  Henry, 
who  condemned  him  to  perpetual  imprisonment ;  but  his  ambitious 
spirit  meditated  a  new  insurrection,  and  he  was  put  to  death  as  a 
traitor.  Henry  VII.  died  in  1,509,  in  the  tiiiy-third  year  of  his  age, 
and  the  twenty-fourth  of  his  reign. 


SECTION  XXXII. 

HISTORY  OF  SCOTLAND  FROM  THE  MIDDLE  OF  THE 
FOURTEENTH  CENTURY  TO  THE  END  OF  THE  REIGN  OF 
JAMES  V. 

1.  In  no  country  of  Europe  had  the  feudal  aristocracy  attained  td 
a  greater  height  than  in  Scotland.  The  power  of  the  greater 
barons,  while  it  rendered  them  independeut^  and  (^ten  the  riralf 


MODERJN  HISTORY  .37 

of  their  sovereign,  was  a  perpetual  source  of  turbulence  and  dis- 
order in  the  kingdom.  It  was  therefore  a  constant  poUcy  of  the 
Scottish  kings  to  humble  the  nobles,  and  break  their  factious  com- 
biuations.  Robert  I.  attempted  to  retrench  the  vast  territorial  pos- 
sessions of  his  barons,  by  requiring  every  landholder  to  produce  llie 
titles  of  his  estate ;  but  was  resolutely  answered,  that  the  sword  was 
their  charter  of  possession. 

2.  On  the  death  of  Robert  in  1,329,  and  during  the  minority  of 
his  son  David,  Edward  Baliol,  the  son  of  John  formerly  king  oi' 
Scotland,  "with  the  aid  of  Edward  III.  of  England,  and  ol  many  oi 
the  fictions  barons,  invaded  the  kingdom,  and  was  crowned  at  Scone, 
while  tiie  young  David  was  conveyed  for  security  to  France.  The 
m;n\!i  dependence  of  BaUol  on  the  English  monarch  deprived  hini  of 
the  affections  of  the  people.  Robert,  the  steward  of  Scotland,  R;>iv 
dolph,  and  Douglas,  supported  the  Brucian  interest,  and,  assisted  l;y 
the  French,  restored  David  to  his  throne.  This  prince  was  destined 
to  sustain  many  reverses  of  fortune  ^  for,  in  a  subsequent  invasion  oj 
the  English  territory  by  the  Scots,  he  was  taken  prisoner  in  the  bat- 
tle of  Durham,  and  conveyed  to  London.  He  remained  eleven 
years  in  captivity,  and  witnessed  a  similar  fate  of  a  brother  monarch. 
John  king  of  France,  taken  prisoner  by  the  black  prince  in  the  battip 
of  Poictiers.  David  was  ransomed  by  his  suDjects,  and  restored  to 
his  kingdom  in  1,357  ;  and  ended  a  turbulent  reign  in  1,370-1.  Tlie 
crown  passed  at  nis  demise  to  his  nephew  Robert,  the  high  steward 
of  Scotland,  in  virtue  of  a  destination  made  by  Robert  L 

3.  The  reign  of  Robert  II.,  which  was  of  twenty  years'  duration, 
was  spent  in  a  series  of  hostilities  between  the  Scots  and  English, 
productive  of  no  material  consequence  to  either  kingdom.  I'he 
weak  and  indolent  disposition  of  his  successor  Robert  111.,  who  found 
himself  unequal  to  the  contest  with  his  factious  nobles,  prnmj)te.) 
him  to  resign  the  government  to  his  brother,  the  duke  of  Albaviy. 
This  ambitious  man  formed  the  design  of  usurping  the  throne  by  tiie 
murder  of  his  nephews,  the  sons  of  Robert.  The  elder,  Roths  ly,  n 
prince  of  high  spirit,  was  imprisoned  on  pretence  of  treasonable  de- 
signs, and  starved  to  death.  The  younger,  James,  escaped  a  similar 
fate  which  was  intended  for  him;  but  on  his  passage  to  France, 
whither  he  was  sent  for  safety  by  his  father,  he  was  taken  by  an  Eng- 
lish ship  of  war,  and  brought  prisoner  to  London.  The  weak  Roller*- 
sunk  under  these  misfortunes,  and  died,  1,405,  after  a  reign  of  tifteen 
years. 

4.  James  I.,  a  prince  of  great  natural  endowments,  profited  by  a 
captivity  of  eighteen  years  at  the  court  of  England,  in  adorning  his 
mind  with  every  valuable  accomplishment.  At  his  return  to  liis 
kingdom,  which  in  his  absence  had  been  weakly  governed  by  the 
regent  Albany,  and  suffered  under  all  the  disorders  of  anarchy^  he 
bent  his  whole  attention  to  the  improvement  and  civilization  ol  his 
people,  by  the  enactment  of  many  excellent  laws,  enforced  with  a 
resolute  authority.  The  factions  of  the  nobles,  their  dangerous  com- 
binations, and  their  domineering  tyranny  over  their  dependents,  the 
great  sources  of  the  people ""s  miseries,  were  firmly  restramed,  and 
most  severely  punished.  But  these  wholesome  innovations,  while 
they  procured  to  James  the  affections  of  the  nation  at  large,  excited 
the  odium  of  the  nobility,  and  gave 'birth  to  a  conspiracy,  headed 
by  the  earl  of  Atliole.  the  king's  uncle,  which  teitninated  in  the 
murder  of  this  excellent  prince,  in  the  44tl>  year  of  his  age,  A.  D. 
1,437. 

O 


IbS  MODERJV  HISTORY. 

5.  His  son  James  II.  inherited  a  considerable  portion  of  the  talents 
of  his  father;  and,  in  the  like  purpose  of  restraining  the  inordinate 
power  of  his  nobles,  pursued  the  same  maxims  of  government,  which 
an  impetuous  temper  prompted  him,  in  some  instances,  to  carry  to 
the  most  blaraeable  excess.  The  earl  of  Douglas,  trusting  to  a  pow- 
erful vassalage,  had  assumed  an  authority  above  the  laws,  and  a  state 
and  splendour  rival  to  those  of  his  sovereign.  He  was  seized,  and 
beheaded  without  accusation  or  trial.  His  successor  imprudently 
running  the  same  career,  and  boldly  justifying,  in  a  conference,  his 
rebellious  practices,  was  put  to  death  by  the  king's  own  hand.  Thus 
were  the  tactions  of  the  nobles  quelled  by^  a  barbarous  rigour  oi* 
authority.  To  his  people  James  was  beneficent  and  humane,  and 
his  laws  contributed  materially  to  their  civilization  and  prosperity. 
He  was  killed,  in  the  3Uth  year  of  his  age,  by  the  bursting  of  a  can- 
non, in  besieging  the  castle  of  Roxburgh,  A.  D.  1 ,460. 

6.  His  son  James  III.,  without  the  talents  of  his  predecessors, 
affected  to  tread  in  the  same  stejis.  To  humble  his  nobles  he  be- 
stowed his  confidence  on  mean  iavourites,  an  insult  which  the  for- 
mer avenged  by  rebellion.  His  brothers  Albany  and  Mar,  aided 
by  Edward  IV.  of  England,  attempted  a  revolution  in  the  kingdom, 
winch  was  frustrated  only  by  the  death  of  Edward.  In  a  second  re- 
bellion the  confederate  nobles  forced  the  prince  of  Rothsay,  eldest  son 
of  James,  to  appear  in  arms  against  his  father.  In  an  engagement 
near  Bannockburn  the  rebels  were  successful,  and  the  king  was  slain 
in  the  35th  near  of  his  age,  1,488. 

7.  James  IV.,  a  great  and  most  accomplished  prince,  whose  talents 
were  equalled  by  his  virtues,  while  his  measures  of  government  were 
dictated  by  a  true  spirit  of  patriotism,  won  by  a  well-placed  confi- 
dence the  affe^Jiens  of  his  nobility.  In  his  marriage  with  Margaret, 
the  daughter  of  Henry  VII.  of  England,  both  sovereigns  wisely 
sought  a  bond  ot"  amity  between  the  kingdoms ;  but  this  purpose  was 
frustrated  in  the  succeeding  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  The  high  spirit  of 
the  rival  raonarchs  was  easily  inflamed  by  trifling  causes  of  offence ; 
and  France,  then  at  war  with  England,  courted  the  aid  ol"  her  an- 
cient ally.  James  invaded  England  with  a  powerful  army,  which  he 
wished  to  lead  lo  immediate  action ;  but  the  prudent  delays  of  Surrey, 
the  English  general,  wasted  and  weakened  his  force.  In  the  fatul 
battle  ot  Flodden  the  Scots  were  defeated  with  prodigious  slaughter. 
The  gallant  James  perished  in  the  fight,  and  with  him  almost  the 
whole  of  the  Scottish  nobles,  A.  D.  1,513. 

8.  Under  the  long  minority  of  his  son  James  V.,  an  infant  at  the 
time  of  his  fathers  death,  the  kingdom  was  feebly  ruled  by  his  uncle 
Albany.  The  aristocracy  began  \o  resume  its  ancient  spirit  of  inde- 
pendence, which  was  ill-brooked  by  a  prince  of  a  proud  and  un- 
controlable  mind,  who  felt  the  keenest  jealousy  of  a  high  preroga- 
tive. With  a  systematic  policy  he  employed  the  church  to  abuse  the 
mobility,  conferring  all  the  offices  of  state  on  able  ecclesiastics.  The 
cardinal  Beaton  co-operated  with  great  zeal  in  the  designs  of  his 
master,  and  under  him  ruled  the  kingdom. 

9.  Henry  VIIl.,  embroiled  with  the  papacy,  sought  an  alliance 
•with  the  king  of  Scots ;  but  the  ecclesiastical  counsellors  of  the  lat- 
ter defeated  this  beneficial  purpose.  A  war  was  thus  provoked,  and 
James  was  reluctantly  compelled  to  court  those  nobles  whom  it  had 
hitherto  been  his  darling  object  to  humiliate.  They  now  determined 
OQ  a  disgraceful  revenge.  In  an  attack  on  the  Scottish  border  the 
Engiish  were  repelled,  and  an  opportunity  offered  to  the  Scots  of 


MODERIN  HISTORY.  159 

CTitting  off  their  retreat.  The  king  gave  his  orders  to  that  end,  but 
his  barons  obstinately  refused  to  advance  beyond  the  frontier.  One 
measure  more  was  wanting  to  drive  their  sovereign  to  despair.  In  a 
subsequent  engagement  with  the  English  10,U00  of  the  Scots  deliber- 
ately surrendered  themselves  prisoners  to  500  of  the  enemy.  The 
high  spirit  of  James  sunk  under  his  contending  passions,  and  he  died  of 
a  broken  heart  in  the  33d  year  of  his  age,  A.  D.  1,542,  a  few  days 
after  the  birth  of  a  daughter,  yet  more  unfortunate  than  her  father, 
Mary  queen  of  Scots. 


SECTION  XXXIII. 

OF  THE  ANCIENT  CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  SCOTTISH  GOVERN- 
MENT. 

?  1.  We  have  seen  that  it  was  a  constant  policy  of  the  Scottish  kings 
**to  abase  the  power  of  their  nobles  ;  and  that  the  struggle  for  power 
*  was  the  source  of  much  misery  and  bloodshed.  .'But  this  policy  was 
necessary,  from  the  dangerous  ambition  and  lawless  tyranny  of  those 
nobles,  who  frequently  aimed  at  overturning  the  throne,  and  exercis- 
ed the  severest  oppression  on  ail  their  dependents.  The  interests, 
therefore,  of  the  people,  no  less  than  the  security  of  the  prince,  de- 
manded the  repression  of  this  overweening  and  destructive  power. 
The  aristocracy  was,  however,  preserved,  no  less  by  its  own  strength 
than  by  the  concurrence  of  circumstances,  and  chiefly  by  the  violent 
and  unhappy  fate  of  the  sovereigns.  Meantime,  though  the  meas- 
ures which  the  kin^s  pursued  were  not  successful,. jj,et  their  conse- 
quences wer€  benehcial.  They  restrained,  if  they  did  not  destroy, 
the  spirit  of  feudal  oppression,  and  gave  birth  to  order,  wise  laws, 
and  a  more  tranquil  administration  of  government. 

2.  The  legislative  power,  though  nominally  resident  in  the  parlia- 
ment, was  virtually  in  the  king,  who,  by  his  inliuence,  entirely  con- 
troled  its  proceedings.  The  parliament  consisted  of  three  estates, 
the  nobles,  the  dignilied  clergy,  and  the  less  barons,  who  were  the 
representatives  of  the  towns  and  shires.  The  disposal  of  benefices, 
gave  the  crown  the  entire  command  of  the  churchmen,  who  were 
equal  to  the  nobles  in  number;  and  at  least  a  majority  of  the  com- 
mons were  the  dependents  of  the  sovereign.  A  committee,  termed 
the  lords  of  the  articles,  prepared  every  measure  that  was  to  come 
before  the  parliament.  By  the  mode  of  its  election  this  committee 
was  in  efliect  nominated  by  the  king.  It  is  to  the  credit  of  the  Scot 
tish  princes,  that  there  are  few  instances  of  their  abusing  an  authority 
so  extensive  as  that  which  they  constitutionally  enjoyed. 

3.  The  king  had  anciently  the  supreme  jurisdiction  in  all  causes, 
civil  and  criminal,  which  he  generally  exercised  through  the  medium 
of  his  privy  council ;  but  hi  1,425  James  1.  instituted  the  court  of  ses- 
sions, consisting  of  the  chancellor  and  certain  judges  chosen  from  the 
three  estates.  This  court  was  new-modelled  by  James  V.,  and  its 
jurisdiction  hmited  to  civil  causes,  the  cognizance  of  crimes  being 
committed  to  the  justiciary.  The  chancellor  was  the  highest  officer 
of  the  crown,  and  president  of  the  parliament.  To  the  chamberlain 
belonged  the  care  of  the  finances  and  the  public  police ;  to  the  high 
steward  the  charge  of  the  king's  household ;  the  constable  regulated 
all  matters  of  military  arrangement;  and  the  marshal  was  the  king's 
tieuteuant,  and  master  of  the  horse. 


160  MODERN  HISTORY. 

4.  The  revenue  of  the  sovereign  consisted  of  his  domain,  which 
Was  extensive,  of  the  feudal  casualties  and  forfeitures,  the  profits  of 
the  wardships  of  his  vassals,  the  rents  of  vacant  benefices,  the  pecu- 
niary fines  for  offences,  and  the  aids  or  presents  occasionally  given 
by  the  subject ;  a  revenue  at  all  times  sufficient  for  the  purposes  of 
government,  and  the  support  of  the  dignity  of  the  crown. 

5.  The  political  principles  which  regulated  the  conduct  of  the  Scots 
toward  other  nations  were  obvious  and  simple.  It  had  ever  been  an 
object  of  ambition  to  England  to  acquire  the  sovereignty  of  Scotland, 
which  was  constantly  on  its  guard  against  this  design  of  its  more  potent 
neighbour.  It  was  the  wisest  policy  for  Scotland  to  attach  itself  to 
France,  the  natural  enemy  of  England  ;  an  alliance  reciprocally  court- 
ed from  similar  motives.  In  those  days  this  attachment  was  justly 
deemed  patriotic ;  while  the  Scots,  who  were  the  partisans  of  Eng- 
land, were  with  equal  justice  regarded  as  traitors  to  their  country. 
In  the  period  of  which  we  now  treat,  it  was  a  settled  policy  of  the 
English  sovereigns  to  have  a  secret  faction  in  their  pay  in  Scotland, 
for  the  purpose  of  dividing  and  thus  enslaving  the  nation ;  and  to  this 
source  all  the  subsequent  disorders  of  the  latter  kingdom  are  to  be 
attributed. 


SECTION  XXXIV. 

A  VIEW  OF  THE  PROGRESS  OF  LITERATURE  AND  SCIENCE 
IN  EUROPE,  FROM  THE  REVIVAL  OF  LETTERS  TO  THE 
END  OF  THE  FIFTEENTH  CENTURY. 

1 .  The  first  restorers  of  learning  in  Europe  were  the  Arabians. 
who,  in  the  course  of  their  Asiatic  conquests,  becoming  acquaintea 
with  some  of  the  ancient  Greek  authors,  discovered  and  justly  appre- 
ciated the  knowledge  and  improvement  to  be  derived  from  them. 
The  caliphs  procured  from  the  eastern  emperors  copies  of  the  an- 
cient manuscripts,  and  had  them  carefully  translated  into  Arabic ;  es- 
teeming principally  those  which  treated  of  mathematics,  physics,  and 
metaphysics.  They  disseminated  their  knowledge  in  the  course  of 
their  conquests,  and  founded  schools  and  colleges  in  all  the  countries 
which  they  subdued. 

2.  The  western  kingdoms  of  Europe  became  first  acquainted  with 
the  learning  of  the  ancients  through  the  medium  of  those  Arabian 
translations.  Charlemagne  caused  Latin  translations  to  be  made  from 
the  Arabian,  and  founded,  after  the  example  of  the  caliphs,  the  uni- 
versities of  Bononia,  Pavia,  Osnaburg,  and  Paris.  Alfred  wth  a  simi- 
lar spirit,  and  by  similar  means,  introduced  a  taste  for  literature  in 
England  ;  but  the  subsequent  disorders  of  the  kingdom  replunged  it 
into  barbari>m.  The  Normans,  however,  brought  from  the  continent 
Bome  tincture  of  ancient  learning,  which  was  kept  alive  in  the  monas- 
teries, where  the  monks  were  meritoriously  employed  in  transcrib- 
ing a  few  of  the  ancient  authors,  along  with  the  legendary  lives  of 
the  saints. 

3.  In  this  dawn  of  literature  in  England  appeared  Henry  of  Hunting- 
ton and  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth,  names  distinguished  in  the  earliest 
annals  of  poetry  and  romance  ;  John  of  Salisbury,  a  moralist ;  Wil- 
liam of  Malmesbury,  annalist  of  the  history  of  England  before  the 
reign  of  Stephen ;  Giraldus  Cambrensis,  known  in  the  fields  of  histo- 


MODERN  HISTORY,  IW 

ry,  theology,  and  poetry;  Joseph  of  Exeter,  author  of  two  Latin  epic 
poems  on  the  Trojan  war,  and  the  war  of  Antioch,  or  the  cnisade, 
which  are  read  with  pleasure  even  in  the  present  day. 

4.  But  this  era  of  a  good  taste  in  letters  was  of  short  duration. 
The  taste  for  classical  composition  and  historical  information  yielded 
to  the  barbarous  subtleties  of  scholastic  divinity  taught  by  Lombard 
and  Abelard,  and  to  the  abstruse  doctrines  of  the  Roman  law,  which 
began  to  engage  the  general  attention  from  the  recent  discovery  of 
the  pandects  at  Amalphi,  1,137.  The  amusements  of  the  vulgar 
in  those  periods  were  metrical  and  prose  romances,  unintelligible 
prophecies,  and  fables  of  giants  and  enchanters. 
Ob-  In  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century  appeared  a  distinguish- 
"^d  genius,  Roger  Bacon,  an  English  friar,  whose  comprehensive  mind 
was  filled  with  all  the  stores  of  ancient  learning;  who  possessed  a 
discriminating  judgment  to  separate  the  precious  ore  from  the  dross, 
and  a  power  of  invention  fitted  to  advance  in  every  science  which  was 
the  object  of  his  study.  He  saw  the  insufficiency  of  the  school  phi- 
losophy, and  first  recommended  the  prosecution  of  knowledge  by  ex- 
periment and  the  observation  of  nature.  He  made  discoveries  of 
importance  in  astronomy,  optics,  chemistry,  medicine,  and  mechanics. 
He  reformed  the  kalendar,  discovered  the  construction  of  telescopic 
glasses  forgotten  after  his  time,  and  revived  by  Galileo,  and  has  left  a 

?lain  intimation  of  his  knowledge  of  the  composition  of  gun-powder, 
et  this  superior  genius  believed  in  the  possibility  of  discovering  an 
elixir  for  the  prolongation  of  life,  in  the  transmutation  of  metals  into 
gold,  and  in  judicial  astrology. 

6.  A  general  taste  prevailed  for  poetical  composition  in  the  twelfth 
and  thirteenth  centuries.  The  troubadours  of  Provence  wrote  son- 
nets, madrigals,  and  satirical  ballads ;  and  excelled  in  extempore  dia- 
logues on  the  subject  of  love,  which  they  treated  in  a  metaphysical 
and  Platonic  strain.  They  contended  for  the  prize  of  poetry  at  sol- 
emn meetings,  where  princes,  nobles,  and  the  most  illustrious  ladies 
attended  to  decide  between  the  rival  bards ;  and  some  oi  those  prin- 
ces, as  Richard  1.  of  Engla,nd,  Frederick  1.  emperor  of  Germany,  are 
celebrated  as  troubadours  of  eminence.  Many  fragments  yet  remain 
of  their  compositions. 

7.  The  transference  of  the  papal  seat  to  Avignon,  in  the  fourteenth 
century,  familiarized  the  Italian  poets  with  the  songs  of  the  trouba- 
dours, and  gave  a  tincture  of  the  Pi^ovencal  style  to  their  compo- 
sitions, which  is  very  observable  in  the  poetry  of  Petrarch  and  of 
Dante.  The  Divina  Comedia  of  Dante  first  introduced  the  machine- 
ry of  angels  and  devils  in  the  room  of  the  pagan  mythology,  and  is  a 
work  containing  many  examples  of  the  terrible  sublime.  The  »S'on- 
nets  and  Canzoni  of  Petrarch  are  highly  tender  and  pathetic,  though 
vitiated  with  a  quaintness  and  conceit,  which  is  a  prevalent  feature 
of  the  Italian  poetry.  The  Decamerone  of  Boccacio,  a  work  of  the 
same  age,  is  a  master-piece  for  invention,  ingenious  narrative,  and 
acquaintance  with  human  nature.  These  authors  have  tixed  the 
standard  of  the  ItaUan  language. 

8.  Contemporary  with  them,  and  of  rival  merit,  was  the  English 
Chaucer,  who  displays  all  the  talents  of  Boccacio,  through  the  me- 
dium of  excellent  poetry.  The  works  of  Chaucer  discover  an  exten- 
sive knowledge  of  the  sciences,  an  acquaintance  both  with  ancient 
and  modern  learning,  particularly  the  literature  of  France  and  Italy, 
and,  above  all,  a  most  acute  discernment  oi  life  and  manners. 

9.  Of  similar  character  are  the  poems  of  Gower,  but  of  a  gravef 

0  2  21 


162  MODERN  HISTORY. 

cast,  and  a  more  chastened  morality.  Equal  to  these  eminent  men 
in  every  species  of  literary  merit  was  the  accomplished  James  I.  of 
Scotland,  of  which  his  remaining  writings  bear  convincing  testimony. 
The  doubtful  Rowley  of  Bristol  is  said  to  have  adorned  the  fifteenth 
century. 

10.  Spain  at  this  period  began  to  emerge  from  ignorance  and  bar- 
barism, and  to  produce  a  few  of  those  works  which  are  enumerated 
with  approbation  in  the  whimsical  but  judicious  criticism  of  Cervan- 
tes.    (Don  Quixote,  b,  l,c.  6.) 

11.  Though  poetry  attained  in  those  age.s  a  considerahle  degree 
of  splendour,  yet  there  was  little  advancement  in  general  literature 
and  science.  History  was  disgraced  by  the  intermixture  of  miracle 
and  fable ;  yet  we  find  much  curious  information  in  the  writings 
of  Matthew  of  Westminster,  of  Walsingham,  Everard,  Duysburg,  and 
the  Chronicles  of  Froissart  and  Monstrelet.  Philip  de  Comuiines 
happily  describes  the  reigns  of  Lewis  XI.  and  Charles  Vlll.  of 
France.  Villani  and  Flatina  are  valuable  recorders  of  the  afl'airs  of 
Italy. 

1 2.  A  taste  for  classical  learning  in  flie  fifteenth  century  led  to  the 
discovery  of  many  of  the  ancient  authors.  Poggio  discovered  the 
writings  of  Quintilian  and  several  of  the  compositions  of  Cicero, 
which  stimulated  to  farther  research,  and  to  the  recovery  of  many 
valuable  remains  of  Greek  and  Roman  literature.  But  this  taste  was 
not  generally  diffused.  France  and  Etjgland  were  extremely  barba- 
rous. The  library  at  Oxford  contained  only  600  volumes,  and  thei'e 
were  but  four  classics  in  the  royal  library  at  Paris.  But  a  brighter 
period  was  approaching.  On  the  fall  of  the  eastern  empire,  in  the 
end  of  the  fiiiteenth  century,  the  dispersion  of  the  Greeks  diffused  a 
taste  for  polite  literature  over  all  the  west  of  Europe.  A  succession 
of  popes,  endowed  with  a  liberal  and  enlightened  spirit,  gave  every 
encouragement  to  learning  and  the  sciences ,  and,  above  all,  the 
noble  discovery  of  the/art  of  printing  contributed  to  their  rapid  ad- 
vancement and  dissemination,  and  gave  a  certain  assurance  of  the 
perpetuation  of  every  valuable  art,  and  the  progressive  improvement 
of  human  knowledge. 

13.  The  rise  of  dramatic  composition  among  the  moderns  is  to  be 
traced  to  the  absurd  and  ludicrous  representation,  in  the  churches, 
of  the  scripture  histories,  called  in  England  mysteries,  miracles,  and 
moralities.  These  were  first  exhibited  in  the  twelfth  century,  and 
continued  to  the  sixteenth,  when  they  were  prohibited  by  law  in 
England.  Of  these  we  have  amusing  specimens  in  Warton's  His- 
tory of  English  Poetry.  Profane  dramas  were  substituted  in  t})eir 
place ;  and  a  mixture  of  the  sacred  and  profane  appears  to  have 
been  known  in  France  as  early  as  1,300.  In  Spain  the  farcical  mys- 
teries keep  their  ground  to  the  present  day,  and  no  re^^uiar  compo- 
sition for  the  stage  was  known  till  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century. 
The  Italians  are  allowed  by  their  own  writers  to  have  borrowed 
their  theatre  from  the  French  and  English. 

See  Kelt's  Elements  of  General  Knowledge,  vol.  L 


MODERN  HISTORY.  165 


SECTION  XXXV. 

VIEW  OF  THE  PROGRESS  OF  COMMERCE  IN  EUROPE  BEFORE 
THE  PORTUGUESE  DISCOVERIES. 

1.  Before  we  give  an  account  of  the  discoveries  of  the  Portu- 
guese in  the  tifteeuth  century,  in  exploring  a  new  route  to  India,  we 
stiail  present  a  short  view  ot  the  progress  of  commerce  in  Europe 
down  to  that  period. 

The  boldest  naval  enterprise  of  the  ancients  was  the  Periplus  ol 
Hanno,  who  sailed  from  Carthage  to  the  coast  of  Guinea,  within 
four  or  tive  degrees  of  the  equator,  A.  C.  570.  The  ancients  did 
not  know  that  Africa  was  almost  circumnavigable.  They  had  a  very 
limited  knowledge  of  the  habitable  earth.  They  believed  that  both 
the  torrid  and  frigid  zones  were  uninhabitable  ;  and  they  were  very 
imperfectly  acquainted  with  a  great  part  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  Af- 
rica. Denmark,  Sweden,  Prussia,  Poland,  and  the  greater  part  ol 
Russia,  were  unknown  to  them.  In  Ptolemy's  description  of  the 
globe,  the  63d  degree  of  latitude  is  the  limit  of  the  earth  to  the 
north,  and  the  equator  to  the  south. 

2.  Britain  was  circumnavigated  in  the  time  of  Domitian.  The 
Romans  frequented  it  for  the  purposes  of  commerce  j  and  Tacitus 
mentions  London  as  a  celebrated  resort  of  merchants.  The  com- 
merce of  the  ancients  was,  however,  chietiy  contined  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean. In  the  flourishing  periods  of  the  eastei-n  empire  the  mer- 
chandise of  India  was,  imported  from  Alexandria;  but,  alter  the  con- 
quest of  Egypt  by  the  Arabians,  it  was  carried  up  the  Indus,  and 
thence  by  land  lo  the  Oxus,  which  then  ran  directly  into  the  Caspian 
sea;  thence  it  was  brought  up  the  Wolga,  and  again  carried  overland 
to  the  Don,  whence  it  descended  into  the  Euxine. 

3.  After  ihe  fall  of  the  western  empire  commerce  was  long  at  a 
stand  in  Europe.  When  Attila  was  ravaging  Italy  the  \  eneti  took 
refuge  in  the  small  islands  at  the  northern  extremity  of  the  Adriatic, 
and  there  founded  Venice,  A.  D.  452,  which  began  very  early  to 
equip  small  fleets,  and  trade  to  the  coasts  of  Egypt  and  the  Levant, 
for  spices  and  other  merchandise  of  Arabia  and  India.  Genoa,  Flor- 
ence, and  Pisa,  imitated  this  example,  and  began  to  acquire  consider- 
able wealth ;  but  Venice  retained  her  superiority  over  these  rival 
states,  and  gained  considerable  territory  on  the  opposite  coast  of  lUyr- 
icum  and  Dalmatia. 

4.  The  maritime  cities  of  Italy  profited  by  the  crusades,  in  furnish- 
ing the  armies  with  supphes,  and  bringing  home  the  produce  of  the 
east.  The  Italian  merchants  established  manufactures  similar  to 
those  of  Constantinople.  Rogero  king  of  Sicily  brought  ailisans 
from  Athens,  and  established  a  silk  manufacture  at  Palermo  in  1,130. 
The  sugar  cane  was  planted  in  Sicily  in  the  tvyelfth  century,  and 
thence  carried  to  Madeira,  and  tinaily  made  its'  way  to  the  West 
Indies. 

5.  In  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries  the  Italians  were  the 
only  commercial  people  of  Europe.  Venice  set  the  tirst  example 
of  a  national  bank  in  1,157,  which  has  maintained  its  credit  to  ihe 
present  times.  The  oniy  trade  of  FVance,  Spain,  and  Germany,  at 
this  time,  was  carried  on  at  stated  fiirs  and  marKets,  to  which  traders 
resorted  ifrom  aU  quarters,  paying  a  tax  to  the  sovereigns  or  the  iordi 


t64  MODERN  HISTORY. 

of  the  territory.  The  more  enterprising  bought  a  privilege  of  ex- 
emption, by  paying  at  once  a  large  sum,  and  were  thence  called  free 
traders. 

6.  In  the  middle  ages  the  Italian  merchants,  usually  called  Lom- 
bards, were  the  factors  of  all  the  European  nations,  and  were  en- 
ticed, by  privileges  granted  by  the  sovereigns,  to  settle  in  France, 
Spain,  Germany,  and  England.  They  were  not  only  traders  in  com- 
modities, but  bankers,  or  money  dealers.  In  this  last  business  they 
found  a  severe  restraint  from  the  canon  law  prohibiting  the  taking 
of  interest ;  and  hence,  from  the  necessary  privacy  of  their  bargains, 
there  were  no  bounds  to  exorbitant  usury.  The  Jews,  too,  who 
were  the  chief  dealers  in  money,  brought  disrepute  on  the  trade  of 
banking,  and  frequently  suffered,  on  that  account,  the  most  intoler- 
able persecution  and  confiscation  of  their  fortunes.  To  guard  against 
these  injuries  they  invented  bills  of  exchange. 

7.  The  Lombard  merchants  excited  a  spirit  of  commerce,  and 
gave  birth  to  manufactures,  which  were  generally  encouraged  by 
uie  sovereigns  in  the  different  kingdoms  of  Europe.  Among  tlie 
chief  encouragements  was  the  institution  of  corporations  or  monop- 
olies, the  earliest  of  which  are  traced  up  to  the  eleventh  century  ; 
a  policy  beneficial,  and  perhaps  necessary,  where  the  spirit  of  indus- 
try is  low,  and  manuiactures  are  in  their  infancy  ;  but  of  hurtful  con- 
sequence where  trade  and  manuiactures  are  flourishing. 

8.  Commerce  began  to  spread  toward  the  north  of  Europe  about 
the  end  of  the  twelfth  ceniury.  The  sea-ports  on  the  Baltic  traded 
with  France  and  Britain,  and  with  the  Mediterranean  by  the  staple 
of  the  isle  of  Oleron,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Garonne,  then  possessed 
by  the  English.  The  commercial  laws  of  Oleron  and  VVisbuy  (on 
the  Baltic)  regulated  for  many  ages  the  trade  of  Europe.  To  pro- 
tect their  trade  from  piracy,  Lubec,  Hamburgh,  and  most  of  the  north- 
ern sea-ports,  joined  in  a  confederacy,  under  certain  general  regula- 
tions, termed  the  league  of  the  hanse-tawns  ;  a  union  so  beneficial  in 
its  nature,  and  so  formidable  in  point  of  strength,  that  its  alliance  was 
courted  by  the  predominant  powers  of  Europe. 

9.  For  the  trade  of  the  hanse-towns  with  the  southern  kingdoms, 
Bruges,  on  the  coast  of  Flanders,  was  Ibund  a  convenient  entrepot, 
and  thither  the  Mediterranean  merchants  brought  the  commodities 
of  India  and  the  Levant  to  exchange  with  the  produce  and  manufac- 
tures of  the  north.  The  Flemings  now  began  to  encourage  trade 
and  manufactures,  which  thence  spread  to  the  Brabanters  :  but  their 
growth  being  checked  by  the  impolitic  sovereigns  of  those  prov- 
inces, they  found  a  more  favourable  field  in  England,  which  was  des- 
tined to  derive  from  them  the  great  source  of  its  national  opulence. 

10.  The  Britons  had  very  early  seen  the  importance  of  commerce. 
Bede  relates  that  London  was  frequented  by  ioreigners  for  the  pur 
pose  of  trade  in  614 ;  and  William  of  Malmesbury  speaks  of  it",  ir 
1,041,  as  a  most  populous  and  wealthy  city.  The  cinque  ports 
Dover,  Hastings,  Hytne,  Romney,  and  Sandwich,  obtained  in  that  age 
their  privileges  and  immunities,  on  c«ndition  of  furnishing  each  five 
ships  of  war.  These  ports  are  now  eight  in  number,  and  send  their 
members  to  parliament. 

11.  The  wooUen  manufacture  of  England  was  considerable  in  the 
twelfth  century.  Henry  II.  incorporated  the  weavers  of  London, 
and  gave  them  various  privileges.  By  a  law  passed  in  his  reign,  all 
cloth  made  of  foreign  wool  w;is  condemned  to  be  burnt.  Scotland 
«t  this  time  seems  to  have  posts^ssed  a  coosJderable  source  of  weaithf 


MODERN  HISTORY.  165 

as  is  evident  from  the  payment  of  the  ransom  of  William  the  lion, 
which  was  10,000  merks,  equal  to  100,0001.  sterling  of  present 
money.  The  English  found  it  difficuU  to  raise  double  that  sum  for  the 
ransom  of  Richard  1.,  and  the  Scots  contributed  a  proportion  of  it. 
The  English  sovereigns  at  tirst  di'ew  a  considerable  revenue  from 
the  custom  on  wool  exported  to  be  manufactured  abroad ;  but  becom- 
ing soon  sensible  of  the  benefit  of  encouraging  its  home  manufacture, 
they  invited,  for  that  purpose,  the  foreign  artisans  and  merchants  to 
reside  in  England,  and  gave  them  valuable  immunities.  Edward  III. 
was  peculiarly  attentive  to  trade  and  manufactures,  as  appears  by  the 
laws  passed  in  his  reign  ;  and  he  was  bountiful  in  the  encouragement 
of  foreign  artisans.  The  succeeding  reigns  were  not  so  favourable. 
During  the  civil  wars  of  York  and  Lanc;ister  the  spirit  of  trade  and 
manufactures  greatly  declined ;  nor  did  they  begin  to  revive  and 
flourish  till  the  accession  of  Henry  VII.  In  that  interval  of  their  de- 
cay in  England  commerce  and  the  arts  were  encouraged  in  Scotland 
by  James  I.  and  his  successors,  as  much  as  the  comparatively  rude 
and  turbulent  state  of  the  kingdom  would  permit.  The  herring  fish- 
ery then  began  to  be  vigorously  promoted ;  and  the  duties  laid  on 
the  exportation  of  woollen  cloth  show  that  this  manufacture  was  tlien 
considerable  among  the  Scots.  Glasgow  began  to  acquire  wealth 
by  the  fisheries  in  1,420,  but  had  little  or  no  foreign  trade  till  after 
the  discovery  of  America  and  the  West  Indies. 

12.  Henry  VII.  gave  the  most  liberal  encouragement  to  trade  and 
manufactures,  particularly  the  woollen,  by  inviting  foreign  artisans, 
and  establishing  them  at  Leeds,  Wakefield,  HaUtax,  and  other  places. 
The  navigation  acts  were  passed  in  his  reign,  and  commercial  treaties 
formed  with  the  continental  kingdoms  for  the  protection  of  the 
merchant-shipping.  Such  was  the  state  of  commerce  at  the  time 
when  the  Portuguese  made  those  great  discoveries  which  open- 
ed a  new  route  to  India^  and  gave  a  circulation  to  their  wealth  over 
most  of  the  nations  of  Europe. 


SECTION  XXXVI. 

DISCOVERIES  OF  THE  PORTUGUESE  IN  THE  FIFTEENTH 
CENTURY,  AND  THEIR  EFFECTS  ON  THE  COMMERCE  OF 
EUROPE. 

1.  The  polarity  of  the  magnet  had  been  known  in  Europe  m 
early  as  the  thirteenth  century ;  but  the  compass  was  not  used  in 
sailing  till  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth ;  and  another  century  had 
elapsed  from  that  period,  while  yet  the  European  mariners  scarcely 
ventured  out  of  the  sight  of  their  coasts.  The  eastern  ocean  was 
little  known ;  and  the  Atlantic  was  supposed  to  be  a  boundless  ex- 
panse of  sea,  extending  probably  to  the  eastern  shores  of  Asia.  In 
the  belief  that  the  torrid  zone  was  uninhabitable,  a  promontory  on 
the  African  coast,  in  the  2b»th  degree  of  north  latitude,  was  termed 
Cape  Non,  as  forming  an  impassable  limit. 

2.  In  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century  John  king  of  Por- 
tugal sent  a  few  vessels  to  explore  the  Afiican  coast;  and  these 
doubling  Cape  Non  proceeded  to  Cape  Boyador,  within  two  de- 
grees of  the  northern  tropic.  Prince  Henry,  the  son  of  John,  equip- 
ped a  single  ship,  which,  being  driven  out  to  sea,  landed  on  the  island 


166  MODERN  HISTORY. 

of  Porto  Santo.  This  inv.oluntary  experiment  emboldened  the 
mariners  to  abandon  their  timid  mode  of  coasting,  and  Jaunch  into  the 
open  sea.  In  1,420  the  Portuguese  discovered  Madeira,  where  they 
established  a  colony,  and  planted  the  Cyprus  vine,  and  the  sugar  cane. 

3.  The  spirit  of  enterorise  being  thus  awakened,  prince  Henry 
obtained  from  Eugene  IV.  a  bull  granting  to  the  Portuguese  the 
property  of  all  the  countries  which  they  might  discover  between 
Cape  IN  on  and  India.  Under  John  II.  of  Portugal  the  Cape  Verd 
islands  were  discovered  and  colonized;  and  the  fleets,  advancing  to 
the  coast  of  Guinea,  brought  home  gold  dust,  gums,  and  ivory.  Hav- 
ing passed  the  equator,  the  Portuguese  entered  a  new  hemisphere, 
and  boldly  proceeded  to  the  extremity  of  the  continent.  In  1,479  a 
fleet  under  Vasco  de  Gama  doubled  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and, 
sailing  onwards  beyond  the  mouths  of  the  Arabian  and  Persian  gulfs, 
arrived  at  Calicut,  on  the  Malabar  coast,  after  a  voyage  of  1,500 
leagues,  performed  in  thirteen  months. 

4.  De  Gama  entered  into  an  alliance  with  the  rajah  of  Calicut,  a 
tributary  of  the  Mogul  empire,  and  returned  to  Lisbon  with  speci- 
mens of  the  wealth  and  produce  of  the  country.  A  succeeding  fleet 
formed  settlements,  and,  vanquishing  the  opposition  of  the  native 
princes,  soon  achieved  the  conquest  of  all  the  coast  of  Malabar. 
The  city  of  Goa,  taken  by  storm,  became  the  residence  of  a  Portu-  - 
guese  viceroy  and  the  capital  of  their  Indian  settlements. 

5.  The  Venetians,  who  had  hitherto  engrossed  the  Indian  trade 
by  Alexandria,  now  lost  it  for  ever.  After,  an  ineflectual  project  of 
cutting  through  the  isthmus  of  Suez,  they  attempted  to  intercept  the 
Portuguese  by  their  fleets  stationed  at  the  mouth  of  the  Red  sea  and 
Persian  gulf,  but  wer*  every  where  encountered  by  a  superior 
force.  The  Portuguese  made  settlements  in  both  the  gulfs,  and 
vigorously  prosecuted  their  conquests  on  the  Indian  coast  and  sea. 
The  rich  island  of  Ceylon,  the  kingdoms  of  Pegu,  Siam,  and  Malac- 
ca, were  speedily  subduea,  and  a  settlement  established  in  Bengal. 
They  proceeded  onward  to  China,  hitherto  scarcely  known  to  the  Lu- 
ropeans  but  by  the  account  of  a  single  Venetian  traveller,  Marco  Paolo, 
in  the  thirteenth  century ;  and  they  obtained  the  emperor's  permis- 
sion to  form  a  settlement  at  Macao,  thus  opening  a  commerce  with 
that  immense  empire,  and  the  neighbouring  islands  of  Japan.  In  the 
space  of  flfty  years  the  Portuguese  were  masters  of  the  whole  trade 
of  the  Indian  ocean,  and  sovereigns  of  a  large  extent  of  Asiatic 
territory. 

6.  These  discoveries  produced  a  wonderful  effect  on  the  com- 
merce of  Europe.  The  produce  of  the  spice  islands  was  computed 
to  be  worth  annually  200,000  ducats  to  Lisbon.  The  Venetians, 
after  every  effort  to  destroy  the  trade  of  the  Portuguese,  offered  to 
become  sole  purchasers,  of  all  the  spice  brought  to  IiTurope,  but  were 
refused.  Commercial  industry  was  roused  in  every  quarter,  and 
manufactures  made  a  rapid  progress.  Lyons,  Tours,  Abbeville,  Mar- 
seilles, Bordeaux,  acquired  immense  wealth.  Antwerp  and  Amster- 
dam became  the  great  marts  of  the  north.  The  former  owed  its 
splendour  to  the  decUne  of  Bruges,  which  was  ruined  by  civil  com- 
motions ;  and  the  Portuguese  made  Antwerp  their  entrepot  for  the 
supply  of  the  northern  kingdoms.  It  continued  highly  flourishing 
till  the  revolt  of  the  Netherlands,  in  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  centurv, 
when  it  was  taken  by  the  Spaniards,  and  its  port  desti'oyed  by  block- 
ing up  the  Scheld. 

7.  The  trade  of  Holland  rose  on  the  fall  of  Antwerp.    Amsterdam 


MODERN  HISTORY.  167 

became  considerable  after  the  decline  of  the  hanseatic  confederacy 
in  1,428,  but  rose  into  splendour  and  high  commercial  opulence  from 
the  destruction  of  Antwerp.  The  United  Provinces,  dependent  on 
industry  alone  for  their  support,  became  a  model  of  commercial  ac- 
tivity to  all  nations. 

8.  Britain  felt  the  effect  of  that  general  stimulus  which  the  Por- 
tuguese discoveries  gave  to  the  trade  of  Europe ;  but  other  causes 
had  a  more  sensible  operation  to  that  end  in  England.  The  reforma- 
tion, by  suppressing  the  convents,  and  restoring  many  thousands  to 
society,  and  the  cutting  off  the  papal  exactions,  which  drained  the 
kingdom  of  Its  wealth,  the  politic  laws  passed  hi  the  reign  of  Henry 
VllT.,  and  the  active  patriotism  of  Elizabeth,  were  vigorous  incentives 
to  national  industry. 

9.  From  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.  to  the  present,  the  commerce 
and  manufactures  of  England  have  Ijeen  uniformly  progressive. 
The  rental  of  England  in  lands  and  houses  did  not  then  exceed  five 
millions  per  annum  ;  it  is  now  above  eighteen  millions.  The  unman- 
ufactured wool  of  one  years  growth  is  supposed  to  be  worth  two 
millions;  when  manufactured,  as  it  now  is,  by  British  hands,  it  is 
worth  eight  millions.  Above  a  million  and  a  half  of  hands  are  em- 
ployed in  that  manufacture  alone ;  half  a  million  are  employed  in 
the  manufactures  of  iron,  steel,  copper,  brass,  lead ;  the  linen  man- 
ufactures of  Lngland,  Scotland,  and  Ireland, occupy  nearly  a  million; 
and  a  number  not  much  interior  is  employed  in  the  fisheries.  It  is 
presumable,  on  the  whole,  that  nearly  a  fourth  of  the  population  of  the 
united  kingdoms  is  actually  employed  in  commerce  and  manufactures. 

10.  Tiie  vast  increase  of  the  national  wealth  of  Britain  appears 
chieliy,  1,  from  the  incre.ise  of  population,  which  is  supposed  to 
be  nearly  five  to  one  (at  least  in  the  large  cities)  since  the  reign 
of  Elizajjeth ;  2,  from  the  great  addition  made  to  the  cultivated 
lands  of  the  kingdom,  and  the  high  improvement  of  agriculture 
since  that  period,  whence  more  than  quadruple  the  quantity  of  food 
is  produced ;  3,  from  the  increase  of  the  commercial  shipping,  at 
least  sixfold  within  the  same  time  ;  4,  from  the  comparative  low  rate 
of  interest,  which  is  demonstrative  of  the  increase  of  wealth.  The 
consequences  of  the  diffusion  of  the  commercial  spirit  are  most  im- 
portant to  the  national  weiiare.  From  general  industry  arises  afflu- 
ence, joined  to  a  spirit  of  independence  ;  and  on  this  spirit  rests  the 
freedom  of  the  British  constitution,  and  all  the  blessings  which  are 
enjoyed  under  its  protection. 


SECTION  XXXVII. 

GERMANY   AND   FRANCE   IN    THE  REIGNS   OF   CHARLES  V, 
AND  FRANCIS  I. 

1.  We  resume  the  detail  of  the  history  of  Europe  at  the  beginning 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  previously  remarking,  that  the  Germanic 
empire  continued  for  above  fifty  years  in  a  state  of  languid  tranquilli- 
ty, froni  the  time  of  Albert  11.,  the  successor  of  Sigismund,  during  the 
long  reign  of  Frederick  III.,  whose  son  Maximilian  acquired,  by  his 
marriage  with  Marj-,  duchess  of  Burgundy,  the  sovereignty  of  the 
Netherlands.  Maximilian  was  elected  Emperor  in  1,493;  imd,  by 
establishing  a  perpetual  peace  between  the  separate  Germanic  states, 
kid  the  foundation  of  the  subsequent  grandeur  of  the  empire. 


168  MODERN  HISTORY. 

2.  Philip  archduke  of  Austria,  son  of  Maximilian,  married  Jane,  the 
daughter  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella;  and  of  that  marriage  the  eldest 
son  was  Charles  V^.,  who  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  Spain  in  1,516, 
and,  on  the  death  of  his  grandfather  M-iximiiian,  preferred  his  claim 
to  the  vacant  imperi.i!  throne.  He  had  for  his  competitor  Francis  I. 
of  France,  who  had  distinguished  himself  by  the  conquest  of  the  Mil- 
anese, and  the  adjustment  of  the  contending  interests  of  the  Italian 
states.  The  Germrm  electors,  afraid  of  the  exorbitant  power  both  of 
Charles  and  of  Francii,  would  have  ri'jected  both,  and  conferred  the 
impei'ial  crown  on  Frederick  duke  of  Saxony  ;  but  this  extraordinary 
man  declined  the  proffered  dignity,  and  his  council  determined  the 
election  in  favour  of  Charles  ot  Austria,  1,519. 

3.  Charles  V^.  and  Francis  I.  were  now  declared  enemies,  and  their 
mutual  claims  on  each  other's  dominions  were  the  subject  of  perpet- 
ual hostility.  The  emperor  claimed  Artois  as  part  of  the  Nether- 
lands. Francis  prepnreil  to  make  good  his  right  to  the  Two  Sicilies. 
Charles  had  to  defend  Milan,  and  to  support  his  title  to  Navarre, 
which  hid  been  wrested  from  France  by  his  grandfather  Ferdinand. 
Henry  Ylll.  of  Eiigland  was  courted  by  the  rival  monarchs,  as  the 
weight  of  England  was  sufficient  to  turn  the  scale,  where  the  power 
o{  each  was  nearly  balanced. 

4.  The  lirst  hostile  attack  was  made  by  Francis  on  the  kingdom  of 
Navarre,  which  he  won  and  lost  in  the  course  of  a  few  montlis.  The 
emperor  attacked  Picardy,  and  his  troops  at  the  same  time  drove  the 
French  out  of  the  Milanese.  On  the  death  of  Leo  X.,  Charles  placed 
cardinal  Adrian  on  the  papal  throne,  1,521 ;  and  by  the  promise  of 
elevating  Wolsey,  the  minister  of  Henry  V'ill.,  to  that  dignity,  on  the 
death  of  Adrian,  gained  the  alliance  of  the  English  monarch  in  his  war 
against  France. 

5.  At  this  critical  time  Francis  imprudently  quarrelled  with  his 
best  general,  the  constable  of  Bourbon,  who,  in  revenge,  deserted 
the  emperor,  and  was  by  him  invested  with  the  chief  command  of  his 
armies..  The  imperial  generals  were  far  superior  inabilities  to  their 
opponents.  The  French  were  defeated  at  Biagrassa,  and  Charles 
was  carrying  every  thing  before  him  in  Italy,  when  Francis  entered 
the  Milanese,  and  retook  the  capital ;  but,  in  the  subsequent  battle  of 
Pavia,  his  troops  were  entirely  defeated,  and  the  French  monarch 
became  the  constable  of  Bourbon's  prisoner,  1,525. 

6.  The  emperor  made  no  advantage  of  his  good  fortune.  By  the 
treaty  of  Madrid,  Francis  regained  his  liberty,  on  yielding  to  Charles 
the  duchy  of  Burgundy,  and  the  superiority  of  Flanders  and  Artois. 
He  gave  his  two  sons  as  hostages  for  the  fulfilment  of  these  conditions ; 
but  the  states  refused  to  ratify  them,  and  the  failure  was  compromised 
for  a  sum  of  money. 

7.  On  the  renewal  of  the  war,  Henry  VIll.  took  part  with  France, 
and  Charles  lost  an  opportunity  of  obtaining  the  sovereignty  of  Italy. 
The  papal  army  in  tne  French  interest  was  defeated  by  the  consta* 
ble  of  Bourbon,  and  the  pope  hhnself  made  prisoner ;  but  Bourbon 
was  killed  in  the  siege  of  Rome,  and  Charles  allowed  the  pope  to 
purchase  his  release. 

8.  After  the  conclusion  of  the  peace  of  Cambray,  1,529.  Charles 
visited  Italy,  and  received  the  imperial  diadem  from  pope  Clement 
VII.  The  Turks  having  invaded  Hungary,  the  emperor  marched 
against  them  in  person,  and  compelled  the  sultan  Solyman,  with  an 
armv  of  300,000  men,  to  evacuate  the  country.  He  soon  after  em- 
liarked  for  Africa,  to  replace  the  dethroned  Mulej  Hassan  in  the 


MODERN   HIS'l'OR^.  168 

sovereignty  of  Tunis  and  Algiers,  which  had  been  usurped  by  Hay- 
radin  Barbarossa ;  and  he  achieved  the  enterprise  with  honour.  Hig 
reputation  at  this  period  exceeded  that  of  all  the  sovereigns  of  Eu- 
rope, for  political  ability,  real  power,  and  the  extent  and  opulence  of 
his  dominionB. 

9.  Francis  was  glad  to  ally  himself  even  with  the  Turks  to  cope 
with  the  imperialists,  and  Barbarossa  invaded  Italy ;  but  the  troops  of 
Charles  prevented  the  co-operation. of  the  French,  and  separately- 
defeated  and  dispersed  the  allied  powers,  while  another  army  of  the 
imperialists  ravaged  Champagne  and  PicarJy. 

10.  In  the  interval  of  a  truce,  which  was  concluded  at  Nice,  for 
ten  years  between  the  rival  mouarchs,  Charles  passed  through 
France  to  the  Netherlands,  and  was  entertained  by  Francis  with  the 
most  magnificent  hospitality.  He  had  promised  to  grant  to  the  French 
king  his  favourite  desire,  the  investiture  of  Milan  ;  but  failing  to  keep 
his  word,  the  war  was  renewed  with  double  animosity.  The  French 
and  Turkish  fleets  attacked  Nice,  but  were  dispersed  by  the  Ge- 
noese admiral,  Andrea  Doria.  In  Italy  the  French  wei-e  victori-  • 
ous  in  the  battle  of  Cerizoles,  but  drew  no  benefit  from  this  partial 
advantage.  The  imperialists,  on  the  whole,  had  a  decided  superior- 
ity, and  France  must  have  been  undone,  if  the  disorders  of  Germany, 
from  the  contending  interests  of  the  catholics  and  protestants,  had 
not  forced  the  emperor  to  conclude  the  treaty  of  Crepi  with  Francis, 
1,544..  At  the  same  time  Francis  purchased  a  peace  with  Henry 
VIU.,  who  had  again  taken  part  with  his  rival.  Francis  died  soon 
after,  in  1,547  ;  a  prince  of  great  spirit  and  abilities,  and  of  a  gener- 
ous and  noble  mind,  unfortunate  only  from  the  necessity  of  strug- 
gling against  a  power  which  overmatched  him  both  in  policy  and 
in  resources. 

1 1 .  A  short  time  before  this  period,  was  founded  the  order  of  the 
Jesuits  by  Ignatius  Loyola,  1,535.  The  principle  of  the  order  was 
implicit  obedience  and  submission  to  the  pope.  The  brethren  were 
not  confined  to  their  cloisters,  but  allowed  to  mix  with  the  world ; 
and  thus,  by  gaining  the  confidence  of  princes  and  statesmen,  they 
were  enabled  to  direct  the  policy  of  nations  to  the  great  end  of  estab- 
lishing the  supreme  authority  of  the  holy  see.  The  wealth  which 
they  accumulated,  the  extent  of  their  power,  and  the  supposed  con- 
sequences of  their  intrigues  to  the  peace  of  nations,  excited  at  length 
a  general  hostility  to  their  order ;  and  the  institution  has  recently 
been  abolished  in  all  the  kingdoms  of  Europe. 

12.  If  Charles  V.  aimed  at  universal  empire,  he  was  ever  at  a  dis 
tance  from  the  object  of  his  wishes.  The  formidable  confederacy  of 
the  protestants  to  preserve  their  liberties  and  their  religion,  gave 
him  perpetual  disquiet  in  Germany.  He  never  could  form  his  do- 
minions into  a  well  connected  body,  from  the  separate  national  inter- 
ests of  the  Spaniards,  Flemish,  and  Germans;  and  even  the  imperial 
states  were  divided  by  their  jealousies,  political  and  religious.  The 
hostilities  of  foreign  powers  gave  him  continual  annoyance.  He  found 
in  Henry  II.,  the  successor  of  Francis,  an  antagonist  as  formidable  as 
his  father.  His  cares  and  difliculties  increased  as  he  advanced  in  life, 
and  at  length  entirely  broke  the  vigour  of  his  mind.  In  a  state  of 
melancholy  despondency  he  retired  trom  the  world  at  the  age  of  fifty- 
six,  resigning  first  the  kingdom  of  Spain  to  his  son  Philip  II.,  1,556, 
and  afterwards  the  imperial  crown  in  favour  of  his  brother  Ferdinand, 
who  was  elected  emperor  on  the  24th  day  of  February,  1,558. 

P  22- 


170  MODERN  HISTORY. 


SECTION  XXXVIII. 

OBSERVATIONS   ON   THE   CONSTITUTION   OF  THE  GERMAN 

EMPIRE. 

1.  Previously  to  the  reign  of  Maximilian  I.,  the  Germanic  empire 
was  subject  to  all  the  disorders  ol"  the  feudal  governments.  The 
general  diets  of  the  state  were  tumultuous  and  indecisive,  and  their 
constant  wars  with  one  another  kept  the  whole  in  anarchy  and  bar- 
barism. VVenceslaus,  in  1,383,  endeavoured  to  remedy  those  evils 
by  the  enactment  of  a  general  peace :  but  no  effectual  measures 
were  taken  for  securing  it.  Albert  II.  attempted  to  accomplish 
the  same  end,  and  had  some  success.  He  divided  Germany  into  six 
circles,  each  regulated  by  its  own  diet ;  but  the  jealousies-of  the  states 
prompted  them  constimtly  to  hostilities,  which  there  was  no  superior 
power  sutficient  to  restrain. 

2.  At  length  Maximilian  I.  procured,  in  1,500,  that  solemn  enact- 
ment which  established  a  perpetual  peace  among  (he  Germanic 
states,  under  the  cogent  penalty  of  the  aggressor  being  treated  as  a 
common  enemy.  He  established  the  imperial  chamber  for  the  settle- 
ment of  all  differences.  The  empire  was  divided  anew  into  ten  cir- 
cles, each  circle  sending  its  representatives  to  the  imperial  chamber, 
and  bound  to  enforce  the  public  laws  through  its  own  territory.  A 
j^gency  was  appointed  to  subsist  in  the  intervals  of  the  diet,  composed 
of  twenty  members,  over  whom  the  emperor  presided. 

3.  These  regulations,  however  wise,  would  probably  have  failed 
of  their  end,  if  the  influence  of  the  house  of  Austria,  which  has  for 
three  centuries  continued  to  occupy  the  imperial  throne,  had  not 
enforced  obedience  to  them.  The  ambition  and  policy  of  Charles 
V.  would  have  been  dangerous  to  the  freedom  of  the  German  prin- 
ces, if  the  new  system  of  preserving  a  balance  of  power  in  Europe 
had  not  made  these  princes  find  allies  and  protectors  sufficient  to 
traverse  the  emperor^s  schemes  of  absolute  dominion.  He  altauied, 
however,  an  authority  far  beyond  that  of  any  of  his  predecessors. 
The  succeeding  emperors  imiuitcd  his  policy ;  but,  as  they  did  not 
possess  equal  talents,  they  found  yet  stronger  obstacles  to  their  en- 
croachments on  the  freedom  of  the  states. 

4.  The  Germanic  liberties  were  settled  for  the  last  time  by  the 
treaty  of  Westphalia,  in  1,648,  which  fixed  the  emperor's  preroga- 
tives, and  the  privileges  of  the  states.  The  constitution  oi  the  em- 
pire is  not  framed  for  the  ordinary  ends  of  government,  the  prosper- 
ity and  happiness  of  the  people.  It  regards  not  the  rights  of  the 
subjects,  but  only  the  independence  of  the  several  princes ;  and  its 
sole  object  is  to  maintain  each  in  the  enjoyment  of  his  sovereignty, 
and  prevent  usurpations  and  enci'oachments  on  one  another's  terri 
tories.  It  has  no  relation  to  the  particular  government  of  the  states, 
each  of  which  has  its  own  laws  and  constitution,  some  more  free,  and 
•thers  more  despotic. 

5.  The  general  diet  has  the  power  of  enacting  the  public  laws  of 
the  empire.  It  consists  of  three  colleges,  the  electors,  the  princes, 
and  the  free  cities.  All  such  public  laws,  and  all  general  measures, 
ai«  the  subject  of  the  separate  deliberation  of  the  electoral  college 
and  (hat  of  the  priucee.   Wheo  jointly  approved  by  them,  the  resoiv> 


MODERN  HISTORY.  171 

tion  is  canvassed  by  the  college  of  the  free  cities,  and,  if  agreed  to, 
becomes  a  plaeitum  of  the  empire.  If  approved  finally  by  the  em- 
peror, it  is  a  conditsum^  or  general  law.  It  disapproved,  the  resolu- 
tion is  of  no  effect.  Moreover,  the  emperor  must  be  the  proposer  of 
all  general  laws.  Still  farther,  n«  complaint  or  request  can  be  made 
by  any  of  the  princes  to  the  diet  without  the  approbation  of  the 
elector  archbishop  of  Mentz,  who  may  refuse  it  at  his  pleasure. 
These  constitutional  defects  are  the  more  hurtful  in  their  conse- 
quences, from  the  separate  and  often  contending  interests  of  the  prin- 
ces, who  have  all  the  rights  of  sovereignty,  the  power  of  contracting 
foreign  alliances,  and  are  frequently  possessed  of  foreign  dominions 
of  far  greater  value  than  their  imperial  territories. 

6.  The  Germanic  constitution  hasj  however,  in  some  respects,  iti 
advantages.  The  particular  diets  ot  each  circle  tend  to  unite  those 
princes  in  all  matters  of  national  concern,  whatever  may  be  the  dis- 
cordance of  their  individual  interests.  The  regulations  made  in 
those  diets  compensate  the  want  of  a  general  legislative  power.  Be 
side  the  circular  diets,  the  electors,  the  princes,  the  free  cities,  the 
catholics,  and  the  protestants,  hold  their  particular  diets,  when  their 
common  interests  require  it;  and  these  powers  balance  one  another. 
Considered,  theretore,  solely  in  the  light  of  a  league  of  several  inde- 

g?ndent  princes  and  states,  associating  tor  their  common  benefit,  the 
ermanic  constitution  has  many  advantages;  in  promoting  general 
harmony,  securing  the  rights  of  its  nr>embers,  and  preventing  the 
weak  from  being  oppressed  by  the  strong. 


SECTION  XXXIX. 

or  THE   REFORMATION  IN  GERMANY    AND  SWITZERLAND, 
AND  THE  REVOLUT'^ON  IN  DENMARK  AND  SWEDEN. 

1.  The  age  of  Charles  V.  is  the  era  of  the  reformation  of  reli- 
gion, of  the  discovery  of  the  ne^v  worl<l,  and  of  the  highest  splen- 
dour of  the  fine  arts  in  Italy  and  the  south  of  Europe.  We  shall 
treat  in  order  of  each  of  these  great  objects ;  and,  first,  of  the  refor- 
mation. 

The  voluptuous  taste  and  the  splendid  projects  of  pope  Leo  X. 
demanding  large  supplies  of  money,  he  instituted  through  all  the 
christian  kingdoms  a  sale  of  indulgences,  or  remittances  from  the 
pains  of  purgatory.  This  traffic  being  abused  to  the  most  shocking 
purposes,  Martin  Luther,  an  Augustine  friar,  ventured  to  preach 
against  it,  and  to  inveigh  with  acrimony  against  the  power  which 
authorized  it.  He  found  many  willing  hearers,  particularly  in  the 
electorate  of  Saxony,  of  which  the  prince  Frederick  was  his  friend 
and  protector.  Leo  X.  condemned  his  tenets  by  a  papal  bull,  which 
only  increased  the  zeal  and  indignation  of  the  preacher.  In  a  book 
which  he  published,  entitled  the  Babylonish  Captivity,  he  applied 
all  the  scriptural  attributes  of  the  whore  of  Babylon  to  the  papal 
hierarchy,  and  attacked  with  equal  force  and  virulence  the  doctrines 
of  transubstantiation,  purgatory,  the  celibacy  of  the  priests,  and  the 
refusal  of  wine  to  the  people  in  the  communion.  1  he  book  being 
condemned  to  the  flames,  Luther  burned  the  pope's  bull  and  the 
decretals  at  Wittemberg,  1,520. 

2,  One  of  the  first  champions,  who  took  up  the  pen  against  Ln- 


172  MODERN  HISTORY. 

ther,  was  Heniry  VIII  of  England ;  whose  book,  J)re8ented  to  pope 
Leo,  procured  him  the  title  now  annexed  to  his  crown,  of  defender  of 
the  faith.  The  rest  of  Europe  seemed  to  pay  Uttle  attention  to 
these  rising  controversies.  Charles  V.,  studious  of  the  friendship  of 
the  pope,  took  part  against  Luther,  and  summoned  him  to  answer 
for  his  doctrines  in  the  diet  of  Worms.  The  reformer  defended 
himself  with  great  spiiit,  and,  aided  by  his  friend  the  elector,  made 
a  safe  escape  into  Saxony,  where  the  mass  was  now  universally 
abolished,  the  images  destroyed,  and  the  convents  shut  up.  The 
friars  and  nuns  returned  to  tlie  world,  and  Luther  took  a  nun  for  his 
wife.  Nor  did  these  secularized  priests  abuse  their  new  freedom, 
for  their  manners  were  decent,  and  their  life  exemplary. 

3.  Erasmus  has  justly  censured  the  impolicy  of  the  catholic  clergy 
in  their  modes  of  resisting  and  suppressing  the  new  doctrines.  They 
allowed  them  to  be  discussed  in  sermons  before  the  people,  and  em- 
ployed for  that  purpose  furious  and  bigoted  declaimers,  who  only 
increased  and  widened  differences.  They  would  not  yield  in  the 
most  insignificant  trifle,  nor  acknowledge  a  single  fault ;  and  they 
persecuted  with  the  utmost  cruelty  all  whose  opinions  were  not 
agreeable  to  their  own  standard  of  faith.  How  wise  is  the  counsel  of 
lord  Bacon !  "  There  is  no  better  way  to  stop  the  rise  of  new  sects 
and  schisms,  than  to  reform  abuses,  compound  the  lesser  differences, 
proceed  mildly  from  the  first,  refrain  from  sanguinary  persecutions, 
and  rather  to  soften  and  win  the  principal  leaders,  by  gracing  and 
advancing  them,  than  to  enrage  them  by  violence  and  bitterness." 
Bac.  Mor.  E^s.  Sect.  I.   Ess.  12. 

4.  .Switzerland  followed  in  the  path  of  reformation.  Zuinglius  of 
Zurich  preached  the  new  tenets  with  such  zeal  and  effect,  that  the 
whole  canton  was  converted,  and  the  senate  publicly  abolished  the 
mass,  and  purified  the  churches.  Berne  took  the  same  measures 
with  greater  solemnity,  after  a  discussion  in  the  senate  which  lasted 
two  tnonths.  Basle  imitated  the  same  example.  Other  cantons 
armed  in  defence  of  their  faith  ;  and  in  a  desperate  engagement,  in 
which  the  protestants  were  defeated,  Zuinglius  was  slain,  1,53L 

5.  Luiheranism  was  now  making  its  progress  towards  the  north 
of  Europe.  Sweden,  Denmark,  and  Norway,  were  at  this  time  gov- 
erned by  Christiern  II.,  the  Nero  of  the  north.  The  Swedes,  re- 
luctantly submitting  to  the  yoke,  were  kept  in  awe  by  Troll,  arch- 
bishop of  Upsal,  H  faithful  minister  of  the  tyrant  in  all  his  schemes 
of  oppression  and  cruelty.  On  intelligence  of  a  revolt,  the  king 
and  his  primate,  armed  with  a  bull  trom  pope  Leo  X.,  massacred 
the  whole  body  of  the  nobles  and  senators,  amidst  the  festivity  of  a 
banquet.  Gustnvus  Vasa,  grand  nephew  of  Charles  Canutson, 
formerly  king  of  Sweden,  escaped  from  this  carnage,  and  concealed 
himself  in  the  mines  of  Dalecarlia.  By  degrees  assembling  a  small 
army,  he  defeated  the  generals  of  Christiern,  whose  cruelties  at 
length  determined  the  united  nations  to  vindicate  their  rights,  by  a 
solemn  sentence  of  deposition.  The  tyrant  fled  to  Flanders,  and 
Frederick  duke  of  Holstein  was  elected  sovereign  of  the  three 
kingdoms;  but  Sweden,  adhering  to  her  heroic  deliverer,  and  the 
heir  of  her  ancient  kings,  acknowledged  alone  the  sovereignty  of 
Gustavus  Vasa,  1,521.  The  bull  of  Leo  X.,  and  its  bloody  conse- 
quences, were  sufficient  to  convert  Sweden  and  Denmark  to  the 
tenets  of  the  reformed  religion.  Gustavus  enjoyed  his  sceptre  many 
years  in  peace,  and  contributed  greatly  to  the  happine^  and  proS' 
perity  of  his  kingdom. 


MODERN  HISTORY,  175 

6.  As  early  as  1,525,  the  states  of  Saxony,  Brunswick,  Hesse  Cas- 
sel,  and  the  cities  of  Strasburgh  and  Frankfort,  liad  embraced  the 
doctrines  of  the  reformation.  Luther  had  now  a  species  of  spiritual 
control,  which  he  exercised  by  means  of  a  synod  of  six  reformers. 
His  successful  example  gave  rise  to  reformers  of  different  kinds, 
whose  doctrines  were  less  consonant  to  reason  or  good  policy.  Two 
fanatics  of  Saxony,  Storck  and  Muncer,  condemned  infant  baptism, 
and  therefore  were  termed  anabaptists.  They  preached  universal 
equality  and  freedom  of  religious  opinion,  but,  with  singular  inconsis- 
tency, attempted  to  propagate  their  doctrines  by  the  sword.  They 
were  defeated  at  Mulhausen,  and  Muncer  died  on  a  scaffold ;  but  the 
party  seemed  to  acquire  new  courage.  They  surprised  Munster, 
expelled  the  bishop,  and  anointed  for  their  king  a  tailor  named  Jack 
of  Leyden,  who  defended  the  city  with  the  most  desperate  courage, 
but  fell  at  length,  with  his  party  under  the  superior  force  of  regular 
troops.  The  anabaptists,  thus  sanguinary  in  their  original  tenets 
and  practices,  have  long  ago  become  peaceable  and  harmless  sub- 
jects. 

7.  The  united  power  of  the  pope  and  emperor  found  it  impossi- 
ble to  check  the  progress  of  the  reforination.  The  diet  of  Spires 
proposed  articles  of  accommodation  between  the  Luthex'ans  and 
call  olics.  Fourteen  cities  of  Germany,  and  several  of  the  electors, 
protested  formally  against  those  articles;  and  hence  the  Lutheran 
party  acquired  the  name  of  protestants.  They  presented  to  the 
assembly  at  Augsburg  a  confession  of  their  faith,  which  is  the  stand- 
ard of  the  protestant  doctrines. 

8.  The  virtuous  lives  and  conduct  of  the  protestant  leaders,  com- 
pared with  those  of  the  higher  clergy  among  the  catholics,  formed 
a  contrast  very  fiivourable  to  the  progress  of  the  reformation.  The 
solemn  manner  in  which  the  states  of  Switzerland,  and  particularly 
Geneva,  had  proceeded,  in  calmly  discussing  every  point  of  contro- 
versy, and  yielding  only  to  the  force  of  rational  conviction,  attracted 
the  respect  of  all  Europe.  John  Calvin,  a  Frenchman,  becoming  a 
zealous  convert  to  the  new  doctrines,  was  the  first  wlio  gave  them  a 
systematic  form  by  his  Institutions,  and  enforced  tlieir  authority  by 
the  establishment  of  synods,  consistories,  and  deacons.  The  magis- 
tracy of  Geneva  gave  these  ordinances  the  authority  of  law ;  and 
they  were  adopted  by  six  of  the  Swiss  cantons,  by  the  protestants  ot 
France,  and  the  presbyterians  of  Scotland  and  England.  The  ablest 
advocates  of  Calvin  will  find  it  difficult  to  vindicate  him  from  the 
charge  of  intolerance  and  the  spirit  of  persecution  ;  but  these,  which 
are  vices  or  defects  of  the  individual,  attach  not  in  the  least  to  the 
doctrines  of  the  reformation,  which  are  subject  to  the  test  of  reason, 
and  can  derive  no  blemish  or  dishonour  from  the  men  who  propagat- 
ed them,  or  even  from  the  motives  which  might  influence  some  oi 
their  earliest  supporters.  This  observation  applies  more  particularly 
to  the  subject  of  the  ensuing  section. 

gee  Kett's  Elements  of  Geaerai  Knowledge,  Vol.  I.  t  lo  nave 


Vli  MODERN  HISTORY. 


SECTION  XL. 

OP  TIffi  REFORMATION   IN  ENGLAND  UNDER  HENRY   VIII., 

AND  HIS  SUCCESSORS. 

1 .  WicKLiFF,  in  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century,  by  an  at- 
tack on  the  doctrines  of  transubstantiation,  indulgences,  and  auricular 
Vyonfession,  and  still  more  by  a  translation  of  the  scriptures  into  the 
vernacular  tongue,  had  prepared  the  minds  of  the  people  of  England 
lor  a  revolution  in  religious  opinions;  but  his  professed  followers 
were  not  numerous.  The  in<:6mperate  passions  of  Henry  VIII.  were 
the  immediate  cause  of  the  reformation  in  England.  He  had  been 
married  eighteen  years  to  Catharine  of  Spain,  aunt  of  Charles  V;, 
by  whom  he  had  three  children,  one  of  them,  Mary,  afterwards  queen 
of  England ;  when,  falling  in  love  with  Anna  feullen,  he  solicited 
Clement  VII.  for  a  divorce  from  Catharine,  on  the  score  of  her  for- 
mer marriage  to  his  elder  brother  Arthur.  The  pope  found  himself 
in  the  painful  dilemma  of  either  affronting  the  emperor,  or  mortally 
offending  the  king  of  England.  In  hope  that  the  king's  passion 
might  cool,  he  protracted  the  time  by  preliminaries  and  negotiations, 
but  to  no  purpose.  Henry  was  resolutely  bent  on  accomplishing 
his  wishes.  The  Sorbonne  arid  other  French  universities  gave  an 
opinion  in  his  favour.  Armed  with  this  sanction,  he  caused  Cranmer 
archbishop  of  Canterbury  to  annul  his  marriage.  The  repudiated 
queen  gave  place  to  Anna  Bullen.  On  this  occasion  Wolsey,  the 
minister  of  Henry,  lost  the  favour  of  his  master,  by  opposing,  as 
was  believed,  his  darling  measure. 

2.  Clement  VII.,  from  this  specimen  of  the  wayward  temper  of 
Henry,  resolved  to  keep  well  with  the  emperor,  and  issued  his  bull, 
condemnatory  of  the  sentence  of  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury. 
Henry  immediately  proclaimed  himself  head  of  the  church  of  Eng- 
land ;  the  parliament  ratified  his  title,  and  the  pope's  authority  was 
instantly  suppressed  in  all  his  dominions,  1 ,534.  He  proceeded  to 
abolish  the  monasteries,  and  confiscate  their  treasures  and  revenues, 
electing  out  of  the  latter  oix  new  bishoprics  and  a  college.  The 
immoralities  of  the  monks  were  sedulously  exposed,  the  forgery  of 
relics,  false  miracles,  &c.  held  up  to  the  popular  scorn. 

3.  Yet  Henry,  though  a  reformer,  and  pope  in  his  own  kingdom, 
had  not  renounced  the  religion  of  Rome:  he  was  equally  an  enemy 
f  0  the  tenets  of  Luther  and  Calvin  as  to  the  pope's  jurisdiction  in 
England.  Inconstant  in  his  affections,  and  a  stranger  to  all  humanity, 
he  removed  Anna  Bullen  from  the  tlirone  to  the  scaffold,  to  gratify  a 
Dew  passion  for  Jane  Seymour,  a  maid  of  honour,  who  happily  died 
about  ayear  after.  To  her  succeeded  Anne  of  Cleve«,  whom  he 
solemn  t  in  nine  months,  to  make  way  for  Catharine  Howard.  She 
nnaerwent  the  same  fate  with  Anna  Bullen,  on  a  similar  suspicion  of 
Bifidelity  to  his  bed.  His  sixth  wife,  Catharine  Parr,  with  dilficulty 
retained  her  hazardous  elevation,  but  had  the  good  fortune  to  sur- 
vive the  tyrant 

4.  On  the  death  of  Henry  VIII.^  1,547,  and  the  accession  of  his  soa 
Edward  VI.,  the  protestant  religion  prevailed  in  England,  and  wa« 
fevoured  bv  the  sovereign ;  but  he  died  at  the  early  age  of  fifteen, 
ft)663 ;  and  the  sceptre  passed  to  the  bauds  of  h^  sister  Mary,  an  '»• 


MODERN  HISTORY.  176 

tolerant  catholic,  and  most  cruel  persecutor  of  the  protestants.  la 
her  reign,  whica  ivas  of  tive  years'  duration,  above  800  miserable 
victims  were  burnt  at  a  stake,  martyrs  to  their  religious  opinions. 
Mary  inherited  a  congenial  spirit  witn  her  husband,  Philip  11.  ot  bpain, 
whose  intolerance  cost  him  the  loss  ot"  a  third  part  of  his  dominions 

5.  Mary  was  succeeded  in  1,558  oy  her  lister  iL,lizabeih,  the  daugh 
ter  of  Anna  Bullen,  a  protestant,  the  more  zealous  from  an  al)hor 
rence  of  the  character  of  her  predecessor.  In  her  reign  the  religion 
of  England  became  stationary.  Tiie  hierarchy  was  estaoiished  in  its 
present  form,  by  archbishops,  bishop?,  priests,  and  deacons,  the  king 
being  by  law  the  head  of  the  church.  I'he  liturgy  had  been  settli^d 
in  the  reign  of  fcklward  VI.  The  canons  are  agreeable  chiedy  to  the 
Lutheran  tenets. 

Of  the  reformation  in  Scotland  we  shall  afterwards  treat  under  a 
separate  section. 


SECTION  XLI. 

©F  THE  DISCOVERY  AND  CONQUEST   OF  AMERICA  BY  THE 
SPANIARDS. 

1.  Among  those  great  events  which  distinguished  the  age  of  Charles 
V.  was  the  conquest  of  Mexico  by  Fernando  Cortez,  and  of  Peru  by 
the  two  brothers,  Francis  and  Gonzalo  Pizarro.  The  discovery  of 
America  preceded  the  first  of  these  events  about  twenty-seven  years; 
but  the  account  of  it  has  been  postponed,  that  the  whole  may  be 
Bhortly  treated  in  connexion. 

Christopher  Columbus,  a  Genoese,  a  man  of  an  enterprising  spirit, 
having  in  vain  solicited  encoui*agement  from  his  native  state,  from 
Portugal,  and  from  England,  to  attempt  discoveries  in  the  western 
ocean,  applied  to  Ferdinimd  and  Isabella  of  Spain.  Under  the  patron- 
age of  Isabella,  as  queen  of  Castile,  he  was  furnished  with  three 
small  ships,  ninety  men,  and  a  few  thousand  ducats  for  the  expense 
of  his  voyage.  After  thirty-three  days'  sail  from  the  Canaries  he  dis- 
covered  San  Salvador.  September,  1,492;  and  soon  after  the  islands 
of  Cuba  and  Hispaniola.  He  returned  to  Spain,  and  brought  a  few 
of  the  natives,  some  presents  of  gold,  and  curiosities  of  the  countrji 
He  was  treated  by  the  Spaniards  with  the  highest  honours,  and  soon 
supplied  with  a  suitable  armament  for  the  prosecution  of  his  discove- 
ries In  his  second  voyage  he  discovered  tne  Caribbees  and  Jamaica. 
Iq  a  third  voyage  he  descried  the  continent  of  America,  within  tea 
degrees  of  the  equator,  toward  the  isthmus  of  Panama.  The  next 
year  the  geographer  Americus  followed  the  track  of  Columbus,  and 
had  the  undeserved  honour  of  giving  his  name  to  this  continent. 

2.  The  inhabitants  of  America  and  its  islands  were  a  race  of  men 
quite  new  to  the  Europeans.  They  are  of  the  colour  of  copper.  In 
some  quarters,  as  in  Mexico  and  Peru,  the  Spaniards  are  said  to  have 
found  a  flourishing  empire,  and  a  people  polished,  refined,  and  luxu- 
rious ;  in  others,  man  was  a  naked  savage,  the  member  of  a  wander- 
ing tribe,  whose  sole  occupation  was  hunting  or  war.  The  sava^ei 
oithe  continent  were  characterized  by  their  cruelty  to  their  enenuea, 
their  contempt  of  death,  and  their  generous  affection  for  their  friends. 
The  inhabitants  of  the  islands  were  a  milderrace,  of  gentler  manners, 
and  less  hardy  conformation  of  body  and  mind.  The  larger  auimalq, 
as  the  horse,  the  cow,  were  unknown  in  Anaerica. 


176  MODERN  HISTORY. 

3.  Those  tiewly-discovered  countries  were  believed  to  contain  io- 
exhaustible  treasures.  The  Spaniards,  under  the  pretence  of  reli- 
gion and  poHcy,  treated  the  inhabitants  with  the  most  shocking  inhu- 
manity. The  rack,  the  scourge,  the  faggot,  were  employed  to  con- 
vert them  to  Christianity.  They  were  hunted  like  wild  beasts,  or 
burnt  ahve  in  their  thickets  and  fastnesses.  Hispaniola,  containing 
three  millions  of  inhabitants,  and  Cuba,  containing  above  600,0U0, 
were  absolutely  depopulated  in  a  few  years.  It  was  now  resolved  to 
explore  the  continent;  and  Fernando  Cortez,  with  eleven  ships  and 
617  men,  sailed  lor  that  purpose  from  Cuba  in  1,519.  Landing  at 
Tabasco,  he  advanced,  though  with  a  brave  opposition  from  the  na- 
tives, into  the  interior  of  the  country.  The  state  of  Tlascala,  alter 
inetfectuai  resistance,  became  the  ally  of  the  Spaniards.  On  the  ap- 
proach of  the  Spaniards  to  Mexico,  the  terror  pf  their  name  had  pav- 
ed the  way  for  an  easy  conquest 

4.  The  Mexican  empire,  tuough  founded  little  more  than  a  century 
before  this  period,  had  arisen  to  great  splendour.  Its  sovereign,  Mon- 
tezuma, received  the  invaders  with  the  reverence  due  to  superior 
beings.  But  a  short  acquaintance  opened  the  eyes  of  the  Mexicans. 
Finding  nothing  in  the  Spaniards  beyond  what  was  human,  they  were 
daring  enough  to  attack  and  put  to  death  a  few  of  them.  1  he  in- 
trepid Cortez  immediately  marched  to  the  palace  with  fifty  men, 
and  putting  the  emperor  in  irons,  carried  him  off  prisoner  to  his 
camp ;  where  he  afterwards  pei-suaded  him  to* acknowledge  himself 
a  vassal  of  the  king  of  Castile,  to  hold  his  crown  of  the  king  as  his 
superior,  and  to  subject  his  dominions  to  the  payment  of  an  annual 
tribute. 

5.  Velasquez,  governor  of  Cuba,  jealous  of  Cortez,  attempted  to 
supersede  him,  by  despatching  a  superior  army  to  the  continent;  but 
Cortez  deleated  his  troops,  and  compelled  them  to  join  his  own  ban- 
ners. In  an  attack  by  the  Mexicans  for  the  rescue  of  their  sovereign, 
Montezuma,  having  offered  to  mediate  between  them  and  their  ene- 
mies, was  indignantly  put  to  death  by  his  own  subjects.  The  whole 
empire,  under  its  new  sovereign,  Guatimozin,  was  now  armed  against 
the  Spaniards ;  and  while  the  plains  were  covered  with  their  archers 
and  spearmen,  the  lake  of  Mexico  was  filled  vvith  armed  canoes.  To 
oppose  the  latter  the  Sj>auiards  built  a  few  vessels  under  the  walls  of 
their  city,  and  soon  evinced  their  superiority  to  their  feeble  foe  on 
both  elements.  The  monarch  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  officers  of 
Cortez,  and  was  stretched  naked  on  burning  coals,  because  he  refus- 
ed to  discover  his  treasures.  Soon  after  a  conspiracy  against  the 
Spaniards  was  discovered,  and  the  wretched  Guatimozin,  wilhall  the 
princes  of  his  blood,  were  executed  on  a  gibbet.  This  was  the  last 
blow  to  the  power  of  the  Mexicans;  and  Cortez  was  now  absolute 
master  of  the  whole  empire,  \,b'£5. 

6.  In  the  year  1,531  Diego  D'Almagro  and  Francis  Pizarro,  with 
250  foot,  60  horse,  and.  12  small  pieces  of  cannon,  landed  in  Fern,  a 
large  and  tlourishing  empire,  governed  by  an  ancient  race  of  mon- 
archs  named  Incas.  The  Inca  Atabahpa  receiving  the  Spaniards  with 
reverence,  they  immediately  required  him  to  embrace  the  christian 
feith,  and  surrender  all  ins  dominions  to  the  emi)eror  Charles  V.,  who 
had  obtained  a  gift  of  them  from  the  pope.  The  proposal  being  mi*- 
understood,  or  received  with  hesitation,  Pizarro  seized  the  monarch 
as  his  prisoner,  whila  his  troops  massacred  5,000  of  the  Peruvians  ou 
the  spot.  The  empire  was  now  plundered  Oi  prodigious  treasures  in 
gold  aiid  precious  tit  jues ;  and  Atabdipa,  being  suspected  of  concea)* 


MODERN  HISTORY.  177 

iilg  a  part  from  his  insatiable  invaders,  was  solemnly  tried  as  a  crimi- 
nal, and  strangled  at  a  stake. 

7.  The  courage  of  the  Spaniards  surpassed  even  their  inhumanity. 
D'Almagro  marched  500  leagues,  through  continual  opposition,  to 
Cusco,  and  penetrated  across  the  Cordilleras  into  Chili,  two  degrees 
beyond  the  southern  tropic.  He  was  slain  in  a  civil  war  between 
him  and  his  associate  Francis  Pizarro,  who  was  soon  after  assassinated 
by  the  party  of  his  rival.  A  few  years  after  the  Spaniards  discover- 
ed the  inexhaustible  silver  mines  of  Fotosi,  which  they  compelled 
the  Peruvians  to  work  for  their  advantage.  They  are  now  wrought 
by  the  negroes  of  Africa.  The  native  Peruvians,  who  are  a  weakly 
race  of  men,  were  soon  almost  exterminated  by  cruelty  and  intoler- 
able labour.  The  humane  bishop  of  Chiapa  remonstrated  with  suc- 
cess to  Charles  V.  on  this  subject ;  and  the  residue  of  this  miserable 
people  have  been  since  treated  with  more  indulgence. 

8.  The  Spanish  acquisitions  in  America  belong  to  the  crown,  and 
not  to  the  state:  they  are  the  absolute  property  of  the  sovereign, 
and  regulated  solely  by  his  will.  They  consist  of  three  provinces, 
Mexico,  Peru,  and  Terra  Firma;  and  are  governed  by  three  vice- 
roys, who  exercise  supreme  civil  and  military  authority  over  their 
respective  provinces.  There  are  eleven  courts  of  audience  for  the 
administration  of  justice,  with  whose  judicial  proceedings  the  vice- 
roys cannot  interlere  ;  and  their  judgments  are  subject  to  appeal  to 
the  royal  council  of  the  Indies,  whose  jurisdiction  extends  to  every 
department,  ecclesiastical,  civil,  military,  and  commercial.  A  tribu- 
nal in  Spain,  called  Casa  de  la  Contratacion,  regulates  the  departure 
of  the  fleets,  and  t-heir  destination  and  equipment,  under  the  control 
of  the  council  of  the  Indies. 

9.  The  gold  and  silver  of  Spanish  America,  though  the  exclusive 
property  of  the  crown  of  Spain,  has,  by  means  of  war,  marriages  of 
princes,  and  extension  of  commerce,  come  mto  general  circulation, 
and  has  greatly  increased  the  quantity  of  specie,  and  diminished  the 
value  of  money  over  all  Europe. 


SECTION  XLIl. 

POSSESSIONS  OF  THE  OTHER  EUROPEAN  NATIONS   IN  AMER- 
ICA.    THE  UNITED  STATES. 

1.  The  example  of  the  Spaniards  excited  a  desire  in  the  other 
nations  of  Europe  to  participate  with  them  in  the  riches  of  the  new 
world.  The  French,  in  1,557,  attempted  to  form  a  settlement  on 
the  coast  of  Brazil,  where  the  Portuguese  had  already  established 
themselves  from  the  beginning  of  the  century.  The  colony  was 
divided  by  faction,  and  was  soon  utterly  di^stroyed  by  the  Portu- 
guese. It  is  one  of  the  richest  of  the  Arn»irican  settlements,  both 
from  the  produce  of  its  soil,  and  its  mines  of  gold  and  precious 
stones. 

2.  The  Spaniards  were  in  possession  of  Florida  when  the  French 
attempted  to  colonize  it  in  1,564,  without  success.  The  French 
established  a  settlement  in  Acadie  in  1,604,  and  founded  Quebec  in 
Canada  in  1,608.  But  these  settlements  were  perpetually  subject  to 
attack  from  the  English,  in  1,629  the  Frencli  had  not  a  loot  of 
territory  in  America.     Canada  has  been  repeatedly  taken  by  the 

T3 


178  MODERN  HISTORY. 

English,  and  restored,  by  different  treaties,  to  the  French ;  bat  since 
the  peace  of  1,763  it  has  been  a  British  settlement.  The  French 
drew  their  greatest  advantages  from  the  islands  of  St  Domingo, 
Guadalonpe,  and  Martinico.  From  their  continental  possessions  of 
Louisiana,  and  the  settlements  on  the  Mississippi,  which  they  have 
DOW  lost,  they  never  derived  any  solid  benefit. 

3.  The  Dutch  have  no  settlement  on  the  continent  of  America, 
but  Surinam,  a  part  of  Guiana ;  and,  in  the  West-Indies,  the  islands 
of  Curnvssoa  and  SL  Eustatius.  The  Danes  possess  the  inconsidera- 
ble islands  of  St.  Thomas  and  Santa  Cruz. 

4.  The  British  have  extensive  settlements  on  the  continent  of 
America,  and  in  the  West-India  islands.  England  derived  her  right 
to  her  settlements  in  North  America  from  the  first  discovery  of  the 
country  by  Sebastian  Cabot  in  1,407,  the  year  before  the  discovery 
of  the  continent  of  South  America  by  Columbus ;  but  no  attempts 
were  made  by  the  English  to  colonize  any  part  of  the  country  till 
nearly  a  century  afterward.  This  remarkable  neglect  is  in  some 
measure  accounted  for  by  the  frugal  maxims  of  Henry  VII.,  and  the 
unpropitious  circumstances  of  the  reigns  of  Henry  VIII.,  of  Edward  VI., 
and  ot  the  bigoted  Mary  :  reigns  peculiarly  adverse  to  the  extension 
of  industry,  trade,  and  navigation. 

5.  In  1,585  sir  Walter  Raleigh  undertook  to  settle  a  colony  in  Vir- 
ginia, so  named  in  honour  of  his  queen ;  but  his  attempts  were  fruit-  " 
less.  Two  colonies,  destined  for  settlement,  were  successively  sent 
over  to  the  Virginian  territory  ;  but  the  first  was  reduced  to  great  dis- 
tress, and  taken  back  to  England  by  sir  Francis  Drake ;  the  second, 
left  unsupported,  couid  never  afterward  be  found. 

6.  In  1,606  king  James  granted  a  patent  for  settling  two  planta-. 
tions  on  the  main  coasts  ot  North  America.  Dividing  that  portion 
of  the  country,  which  stretches  from  the  thirty-fourth  to  the  Ibrty- 
fifth  degree  of  iatituiie,  into  two  districts  nearly  equal,  he  granted 
the  soulheni,  called  the  first  colony,  to  the  London  company,  and 
the  northern,  called  the  second,  to  the  Plymouth  company.  On 
the  reception  of  this  patent  several  persons  of  distinction  in  the  Eng- 
lish nation  undertook  to  settle  the  southern  colony;  and  in  1,607  the 
fiiht  permanent  colony  was  settled  in  Virginia. 

7.  The  hn-st  settlement  in  the  northern  district  was  made  at  Ply- 
mouth in  1 ,620,  by  a  number  of  puritans,  who,  having  a  few  years 
before  left  England,  to  liberate  themselves  from  the  oppressions  of 
the  episcopal  hienircby,  had  found  a  temporary  asylum  in  Holland. 
In  1,629  the  patent  of  Massachu-setts  was  confirmed  by  king  Charles 
1. ;  and  in  the  following  year  a  large  body  of  English  non-conformists 
settled  that  territory.  The  settlement  of  Connecticut  was  begun  in 
1,636  by  emigrants  from  Massachusetts.  The  settlement  of  Provi- 
dence, in  Rhode  Island,  was  begun  the  same  year  by  Roger  Wil- 
liams, a  clergyman,  who,  for  his  refusal  to  submit  to  the  control  of 
the  government  of  Massachusetts,  in  religious  matters,  had  been  ex- 

*iled  from  that  colony.  New  York,  originally  settled  by  the  Dutch, 
and  by  them  called  New  Netherlands,  was  taken  from  them  by  the 
English  in  1,664,  at  which  time  it  was  subjected  to  the  British  crown, 
and  settled  by  Engiish  colonists.  New  Jei'sey  was  settled  in  1,667, 
principally  by  quakers  from  England.  The  charter  of  Pennsylvania 
was  given  in  1,681  by  king  Charles  II.  to  William  Penn  ;  and  a  set- 
tlement was  begun  the  same  year  by  a  colony  consisting  principallr 
of  quakers.  1  he  patent  of  Maryland  was  given  by  king  Charles  1. 
(o  lord  Baltimore  m  1,632;  and  two  years  alterward  the  colony  WM 


MODERN  HISTORY.  17» 

gettled  by  a  body  of  Roman  catholics  from  England.  The  charter 
of  Carolina  was  granted  by  Charles  II.  to  the  earl  of  Clarendon  and 
several  associates  in  1,663;  and  that  colony  was  soon  after  settled  by 
the  English.  In  1,729  the  province  was  divided  into  two  distinct 
governments,  one  of  which  was  called  North,  and  the  other 
South  Carolina.  The  charter  of  Georgia  was  given  in  1,732  by  king 
George  II.  to  a  number  of  persons  in  England,  who,  from  motives  ol 

gatriotism  and  humanity,  projected  a  settlement  in  that  wild  territory. 
y  tliis  measure  it  was  intended,  to  obtain,  first,  possession  of  an  exten- 
sive tract  of  country ;  to  strengthen  the  province  of  Carolina ;  to 
rescue  a  great  number  of  people  in  Great  Britiin  and  Ireland  from 
the  miseries  of  poverty  ;  to  open  an  asylum  for  persecuted  protes- 
tants  in  different  parts  of  Europe  ;  and  to  attempt  the  conversion  and 
civilization  of  the  natives.  Lfnder  the  guidance  of  general  Ogle, 
thorpe  a  coloiiy  was  settled  here  m  1,733.  Nova  Scotia  was  settled 
in  the  reign  ofJames  I.  The  Floridas  were  ceded  by  Spain  to  Great 
Britain  at  the  peace  of  1,763;  but  they  were  reduced  by  the  arms 
of  his  catholic  majesty  during  the  American  war,  and  guaranteed  to 
the  cro^vn  of  Spain  by  the  definitive  treaty  of  1,703. 

8.  All  the  British  colonies  in  North  America  were  subject  to  the 
government  of  Great  Britain  from  the  time  of  their  settlement  im- 
til  the  year  1,775.  Opposition  to  certain  measures  of  the  British 
parliament,  the  tendency  of  which,  was  to  claim  for  the  king  and 
parliament  of  Great  Britain,  a  right  to  tax  colonies,  that  did  not  send 
representatives  to  parliament,  and  were  therefore  hostiie  to  rights  and 
liberties,  that  had  oeen  enjoyed  and  exercised  by  the  colonies  from 
their  origin,  having  induced  the  government  to  send  troops  to  Amer 
ica  to  enforce  submission  to  their  laws,  hostilities  commenced  in 
April,  1,775.  In  1,776  the  American  congress  declared  the  United 
States  independent.  In  September  1,783,  a  definitive  treaty  of  peace 
was  concluded,  by  which  his  Britannic  majesty  acknowledged  the 
United  States  of  America  to  be  free,  sovereign,  and  independent 
states.  In  1,789  the  government  of  these  states  was  organized,  con- 
formably to  the  federal  constitution ;  and  George  Washington,  who 
had  been  commander  in  chief  of  the  revolutionary  army,  was  inaugu- 
rated the  first  president. 

9.  The  British  colonies  in  America,  and  the  United  States,  are 
greatly  inferiqjr  to  the  Spanish  American  colonies  in  natural  riches, 
as  they  produce  neither  silver  nw  gold,  nor  cochineal ;  yet  they 
are  in  general  of  fertile  soil,  and  considerably  improved  by  industry. 
They  afford  a  profitable  market  for  European  manufactures.  Canaaa 
furnishes  for  exportation  wheat,  flour,  flax-seed,  lumber,  fish,  potash, 
oil,  ginseng,  furs,  pelts,  and  various  other  commodities.  The  pro- 
duce of  the  West  India  islands  (Jamaica,  Barbadoes,  St.  Christopher's, 
Antigua,  the  Granadas,  and  other  islands),  in  sugar,  coffee,  cocoa, 
rum,  molasses,  cotton,  and  other  articles,  is  of  very  great  value  to 
the  mother  country.  The  northern  states  in  the  federal  union  fur- 
nish masts,  ship  timber,  lumber,  potash,  furs,  pelts,  fish,  beef,  pork, 
butter,  cheese,  rye,  and  maize ;  the  middle  states,  flour,  maize, 
flax-seed,  peas,  deer  skins,  and  other  pelts ;  and  the  southern  states, 
rice,  flour,  indigo,  cotton,  tobacco,  pork,  live  oak,  tar,  pitch,  aad 
turpeotioe. 


180  MODERN  HISTORY. 


SECTION  XLIII. 


«r  THE  STATE  OF  THE  FINE  ARTS  IN  EUROPE  IN  THE  AGE 
OF  LEO  X. 

1.  In  epumerating  those  grent  objects  which  characterized  the 
end  of  the  fit'teenth  and  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century,  we 
remarked  the  high  advancement  to  wbdch  the  line  arts  attained  in 
Europe  in  the  age  of  Leo  X.  The  strong  bent  which  the  human 
mind  seems  to  take,  in  certain  periods,  to  one  class  of  pursuits  in 
preference  to  all  others,  as  in  tlie  age  of  Leo  X.,  to  the  hne  arts  of 
painting,  sculpture,  and  architecture,  may  be  partly  explained  from 
moral  causes;  sucli  as  the  peaceful  state  of  a  country,  the  genius  or 
taste,  and  the  liberal  encouragement  of  its  sovereigns,  the  general 
emulation  that  arises  where  one  or  two  artists  are  of  confessed  emi- 
nence, and  the  aid  which  men  derive  from  the  studies  and  works  of 
one  another.  These  causes  have  doubtless  great  influence,  but  do 
not  seem  entirely  sufficient  to  account  for  the  fact.  The  operation 
of  such  causes  must  be  slow  and  gradual.  In  the  case  of  the  fine 
arts,  the  transition  from  obscurity  to  splendour  was  rapid  and  instan- 
taneous. From  the  contemptible  mediocrity  in  which  they  had  re- 
mained for  ages,  they  rose  at  one  step  to  the  highest  pitch  of  excel- 
lence. 

2.  The  arts  of  painting  and  sculpture  were  buried  in  the  west  un- 
der the  ruins  of  the  Roman  empire.  They  gradually  declined  in 
the  latter  ages,  as  we  may  perceive  by  the  series  of  the  coins  of  the 
lower  empire.  The  Ostrogoths,  instead  of  destroying,  sought  to 
preserve  the  monriments  of  taste  and  genius.  They  were  even  t!ie 
inventors  of  some  of  the  arts  dependent  on  design,  as  the  composition 
of  Mosaic.  But,  in  the  middle  ages,  those  arts  were  at  a  very  low 
ebb  in  Europe.  They  began,  however,  to  revive  a  little  about  the 
end  of  the  thirteenth  century.  Cimabue,  a  Florentine,  from  the 
sight  of  the  paintings  of  some  GJreek  artists  in  one  of  the  churches, 
began  to  attempt  similar  performances,  and  soon  excelled  his  models. 
His  scholars  were  Ghiotto,  Gaddi,  Tassi  Cavillini,  and  Stephano  Fio- 
rentino ;  and  they  formed  an  academy  at  Florence  in  1,350. 

3.  The  works  of  those  early  pointers,  vvilh  some  tldelity  of  imita- 
tion, had  not  a  spark  of  grace  or  elegance  ;  and  such  continued  to  be 
the  state  of  the  art  till  toward  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century,  when 
it  arose  at  once  to  the  summit  of  perlection.  Raphael  painted  at 
first  in  the  hard  manner  of  his  master  Perugino ;  but  soon  deserted 
it,  and  struck  at  once  into  the  noble,  elegant,  and  graceful ;  in  short, 
the  imitation  of  the  antique  This  change  was  the  result  of  genius 
alone.  The  ancient  sculptures  were  familiar  to  the  early  painters, 
but  they  had  looked  on  them  with  cold  indifference.  They  were 
new  surveyed  by  other  eyes.  Michael  Angelo,  Raphael,  and  Leo- 
nardo da  Vinci,  were  animated  by  the  same  genius  that  formed  the 
Grecian  Appelles,  Zeuxis,  Glycon,  Fhidi;is,  and  Praxiteles. 

4.  Nor  was  Italy  alone  thus  distinguished.  Germany,  Flanders,  and 
Switzerland,  produced  in  the  same  age  artists  of  consummate  merit. 
Before  the  notice  of  these  we  shall  brictiy  characterize  the  schools 
of  Italy. 

5.  Urst  m  order  is  the  school  of  Fl«rence,  of  ivhich  the  most  em- 
ineot  master  was  Michael  Angelo,  bom  in  1,474.    His  works  ai« 


MODERN  HISTORY.  181 

characterized  by  a  profound  knowledge  of  the  anatomy  of  the  human 
figure,  perhaps  chiefly  formed  on  the  contemplation  of  the  ancient 
sculptures.  His  paintings  exhibit  the  grand,  the  sublime,  and  terri- 
ble ;  but  he  drew  not  from  the  antique  its  i^imple  grace  and  beauty. 

6.  The  Roman  school  was  founded  by  Raphael  d'Urbino,  born  in 
1,483.  This  great  painter  united  almost  every  excellence  of  the  art. 
In  invention,  grace,  m.tjestic  simplicity,  forcible  expression  of  the 
passions,  he  stands  unrivalled,  and  Ikr  beyond  all  competition.  He 
has  borrowed  liberally,  but  without  servility,  from  the  antique. 

7.  Of  the  school  of  Lomhardy,  or  the  V  enetian,  the  most  eminent 
artists  were  Titian,  Giorgione,  Corregio,  and  Parmeggi;mo.  Titian 
is  most  eminent  in  portrait,  and  in  tne  painting  of  female  beauty. 
Such  is  the  truth  ot  his  colouring,  that  his  figures  are  nature  itself. 
It  was  the  testimony  of  Michael  Angelo  to  the  merits  of  Titian,  tiial, 
if  he  had  studied  at  Rome  or  Florence,  amidst  the  master-pieces  of 
antiquity,  he  would  have  eclipsed  all  the  painters  in  the  world.  Ti- 
tian lived  to  the  age  of  a  hundred.  Giorgione,  with  similar  merit-, 
was  cut  off  ill  the  nower  of  his  youth.  Correggio  was  superior  in 
colouring,  and  in  the  knowledge  of  light  and  shade,  to  all  who  hnve 
preceded  or  followed  him.  This  knowledge  was  the  result  of  stuJy. 
In  other  painters  those  effects  are  frequently  accidental,  as  we  ol;- 
serve  that  they  are  not  unit'nnn.  Parmeggiano  imitated  the  graceful 
manner  of  Raphael,  but  carried  it  to  a  degree  of  affectation. 

8.  Such  were  the  three  original  Italian  schools.  The  character  o 
the  Florentine  is  grandeur  and  sublimity,  vvith  great  excellence  o 
design,  but  a  want  of  grace,  of  skill  in  colouring,  and  effect  of  lieSit 
and  shade.  The  character  of  the  Roman  is  equal  excellence  of  de- 
sign, a  grandeur  tempered  with  moderation  and  simplicity,  a  high 
degree  of  grace  and  elegance,  and  a  superior  knowledge,  though  not 
an  excellence,  in  colouring.  The  character  of  the  Venetian  is  the 
perfection  of  colouring,  and  the  utmost  force  of  light  and  shade, 
with  an  inferiority  in  every  other  particular. 

9.  To  the  school  of  Raphael  succeeded  the  second  Roman  school, 
or  that  of  the  Caraccis,  three  brothers,  of  whom  Annibal  was  the 
most  famous.  His  scholars  were,  Guercino,  Albano,  Lanfranc,  Dom- 
enichino,  and  Guido.  Of  these  eminent  painters  the  tirst  and  last 
were  the  best.  The  elegant  contours  of  Guercino,  and  the  strength 
s\yeetness,  and  majesty  of  Guido,  are  the  admiration  of  ah  true  judges 
of  painting. 

10.  In  the  same  age  the  Flemish  school,  though  of  a  quite  differ- 
ent character,  and  inferior  to  the  Italian,  shone  with  great  lustre. 
Oil  painting  was  invented  by  the  Flemings  in  the  fifteenth  century  ; 
and,  in  that  age,  Heemskirk,  Frans  Floris,  Quintin  Matsys,  and  the 
German  Albert  Ourer,  v/ere  deservedly  distinguished.  Of  the  Flem- 
ish school,  Rubens,  though  a  painter  of  a  much  later  age,  is  the 
chief  ornament.  His  figures,  though  too  corpulent,  are  drawn  with 
great  truth  and  nature.  He  possesses  inexhaustible  invention,  and 
great  skill  in  the  expression  of  the  passions.  Switzerland  produced 
Hans  Holbein,  a  painter  of  great  eminence  in  portrait,  and  remarka- 
ble for  truth  of  colouring.  From  his  residence  at  the  court  of  Henry 
VIII.  there  are  more  specimens  of  his  works  in  Britain  than  of  any 
other  foreign  painter.  Holland  had  likewise  its  painteis,  whose  chief 
merit  was  the  faithful  representation  of  vulgar  nature,  and  perfect 
knowledge  of  the  mechanism  of  the  art,  the  power  of  colours,  and 
the  effect  of  light  and  shade. 

U.  With  th>e  art  of  painting,  sculpture  and  architectyr*  were  like- 
Q 


182  MODERN  HISTORY. 

wise  revived  in  the  same  age,  and  brought  almost  to  perfection. 
The  universal  genius  of  Michael  Angelo  shone  equally  conspicuous 
in  all  the  three  departments.  His  statue  of  Bacchus  was  judged  by 
Raphael  to  be  the  work  of  Phidias  or  Praxiteles.  The  Grecian  ar- 
chitecture was  first  revived  by  the  Florentines  in  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury ;  and  the  cathedral  of  Pisa  was  constructed  partly  from  the  ma- 
terials of  an  ancient  Greek  temple.  The  art  arrived  at  perfection  in 
the  age  of  Leo  X.,  when  the  church  of  St.  Peter's  at  Rome,  under 
the  direction  of  Bramante,  San  Guilo,  Raphael,  and  Michael  Angelo, 
exhibited  the  noblest  specimen  of  architecture  in  the  world. 

12.  The  invention  ol  the  art  of  engraving  on  copper  by  Tomaso 
Finiguerra,  a  goldsmith  of  Florence,  is  dated  about  1,4G0.  From  Ita- 
ly it  travelled  into  Flanders,  where  it  was  first  practised  by  Martin 
Schoen  of  Antwerp.  His  scholar  was  the  celebrated  Albert  Durer, 
who  engraved  excellently  both  on  copper  and  on  wood.  Etching  on 
copper  by  meansof  aquafortis,  which  gives  more  ease  than  the  stroke 
of  the  graver,  was  discovered  by  Parmeggiano,  who  executed  in  that 
manner  his  own  beautiful  designs.  No  art  underwent,  in  its  early 
stages,  so  rapid  an  improvement  as  that  of  engraving.  In  the  course 
of  150  years  from  its  invention  it  attained  nearly  to  its  perfection; 
for  there  has  been  little  proportional  improvement  in  the  last  century, 
since  the  days  of  Audran,  Poilly,  and  Edelinck. 

13.  The  art  of  engraving  in  mezzotinto  is  of  much  later  date  than 
the  ordinary  mode  ol  engraving  on  copper.  It  was  the  invention  of 
prince  Rupert  about  1,650.  It  is  characterized  by  a  softness  equal 
to  that  of  tne  pencil,  and  a  happy  blending  of  light  and  shade,  and  is 
therefore  peculiarly  adapted  to  portrait,  where  those  requisites  are 
most  essential. 

14.  The  age  of  Leo  X.  was  likewise  an  era  of  very  high  literary 
splendour;  but  of  the  distinguished  writers  of  that  period  we  shall 
afterwards  treat,  in  a  connected  view  of  the  progress  of  literature 
and  the  sciences  during  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries. 


SECTION  XLIV. 
or  THE  OTTOMAN  POWER  IN  THE  SIXTEENTH  CENTURY. 

1.  From  the  period  ol'  the  taking  of  Constantinople,  in  the  middle 
of  the  fifteenth  century,  the  Turks  were  a  great  and  conquering 
people.  In  the  sixteenth  century,  Selim  I.,  after  he  had  subdued 
Syria  and  Mesopotamia,  undertook  the  conquest  of  Egypt,  then  gov- 
erned by  the  Mamelukes,  a  race  of  Circassians,  who  had  seized  the 
country  in  1,250,  and  put  an  end  to  the  government  of  the  Arabian 
princes,  the  posterity  oi  Saladin.  The  conquest  of  Egypt  by  Selim 
made  little  change  in  the  tbrm  of  its  governnjont.  It  professes  to 
own  the  sovereignty  of  the  Turks,  but  is  in  reality  still  governed  by 
the  Mameluke  beys. 

2.  Solyman  (the  magnificent)  son  of  Selim,  was,  like  his  prede- 
cessors, a  great  conqueror.  The  island  of  Rhodes,  possessed  by  the 
knights  of  St.  John,  was  a  darling  object  of  his  ambition.  These 
knights  had  expelled  the  Saracens  from  the  island  in  1,310.  Soly- 
man attacked  Rhodes  with  140,000  men  and  400  ships.  The  Rho- 
dian  knights,  aided  by  the  English,  Italians,  and  Spaniards,  made  a 
noble  defence ;  but,  after  a  siege  of  many  months,  were  forced  to 
oapitulate  and  evacuate  tlie  island,  io  1.522.    Since  that  time  Rhodes 


MODERN  HISTORY.  183 

has  been  the  property  ot"  the  Turks.  The  commercial  laws  of  the 
ancient  Rhodians  were  adopted  by  the  Romans,  and  at  this  day  are 
the  foundation  of  the  maritime  jurisprudence  of  ail  the  nations  of 
Europe<. 

3.  Solyman  subdued  the  greater  part  of  Hungary,  31oldavia,  and 
VValachia;  and  took  from  the  Persians  Georgia  and  Bagdat.  His 
sou  Selim  II.  took  Cyprus  from  the  Venetians  in  1,571.  They  ap- 
phed  to  the  pope  for  aid,  who,  together  with  Philip  11.  of  Spain,  enter- 
ed into  a  triple  alliance  against  the  Ottoman  power.  An  armament  o( 
250  ships  ot  war,  commanded  by  Philip's  natural  brother,  Don  John 
of  Austria,  was  opposed  to  250  Turkish  galhes  in  the  gulf  of  Le- 
panto,  near  Corinth ;  and  the  Turks  were  defeated,  with  the  loss  of 
150  ships  and  15,000  men,  1,571.  This  great  victory  was  soon  after 
followed  by  the  taking  of  Tunis  by  the  same  commander. 

4.  But  these  successes  were  of  little  consequence.  The  Otto- 
min  power  continued  extremely  formidable.  Lnder  Amurath  11.  the 
Turks  made  encroachments  on  Hungary,  and  subdued  a  part  of  Per- 
sia. Mahomet  HI.,  tliough  a  barbarian  in  liis  private  character,  sup- 
ported the  dignity  of  the  empire,  and  extended  its  dominions.  The 
Ottoman  power  declined  from  his  lime,  and  yielded  to  tliat  of  the 
Persians  under  Schah-Abbas  the  great,  who  wrested  from  the  Turks 
a  Lirge  part  of  their  late-acquired  dciuiaioos. 


SECTION  XLV. 

STATE  OE  PERSIA  AND  OTHER   ASIATIC  KINGDOMS  IN  THE 
SIXTEENTH  AND  SEVENTEENTH  CENTURIES. 

1.  The  great  empire  of  Persia,  in  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century, 
underwent  a  revolution  on  account  of  religion.  Haydar  or  Sophi,  a 
religious  enthusiast,  established  a  new  sect  of  Mahometans,  which 
held  Ali  to  be  the  successor  of  Mahomet  instead  of  Omar,  and  abol- 
ished the  pilgrimages  to  iMfjcca.  The  Persians  eagerly  embraced  a 
doctrine  which  distinguished  them  from  their  enemies  the  Turks; 
and  Ismael,  the  sou  of  Sophi,  following  the  example  of  Mahomet, 
enforced  his  opinions  by  the  sword.  He  subdued  all  Persia  and  Ar- 
menia, and  left  this  vast  em{)h"e  to  his  descendants. 

2.  Schah-Abbas,  surnamed  the  great,  was  the  great-grandson  ot 
Ismael  Soi)hi.  He  ruled  his  empire  with  despotic  sway,  but  with 
most  able  policy.  He  regaineci  the  provinces  which  had  been 
taken  by  tlis^  Turks,  and  drove  the  Portuguese  from  their  settlement 
of  Ormuz.  He  rebuilt  the  fallen  cities  of  Persia,  and  contributed 
greatly  to  the  introduction  of  arts  and  civilization.  His  son  Schan- 
Sesi  reigned  weakly  and  untbrtunately.  In  his  time  Schah-Gean,  the 
great  Mogul,  deprived  Persia  of  Candahar;  and  the  Turks  took  Bag- 
dat in  1,6.38.  From  that  period  the  Persian  monarchy  gradually  de- 
cUned.  Its  sovereigns  became  the  most  despicable  slaves  to  their 
own  ministers;  and  a  revolution  in  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth 
century  put  an  end  to  the  dynasty  of  the  Sophis,  and  gave  the  throne 
to  the  Afghan  princes,  a  race  of  Tartars. 

3  The  government  of  Persia  is  almost  as  despotic  as  that  of  Tur- 
key. The  sovereign  draws  a  small  yearly  tax  from  every  subject, 
and  receives  likewise  stated  gifts  on  particular  occasions.  The 
crown  is  hereditary,  with  the  exclusion  of  females ;  but  the  sons  of 


184  MODERN  HISTORY. 

H  daughter  succeed  in  their  course.  There  is  no  other  rank  in  Per- 
sia than  that  annexed  to  office,  which  is  held  during  the  monarch's 
pleasure.  The  national  religion  is  the  Mahometan,  as  reformed  by 
iSophi.  The  sect  ol  the  Guebres  preserve  the  reUgion  of  Zoroaster, 
as  contained  in  the  Zendavesta  and  Sadder,  and  keep  aUve  the  sacred 
fire.  ^Part  I.,  Sect.  XI.) 

4.  The  poetry  of  the  Persians  displays  great  fancy  and  luxuriance 
of  imagery.  I'he  epic  poet  Firdousi  is  said  to  rival  the  various 
merits  ol'  Homer  and  Ariosto ;  and  the  writings  of  badi  and  Haiiez, 
both  in  prose  and  poetry,  are  admired  by  all  vvho  are  conversant  in 
oriental  literature. 

5.  Tartary.  From  this  vast  tract  of  country  sprang  those  con- 
querors who  produced  all  the  great  revolutions  in  Asia.  Tartary  is  no 
more  tJian  a  vast  desert,  inhabited  by  wandering  tribes,  who  follow 
Uie  life  of  the  ancient  Scytluans.  The  Turks,  a  race  of  Tartai"s, 
overwhelmed  the  empire  of  the  caliphs.  Mahmoud,  a  Tartar,  con- 
quered Persia  and  great  part  of  India  in  the  tenth  century.  The 
Tartar  Gengiscan  subdued  India,  China,  Persia,  and  Asiatic  Russia,  in 
the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century,  liatoucan,  one  of  his  sons, 
ravag«l  to  the  frontiers  of  Germany.  Tamerlane,  the  scourge  of 
tfie  Turks,  and  tiie  conqueror  of  a  great  part  of  Asia,  was  of  the 
race  of  Gengiscan.  Babar,  great-grandson  of  Tamerlane,  subdued 
all  the  country  between  Samarcand  and  Agra  in  the  empire  of  tlie 
Mogul.  The  aescendauts  of  those  conijuercrs  reign  in  India,  Persia, 
uiid  China. 

6.  Tliibet.  The  southern  part  of  Tartary,  called  Thibet,  exhibits 
the  phenomenon  of  a  kingdom  governed  by  a  human  being  called 
the  Dalai  Lama,  or  Great  Lama,  whose  divinity  is  acknowledged 
not  oniy  by  his  own  subjects,  but  over  China  and  a  part  of  India. 
This  supposed  god  is  a  young  man,  whom  liie  priests  educate  and 
train  to  Iiis  iunction,  and  in  wiiose  name  they  in  reality  govern  the 
kingdom. 


SECTION  XLVI. 

HISTORY  OF  INDIA. 

1.  The  earliest  accounts  of  this  great  tr.ict  of  civilized  country- 
are  those  of  Herodotus,  who  lived  about  a  century  before  Alexander 
the  great ;  and  it  is  remarkable  that  the  character  given  of  the  people 
by  that  early  writer,  corresponds  perfectly  with  that  cf  the  modern 
Hindoos,  lie  had  probably  taken  bis  accounts  from  Scylax  of  Cari- 
andria.  whom  Darius  Hystaspes  had  sent  to  explore  the  countiy. 
But  till  the  age  of  Alexander,  the  Greeks  had  no  particular  knowl- 
edge of  that  extraordinary  people.  Alexander  penetiated  into  the 
Panwb,  where  his  troops  refusing  to  proceed,  he  embarked  on  the 
Hydaspas,  which  runs  into  the  Indus,  and  thence  pursued  his  course 
for  above  1,000  miles  to  the  ocean.  The  narrative  given  by  Arrian 
of  this  expedition  was  biken  from  the  verbal  accounts  of  Alexander's 
officers ;  and  its  particulars  agree  yet  more  remarkably  than  those  of 
Herodotus  with  the  modern  manners  of  the  Hindoos. 

2.  India  was  visited  by  Seleucus,  to  whose  share  it  fell  in  the  par- 
tition of  Alexander's  empire;  and  Antiochus  the  great,  200  yeaw 


MODERN  HIS'iORY.  186 

afterward,  made  a  short  expedition  thither.  It  is  probable  too  that 
some  small  intercourse  subsisted  between  the  Greek  empire  of  I3ao 
triana  and  India ;  but,  till  the  fifteenth  century,  no  European  power 
thought  of  forming  any  establishment  in  that  country.  Froni  the  age 
ot  Alexander  down  to  the  period  of  the  Portuguese  discoveries  there 
had  constantly  been  some  commercial  intercourse  between  Europe 
and  India,  both  by  sea  and  across  the  desert. 

3.  The  Mahometans,  as  early  as  A.  D.  1,000,  had  begun  to  estab- 
lish an  empire  in  India.  Mahmoud,  a  Tartar,  conquered  a  great 
part  of  the  country,  and  established  his  capital  at  Ghazna,  near  the 
sources  of  the  Indus,  extirpating,  wherever  he  came,  the  Hindoo 
religion,  and  establishing  the  Mahometan  in  its  stead.  Mohammed 
Gori,  in  1,194,  penetrated  to  Benares;  and  one  of  his  successors 
fixed  the  seat  of  his  empire  at  Delhy,  which  has  continued  to  be  the 
capital  of  tlie  Mogul  princes.  The  sovereignty  founded  by  Mah- 
moud was  overwhelmed  in  1,222  by  Gengiscan,  as  was  his  empire  in 
the  following  century  by  Tamerlane,  whose  posterity  are  at  this  day 
on  the  throne  of  the  Mogul  empire. 

4.  The  Mogul  empire  was,  even  in  the  beginning  of  the  18th  cen- 
tury, the  most  powerful  and  liourishing  of  all  the  Asiatic  monarchies. 
The  emperor  Aurengzebe,  the  son  of  Schah-Gean  though  a  mon- 
ster of  cruelly,  and  a  most  despotic  tyrant,  enjoyed  a  life  prolonged 
to  a  hundred  yeai-s,  crowned  with  uninterrupted  prosperity  and  suc- 
cess. Ha  extended  his  empire  over  the  whole  peninsula  of  India 
within  the  Gtuiges. 

5.  Tlie  dominion  of  the  Mogul  is  not  absolute  over  all  the  coun- 
tries which  compose  his  empire.      Tamerlane  allowed  the  petty 

Srinces,  rajahs  or  nabobs,  to  retain  their  territories,  of  which  their 
escendants  are  at  this  day  in  possession.  They  pay  a  tribute  to  the 
great  Mogul,  as  an  acknowledgment  of  his  sovereignty,  and  ob- 
serve the  treaties  agreed  to  by  their  ancestors;  but  they  are  in 
other  respects  independent  princes. 

6.  Bengal  became  a  part  of  the  Mogul's  empire  by  conquest  in  the 
end  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  was  commonly  governed  by  a  son 
of  the  great  Mogul,  who  had  under  him  several  inferior  nabobs,  the 
former  princes  of  the  country.  Such  was  its  condition  when  the 
British  East  India  company,  between  1,751  and  1,760,  conquered  and 
obtained  possession  of  that  kingdom,  together  with  Bahar  and 
part  of  Orissa,  a  large,  populous,  and  most  nourishing  country,  con- 
taining above  ten  millions  of  inhabitants,  and  producing  an  immense 
revenue;  and  these  territories  have  since  that  period  received  a  con- 
siderable addition.  The  East  India  company  has  the  benefit  of  the 
whole  commerce  of  the  Mogul  empire,  with  Arabia,  Persia,  and 
Thibet,  as  well  as  with  the  kingdoms  of  Azem,  Aracan,  Pegu,  Siam, 
Malacca,  China,  and  many  of  the  oriental  islands. 

The  fixed  establishments  of  the  British  in  the  country  of  Indostaa 
have  afforded  opportunity  of  obtaining  much  instructive  knowledge 
relative  to  the  ancient  state  of  that  country,  of  which  we  shaU  give 
a  short  sketch  in  the  following  section. 

Q2  24 


186  MODERN  UiSrvr-.^. 


SECTION  XLVIl 

ANCIENT    STATE    OF    INDIA.       MANNERS,    LAWS,    ARTS, 
SCIENCES,  AND  RELIGION  OF  THE  HINDOOS. 

1.  The  remains  of  the  ancient  knowledge  of  the  Hindoos  have 
been  preserved  by  a  hereditary  priesthood,  in  the  Sanscrit  language, 
long  since  extinct,  and  only  known  to  a  tew  of  the  Bramins.  The 
zeal  of  some  learned  Europeans  has  ktely  opened  that  source  of  in- 
formation, whence  we  derive  the  most  interesting  particulars  of  this 
extraordinary  people,  perhaps  the  tirst  cultivatoi-s  of  the  sciences, 
and  the  instructers  of  all  the  nations  of  antiquity.  We  shall  briefly 
notice  their  singular  division  ii  to  casts,  their  civil  policy,  laws,  prog- 
ress in  the  arts  and  sciences,  and  religion. 

2.  The  whole  body  of  the  people  was  divided  into  four  orders,  or 
casts.  The  highest  cast,  that  of  the  Bramins,  was  devoted  to  rehgion 
and  the  cultivation  of  the  sciences ;  to  the  second  belonged  the  pres- 
ervation of  the  sttite ;  they  were  its  sovereigns  and  its  magistrates 
in  peace,  and  its  soldiers  in  war ;  the  third  were  the  husbandmen  and 
merchants;  and  the  fourth  the  artisans,  labourers,  and  servants. 
These  are  inseparable  distinctions,  and  descend  from  generation  to 
generation.  Moreover,  the  individuals  of  each  class  follow  invariably 
the  professions  of  their  forefathers.  Every  man,  from  his  birth, 
ksiows  the  function  allotted  to  him,  and  fulfils  with  ease  and  satisfac- 
tion the  duty  which  he  cannot  avoid.  Hence  arises  that  permanence 
of  manners  and  institutions  which  so  singularly  characterizes  this 
ancient  nation. 

3.  This  classification  is  an  artificial  arrangement,  which  could  have 
originated  only  from  the  mind  of  a  legislator  among  a  polished  peo- 
ple, completely  obedient  to  government.  It  is  therefore  a  prooi'  of 
the  highly  civilized  state  of  the  Hindoo  nation  in  the  most  remote 
peritAls  of  antiquity. 

4.  The  civil  policy  of  the  Hindoos  is  another  proof  of  their  ancient 
civiiization.  At  the  time  of  Alexander  the  great,  India  was  divided 
into  large  and  powerful  kingdoms,  governed  by  sovereigns  whose  do- 
minion was  not  absolute,  but  controlled  by  the  superior  authority  of 
the  Bramins.  A  system  of  feudalism  has  ever  prevailed  in  India. 
The  rights  to  land  flow  from  the  sovereign,  to  whom  a  certain  duty 
is  payable  by  the  classof  the  husbandmen,  who  transmit  their  posses- 
sions to  their  cniidren  under  the  same  tenure.  Strabo  and  Diodorus 
remarked  three  classes  of  officers  among  the  Indians :  one  class  whose 
department  was  the  regulation  of  agriculture,  tanks,  highways; 
another  which  superintended  the  police  of  the  cities  ;  a  third  which 
regulated  the  military  department.  The  same  policy  prevails  at  this 
day  under  the  Hindoo  princes. 

5.  The  jurisprudence  of  Hindostan  is  an  additional  proof  of  great 
antiquity  and  civilization.  The  Ayen-Akbery,  and  still  more  the 
compilation  of  Hindoo  laws  from  the  ancient  Sanscrit  records,  made 
by  order  of  Mr,  Hastings,  contain  the  jurisprudence  of  a  refined  and 
rommercial  people,  among  whom  law  had  been  a  study  and  profea- 
sjf>n 

6.  Many  monuments  exist  in  India  of  the  advanced  state  of  the  us&. 
f  ii  and  eieg«nt  arts  in  the  remotest  periods  of  antiquity.  The  an- 
ciettt  pagr^ad,  of  vast  extent  and  magnificence,  whether  c«t  is  the 


MODERN  HISTORY.  187 

solid  rock,  as  in  Elephanta  and  Salsette,  or  in  the  open  air,  as  at 
Chilarabrum  and  Seringham ;  the  sumptuous  residences  of  the  Bra- 
mins ;  and  the  ancient  hill  fortresses,  constructed  with  prodigious 
strength  and  solidity,  evince  a  great  advancement  in  the  arts.  The 
resort  of  the  most  polished  nations  of  antiquity  to  India  for  cotton 
cloths,  fine  linen,  and  works  in  metal  and  ivory,  proves  these  manu 
factures  to  have  been  superior  to  all  known  at  that  time  in  Europe. 
■  7.  The  late  translations  from  the  Sanscrit  of  several  ingtjnious 
compositions  of  high  antiquity,  as  the  dramatic  piece  Sacontaia,  the 
liilnpadesa^  a  series  of  moral  apologues  and  fables,  the  Alaluibarat, 
an  epic  poem,  composed  above  2,00U  years  before  the  Christian  era, 
all  concur  in  proof  of  a  similar  advancement  in  iiterature.  We  have 
reason  to  believe  from  such  works  as  are  of  a  philosophical  nature, 
that  th^re  is  scarcely  a  tenet  of  the  Greek  philosophy  which  has  not 
been  antecedently  the  subjoci  of  discussion  among  the  Bramins  of 
India. 

8.  The  numeral  ciphers  first  introduced  into  Europe  by  the  Ara- 
bians were,  as  those  authors  confess,  borrowed  from  the  Indians. 
Above  a  century  ago,  the  French  mathematicians  evinced,  by  tha 
evidence  of  a  Siamese  manuscript,  containing  tables  for  calculating 
the  places  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  the  astonishing  advancement 
made  by  this  ancient  people  in  the  science  of  astronomy.  A  set  of 
astronomical  tables  obtained  lately  from  the  Bramias  by  M.  Geftiii 
goes  back  to  an  era  termed  Calyoug/mm,  commencing  3,1U2  years 
belbre  the  birth  of  Christ.  These  tables  are  used  by  the  modex'n 
Bramins,  who  are  quite  ignorant  of  the  principles  on  which  they 
have  been  constructed.  M.  Bailly  has  proved  that  they  are  the 
same  as  those  employed  by  the  moderns,  with  which  the  Greeks  and 
Cnaldeans  were  utterly  unacquainted. 

9.  Lastly,  from  tlie  religious  opinions  and  worship  of  the  Hindoos 
we  must  draw  the  same  conclusion  as  from  all  the  preceding  facts. 
One  uniform  system  of  superstition  pervades  every  religion  of  India, 
which  is  supported  by  the  most  sagacious  policy,  and  by  every  thing 
tirat  can  excite  the  veneration  of  its  votaries,  'ihe  Bramins,  elevat- 
ed above  every  class  ot  men,  and  exclusively  acquainted  with  the 
mysteries  of  that  religion,  which  it  is  held  impious  for  any  other  class 
to  attempt  to  penetrate ;  the  implicit  reliance  on  the  authority  of 
these  Bramins ;  the  ceremonies  of  their  worship,  adapted  to  im- 
press the  imagination  and  to  aflect  the  ptissions ;  all  concurred  to  forti- 
fy this  potent  superstition,  and  to  give  its  priests  a  supreme  ascen- 
dancy over  the  minds  of  the  people.  But  those  priests,  enlightened 
as  they  were,  rejected  that  false  theology.  Their  writings  demon- 
strate that  they  entertained  rational  and  elevated  conceptions  with 
regard  to  the  Supreme  Being,  and  the  support  of  the  universe. 

10.  On  the  whole,  there  is  a  high  probability  that  India  was  the 
great  school  from  which  the  most  early  polished  nations  of  Europe 
derived  their  knowledge  of  arts,  sciences,  and  literature. 

Persons  who  want  more  particular  intbrmation  respecting  India 
are  referred  to  Maurice's  Indian  Antiquities,  and  Tennant's  Indian 
Recreations. 


188  MODERN  HISTORY 


SECTION  XLVIU. 

or  CHINA  AND  JAPAN. 

1.  As  we  proceed  eastward  in  the  survey  of  the  Asiatic  continent, 
the  great  empire  of  China  next  solicits  our  attention.  In  the  end  of 
the  tenth  century,  China,  Persia,  and  the  greater  part  of  India  were 
ruled  by  the  Tartar  descendants  of  Gengiscan.  The  Tartar  family 
of  Yven,  who  conqtiered  China,  made  no  change  in  its  laws  and  sys- 
tem of  government,  which  had  been  permanent  from  time  immemo- 
rial. Of  this  family  there  reigned  nine  successive  monarchs,  without 
any  attempt  by  the  Chines'^  to  throw  off  the  Tartar  yoke.  The 
odious  and  contemptible  character  of  the  last  of  these  sovereigns  at 
length  excited  a  rebellion,  which,  in  1,357,  drove  the  Tartars  from 
the  throne ;  and  the  Chinese,  for  276  years,  obeyed  their  native 
princes.  The  Tartars,  taking  advantage  of  an  insurrection  in  one  of 
the  provinces,  invaded  China  in  1,641,  and  made  an  easy  conquest 
The  emperor  shut  himself  up  in  his  palace,  and,  after  putting  to 
death  all  his  family,  finished  the  scene  by  hanging  himself  Ihe 
sa?.ie  Tartars  occupy  the  throne  of  China  at  this  day,  and  observe 
tlie  same  wise  policy  of  maintaining  inviolate  the  Chinese  laws,  poli- 
cy, and  manners.  01  these  we  shall  give  a  brief  account  in  the  sub- 
sequent section. 

2.  The  empire  of  Japan  was  discovered  by  the  Portuguese  about 
the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century.  The  open  and  unsuspicious 
character  of  this  industrious  and  polished  people  led  them  to  en- 
courage the  resort  of  foreigners  to  their  ports ;  and  the  Spaniards, 
after  they  had  obtained  the  sovereignty  of  Portugal,  carried  on  a 
most  beneficial  trade  to  the  coasts  of  Japan.  The  emperor  zeal- 
ously promoted  this  intercourse,  till  the  insatiable  ambition  of  the 
Spaniards  gave  him  alarming  conviction  of  its  danger.  Under  the 
pretence  of  converting  the  Japanese  from  idolatry,  a  vast  number 
of  priests  was  sent  into  the  country ;  and  one  half  of  the  people 
were  speedily  set  at  mortal  variance  with  the  other.  It  now  be- 
came necessary  to  prohibit  this  work  of  conversion  by  an  imperial 
edict  However  a  free  trade  was  allowed  till  1,637,  when  a  con- 
spiracy of  the  Spaniards  for  dethroning  the  emperor  and  seizing  the 
government  was  discovered.  An  edict  was  issued  for  the  expulsion 
of  all  the  Spaniards  and  Portuguese,  who  resisted  till  they  were 
overpowered  by  force  of  arms.  Since  that  period  all  the  European 
nations  have  been  excluded  from  the  ports  of  Japan.  The  Dutch 
only,  who  had  been  the  discoverers  of  the  conspiracy  of  the  Span- 
iards, are  allowed  the  privilege  of  landing  on  one  of  the  small  islands, 
for  the  purposes  of  trade,  alter  making  oath  that  they  are  not  of  the 
Portuguese  rehgion. 


MODEIiN  HISTORY.  189 


SECTION  XLiy 

OF  THE  ANTIQUITY  OF  THE  EMPIRE  OF  CHINA.  STATE 
OF  THE  ARTS  AND  SCIENCES,  MANNERS,  GOVERNMENT, 
LAWS. 

1 .  The  antiquity  of  this  vast  empire,  and  the  state  of  its  govern 
ment,  laws,  manners,  and  altaiuments  in  the  arts  and  sciences,  have 
furnished  an  ample  lield  of  controversy.  Voltaire,  Ilaynal,  and  other 
writeis  have  ^iven  to  the  Chinese  empire  an  immense  antiquity,  and 
a  character  ot  such  high  civilization  and  knowledge  of  the  sciences 
and  arts  at  a  very  remote  period,  as  to  be  utterly  irreconcilable  to  the 
state  and  progress  of  man  as  described  in  tlie  books  of  Moses.  On 
the  other  hand,  it  is  probable  that  the  desire  of  invaUdating  those 
opinions  has  induced  other  writers  of  ability  to  go  to  an  opposite  ex- 
treme ;  to  undervalue  this  singular  people,  and  to  give  too  little 
weight  to  any  accounts  which  we  have  received  either  of  the  dura- 
tion of  their  empire,  of  the  economy  of  their  government  and  police, 
or  of  their  attainments  in  the  arts  and  sciences.  Amidst  this  contra- 
riety of  sentiments  we  shall  endeavour  to  form  such  opinion  as  a^' 
peal's  most  consonant  to  the  truth. 

2.  The  panegyrists  of  the  Chinese  assert  that  their  empire  has 
subsisted  above  4,000  years,  without  any  material  alteration  in  its 
iaws,  manners,  language,  Cr  CVC!:  Jlti^hhr.:  cf  iire»s:  in  evidence  of 
which  they  appeal  to  a  series  of  eclipses,  marking  contemporary 
events,  alt  accurately  calculated,  for  2,165  years  before  the  birth  of 
Christ.  As  it  is  easy  to  calculate  eclipses  backwards  from  the  pres- 
ent day  to  any  given  period  of  time,  it  is  thus  possible  to  give  to  a 
history,  fictitious  from  beginning  to  end,  its  chronology  of  real 
eclipses.  This  proof  therefore  amounts  to  nothing,  unless  it  were 
likewise  proved  that  all  those  eclipses  were  actually  recorded  at  the 
time  when  they  happened ;  but  this  neither  has  been  nor  can  be 
done  ;  for  it  is  an  allowed  fact,  that  there  are  no  regular  historical 
records  beyond  the  third  century  before  the  christian  era.  The 
present  Chinese  are  utterly  ignorant  o^'  the  motions  of  the  celestial 
bodies,  and  cannot  calculate  eclipses.  The  series  mentioned  has 
therefore  in  all  probabiUty  been  calculated  by  some  of  the  Jesuits, 
to  ingratiate  themselves  with  the  emperors,  and  flatter  the  national 
vanity.  The  Jesuits  have  presided  in  the  tribunal  of  mathematics 
for  above  2'JO  years. 

3.  But  if  the  authentic  annals  of  this  empire  go  back  even  to  the 
third  century  before  Christ,  and  record  at  that  time  a  high  state  of 
civilization,  we  must  allow  tnat  the  Chinese  are  an  ancient  and  early 
polished  people,  and  that  they  have  possessed  a  singular  constancy 
in  their  government,  laws,  and  manners.  Sir  William  Jones,  no 
bigoted  encomiast  of  this  people,  allows  their  great  antiquity  and 
early  civilization,  and,  with  much  apparent  probability,  traces  their 
origin  from  the  Hindoos.  He  appeals  to  the  ancient  Sanscript  records, 
which  mention  a  migration  of  certain  of  the  military  class  termed 
Chinas.,  from  India  to  the  countries  east  from  Bengal.  The  stationa- 
ry condition  of  the  arts  and  sciences  in  China  proves  that  they  have 
not  originated  with  that  people  :  and  many  peculiarities  of  the  man- 
ners, institutions,  and  popular  religion  ol  the  Chinese,  have  a  near 
affinity  to  those  of  the  Hiadoos. 


190  MODERN  HISTORY. 

4.  The  government  of  China  is  that  of  an  absolute  monarchy. 
The  patriarchal  system  pervades  the  whole,  and  binds  all  the  mem- 
bers of  this  vast  empire  in  the  strictest  subordination.  Every  father 
is  absolute  in  his  family,  and  may  inflict  any  punishment  short  of 
death  up6n  his  cliildren.  The  mandarin  of  the  district  is  absolute, 
with  the  power  of  life  and  death  over  all  its  members;  but  a  capital 
sentence  cannot  be  inflicted  without  the  emperor's  approbation. 
The  emperor's  power  is  absolute  over  all  the  mandarins,  and  every 
subject  of  the  empire.  To  reconcile  the  people  to  this  despotic 
authority,  the  sovereign  alone  is  entitled  to  relieve  the  wants  of  the 
poor,  and  to  compe.isate  public  calamities,  as  well  as  the  misfortunes 
of  individuals.  He  is  therefore  regarded  as  the  father  of  his  people, 
and  even  adored  as  a  benevolent  divinity. 

5.  Another  circ  jmstimce  which  conciliates  the  people  to  their 
government  ig,  that  all  honoirs  in  China  are  conferred  according  to 
mj-rit,  and  that  chiefly  literary.  The  civil  mandarins,  who  are  the 
migistrates  and  judges,  are  appointed  to  office  according  to  their 
measure  of  knowledge  and  mental  endowments.  No  office  or  rank 
is  hereditary,  l)ut  niay  be  aspired  to  by  the  meanest  of  the  people. 
The  penal  laws  of  China  are  remarkably  severe ;  but  their  execu- 
tion may  be  remitted  by  the  emperor.  The  judicial  tribunals  are 
regulated  by  a  body  of  written  laws  of  great  antiquity,  and  founded 
on  the  basis  of  universal  justice  and  equity.  The  emperor's  opinion 
rifely  differs  from  the  sentences  of  those  courts.  One  tribunal 
judges  of  the  qualitications  of  the  mandarins ;  another  regulates  the 
morals  of  the  peoiii;^,  hirJ  the  ii;tiionai  mtitiners ;  a  third  is  the  tribu- 
nal of  censors,  which  reviews  the  laws,  the  conduct  of  the  magis- 
trates and  judges,  and  even  that  of  the  emperor  himself  These  tri- 
bunals are  tilled  by  an  equal  number  of  Chinese  and  Tartars. 

6.  It  has  been  observed  that  the  sciences  have  been  stationary  in 
this  empire  for  many  ages.  They  are  at  this  day  extremely  low, 
though  far  beyond  the  attainments  of  a  barbarous  people.  The 
language  of  China  seems  to  oppose  the  prosecution  of  sjieculaiive 
rcstjarches.  It  has  no  regular  inflections,  and  can  with  difficulty 
express  abstract  ideas.  iVe  have  remarked  the  ignorance  of  the 
Cliinese  in  mathematics  and  astronomy.  Of  physics  they  have  no 
acquaintance  beyond  the  knowledge  of  apparent  facts.  Tney  never 
ascend  to  principles,  nor  form  theories.  Their  knowledge  of  medi- 
cine is  extremely  limited,  and  is  blended  with  the  most  contemptible 
superstition.  Of  arjatomy  they  know  next  to  nothing ;  and  in  sur- 
gery they  have  never  ventured  to  amputate  a  limb,  nor  to  reduce  a 
fracture. 

7.  The  state  of  the  useful  and  elegant  arts  has  been  equally  sta- 
tionary as  that  of  the  sciences.  Many  ages  ago  they  had  attained 
a  certain  point  of  advancement,  which  they  have  never  exceeded. 
The  Chinese  are  s;iid  to  have  manufactured  glass  for  2,000  years ; 
yet  at  this  day  it  is  inferior  in  transparency  to  the  European,  and  is 
not  u«ed  in  their  windows.    They  are  reported  to  have  known  gun- 

{)owder  from  time  immemorial ;  but  they  never  employed  it  in  artil- 
ery  or  tire-arms  till  they  were  taught  by  the  Europeans.  They  are 
said  to  have  invented  printing  in  the  age  of  Julius  Caesar,  yet  they 
know  not  the  use  of  moveable  types,  and  print  from  blocks  of  wood. 
When  first  shown  the  use  of  the  compass  in  sailing,  they  afliTrmed 
that  they  were  well  acquainted  with  it,  but  found  no  occasion  to  em- 
ploy it.  The  art  of  painting  in  China  is  mere  mechanical  imitation, 
without  grace,  expression,  or  even  accuracy  of  proportions.    Of  the 


MODERN  HISTORY,  191 

niles  of  perspective  they  have  not  the  smallest  idea.  In  sculpture, 
a?  in  the  figures  of  thtir  idols,  the  Chinese  artists  seem  to  delight  in 
distortion  and  deformity.  Tlieir  music  is  not  regulated  by  any  prin- 
ciples of  science.  They  have  no  semitones,  and  their  instruments 
are  imperfect  and  untunable.  The  Chinese  architecture  has  variety, 
lightness,  and  sometimes  elegance ;  but  hiis  no  grandeur,  nor  sym- 
metrical beauty. 

8.  In  some  of  the  arts  the  Chinese  have  attained  great  excellence. 
In  China  agriculture  is  carried  to  the  highest  pitch  of  improvement. 
There  is  not  a  spot  of  waste  land  in  the  whole  empire,  nor  any  lan^ 
which  is  not  highly  cultivated.  The  emperor  himself  is  the  cliiet 
of  the  husbandmen,  and  annually  holds  the  plough  with  his  own 
hands.  From  the  high  state  of  agriculture,  and  the  modes  ol 
economizing  food,  is  supported  the  astonishing  population  of  333^ 
millions,  or  26U  inhabitants  to  every  square  mile  of  the  empire. 
The  gardening  of  tlie  Chinese,  and  their  admirable  eml>ellishniont 
of  rural  nature,  have  of  late  been  the  obj'ct  of  imitation  in  Lurope, 
bdt  with  far  inferior  success.  The  manul'acture  of  porcelain  i?  an 
original  invention  of  this  people ;  and  the  Europeans,  though  ex- 
celling them  in  the  form  and  ornament^of  the  utensils,  have  never 
been  able  to  attain  the  excollence  of  the  material. 

9.  The  morals  of  the  Chinese  have  furnisiied  a  subject  both  of 
praise  and  censure.  The  books  of  Confucius  are  said  to  contain  nn 
admirable  system  of  morality.  But  the  principles  of  n)orals  have 
their  foundation  in  human  nature,  and  must,  in  theory,  be  every 
where  the  same.  The  moral  virtues  of  a  people  are  not  to  be  esti- 
mated from  the  books  of  their  philosophers,  ft  is  probable  that  the 
manners  of  the  superior  classes  are  in  China,  as  elsewhere,  much 
influenced  by  education  and  example.  The  morals  of  the  lower 
classes,  are  said  to  be  extremely  loose,  and  their  practices  most  dis- 
honest. They  are  regulated  by  no  principle  but  seliish  interest, 
and  restrained  only  by  the  fear  of  punishment. 

10.  The  religion  of  the  Chinese  is  dillerent  in  the  different  ranks 
of  society.  There  is  no  religion  of  the  state.  The  emperor  and 
the  higher  mandarins  profess  the  belief  of  one  Supreme  Being, 
Changti,  whom  they  worship  by  prayer  and  thanksgiving,  without 
any  mixture  of  idolatrous  practices.  They  respect  the  lama  of 
Thibet  as  the  high-priest  or  prophet  of  this  religion.  A  prevalent 
sect  is  that  ofTao-sse,  who  believe  in  the  power  of  magic,  the  agency 
of  spirits,  and  liie  divination  of  future  events.  A  third  is  the  sect  of 
To,  derived  from  India,  whose  priests  are  the  Bonzes,  and  whose 
fundamental  doctrine  is,  that  all  things  rose  out  of  nothing,  and  must 
finally  return  to  nothing;  that  all  animals  are  first  to  undergo  a  series 
of  transmigrations ;  and  that  as  man's  chief  happiness  is  to  approach 
as  near  as  possible  to  a  state  of  annihilation  in  this  life,  absolute  idle 
ness  is  more  laudable  than  occupation  of  any  kind.  A  variety  of 
hideous  idols  is  worshipped  by  this  sect. 

11.  The  Chinese  have  their  sacred  books  entitled  ^in^s ;  as  the 
Yking^  Chouking.  &.C. ;  which,  among  some  good  moral  precepts,  con- 
tain much  mystery,  childish  superstition,  and  absurdity.  These  are 
chiefly  resorted  to  for  the  divining  of  future  events,  which  seems  the 
ultimatwn  of  research  among  the  Chinese  philosophers.  The  obser- 
vation of  the  heavenly  bodies  is  made  for  that  purpose  alone.  The 
changes  of  weather,  the  performance  or  omission  of  certain  cere- 
monies, the  occurrence  of  certain  events  in  particular  times  and 
places,  are  all  believed  to  have  tiieir  influence  on  futurity,  and  are 


192  MODERN  HISTORY. 

therefore  carefully  observed  and  recorded.  The  rules  by  which 
those  omens  are  intrrpreted  are  .said  to  have  been  prescribed  by  the 
great  Confucius,  the  father  of  the  Chinese  philosophy,  500  years  be- 
fore the  christian  era. 

12.  We  conchide,  on  the  whole,  that  the  Chinese  are  a  very  re- 
markable people ;  that  their  government,  laws,  pohcy,  and  knowl- 
edge of  the  arts  and  sciences,  exhibit  unquestionable  proofs  of  great 
antiquity  and  early  civilization;  that  the  extraordinary  measure  of 
duration  assigned  to  their  empire  by  some  modern  writers  rests  on 
no  solid  proofs ;  that  their  government,  laws,  manners,  arts,  and 
scientific  attainments,  are  not  deserving  of  that  superlative-  praise 
which  has  been  bestowed  on  them. 


SECTION  L. 

M.  BAILLY'S  THEORY    OF   THE   ORIGIN    OF   THE    SCIENCES 
AMONG  THE  NATIONS  OF  INDIA. 

1.  The  striking  resem!)lance  in  many  points  of  character  between 
the  Chinese  and  the  ancient  Egyptians,  has  led  to  the  conjecture, 
either  that  they  were  originally  the  same  people,  one  being  a  col- 
ony of  the  other,  or  have  had,  at  some  remote  period,  such  inter- 
course, either  by  conquest  or  by  commerce,  as  to  occasion  a  recipio- 
cal  communicationof  manners  and  the  knowledge  of  arts  and  sciences. 
M.  de  Mairan  has  remarked  the  following  points  of  similarity.  The 
Egyptians  and  the  Chinese  had  the  same  permanence  of  manners, 
and  abhorrence  of  innovations;  they  wore  alike  remarkable  for  the 
respect  entertained  by  children  to  their  parents;  they  were  equally 
averse  to  war;  they  had  the  same  general  superficial  knowledge  oV 
the  arts  and  sciences,  without  the  al.ility  to  make  great  attainments ; 
they  both,  in  the  most  ancient  times,  u-^ed  hieroglyphics  ;  the  Egyp- 
tians had  a  solemn  festival,  called  the  fea^''  of  (bA  lights;  the  Chint  se 
have  theycas^  of  the  lanterns :  the  features  of  the  Chinese  are  said  to 
resemble  the  ancient  Egyptian  statues  ;  certain  characters  engraven 
on  an  Egyptian  bust  of  Isis  were  found  to  belong  to  the  Chinese  lan- 
guage. 

2.  M.  Bailly  has  taken  a  wider  range  of  observation,  and  from  a 
review  of  the  manners,  customs,  opinions,  and  attainments  of  the 
Indians,  Persians,  Chinese,  Chaldeans,  and  Egyptians,  has  discovered 
many  circumstances  of  similarity  between  all  those  nations,  equally 
remarkable  as  the  foregoing.  He  has  thence  fbrmed  the  singular 
hypothesis,  that  the  knowledge  common  to  all  those  nations  has  been 
derived  from  the  same  original  source,  a  most  ancient  and  highly 
cultivated  people  of  Asia,  of  which  e\  ery  trace  is  now  extinct.  If  we 
find,  says  he,  in  the  scattered  huts  of  peasants,  fragments  interspersed 
©f  sculptured  columns,  we  conclude  ibr  certain  that  they  are  not  the 
work  of  the  rude  peasants  who  reared  those  huts,  but  that  they  are 
the  remains  of  a  magnificent  building,  the  Avork  of  able  architects, 
though  we  discover  no  other  traces  of  the  existence  of  that  building, 
and  cannot  ascertain  its  precise  situation. 

3.  The  sciences  and  arts  of  the  Chinese  have  been  stationary  for 
2,000  years.  The  people  seem  never  to  have  availed  themselves 
of  the  Ughts  of  their  ancestors.  They  are  like  the  inhabitants  of  a 
OBuntry  recently  discovered  by  a  polished  people,  who  have  taught 


MODERN  HISTORY. 

them  some  of  their  arts,  and  left  their  instruments  among  them. 
The  knowledge  which  they  possess,  seems  to  have  been  imported, 
and  not  of  original  growth,  for  it  has  never  been  progressive. 

4.  The  Chaldeans  were  an  enlightened  people  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  Babylonish  empire,  2,(XK),  years  before  the  Christian  era. 
They  were  astronomers,  and  understood  the  revolutions  of  the  ce- 
lestial bodies.  The  Chaldeans  were  probably  the  remains  of  this 
ancient  people.  The  Bramins  of  India  believe  in  the  unity  of  God, 
and  the  immortality  of  the  soul ;  but  with  these  sublime  tenets  they 
intermix  childish  absurdities.  They  derived  the  former  from  wise 
iustructers ;  the  latter  were  the  fruit  of  their  own  ignorance.  The 
Sanscrit,  a  copious  and  elegant  language,  and  the  vehicle  of  all  the 
Indian  knowledge  and  philosophy,  has  been  a  dead  tongue  for  thou- 
sands of  years,  and  is  mtelligible  only  to  a  few  of  the  Bramins.  It 
was  probably  the  language  of  that  great  ancient  people. 

5.  The  coincidence  or  similarity  of  customs  concurs  to  establish 
the  belief  of  an  original  nation.  The  custom  of  libation  was  com- 
mon to  the  Tartars  and  Chinese,  and  to  the  Greeks  and  Romans. 
All  the  Asiatic  nations  had  festivals  of  the  nature  of  the  Roman  satur- 
nalia. The  tradition  of  the  deluge  is  diffused  among  all  those  nations. 
The  tradition  of  the  giants  attacking  heaven  is  equally  general. 
The  doctrine  of  the  metempsychosis  was  common  to  the  Egyptians, 
Greeks,  Indians,  Persians,  Tartarians,  and  Chinese.  The  religion  of 
all  those  nations  is  founded  on  the  profound  but  erroneous  doctrine 
of  the  two  principles,  a  universal  soul  pervading  all  nature,  and 
inert  matter  on  which  it  acts.  A  conformity  in  a  true  doctrine  is  no 
proof  of  mutual  communication  or  concert;  but  it  is  ingeniously  re- 
marked, that  a  conformity  in  a  false  doctrine  comes  very  near  to  such 
a  proof 

6.  The  Egyptians,  Chaldeans,  Indians,  Persians,  and  Chinese,  all 
placed  tlieir  temples  fronting  the  east,  to  receive  the  first  rays  of  the 
sun.  Hence  the  worship  of  the  sun  has  been  the  religion  of  the  an- 
cient people  from  which  these  are  descended.  All  these  nations  had 
a  cycle,  or  period  of  sixty  years,  for  regulating  their  chronology. 
They  all  divided  the  circle  into  360  degrees ;  the  zodiac  into  twelve 
signs ;  and  the  week  into  seven  days.  The  Chinese,  Indians,  and 
Egyptians  designed  the  seven  days  of  the  week  by  the  names  of  the 
seven  planets  ranged  in  the  same  order.  The  long  measures  of  the 
ancient  nations  had  all  one  common  origin. 

7.  These  singular  coincidences,  says  M.  Bailly,  can  be  explained 
only  upon  three  suppositions  :  1,  that  there  was  a  free  communica- 
tion between  all  those  ancient  nations ;  2,  that  those  circumstances 
of  coincidence  are  so  founded  in  human  nature,  that  the  most  un- 
connected nations  could  not  fail  to  hit  upon  them ;  or,  3,  that  they 
have  been  all  derived  from  a  common  source.  He  rejects  the  two 
former  suppositions,  as  contrary,  in  his  opinion,  to  fact,  and  adopts 
the  last. 

8.  The  pi'ecise  situation  of  this  great  ancient  people,  M.  Bailly  does 
not  pretend  to  fix  with  certainty ;  but  offers  probable  reasons  for 
conjecturing  that  it  was  about  the  49th  or  50th  degree  of  north  lati- 
tude, in  the  southern  regions  of  Siberia.  Many  of  the  European 
and  Asiatic  nations  attribute  their  origin  to  that  quarter,  which  thence 
appears  to  have  been  extremely  populous.  Nitre,  a  production 
from  animal  substances,  is  more  abundant  there  than  in  any  other 
region.  The  observations  of  the  rising  of  the  stars,  collected  by 
Ptolemy,  must  have  been  made  in  a  climate  where  the  longest  day 

R  25 


194  MODERN  HISTORY . 

was  sixteen  hours,  which  corresponds  to  the  latitude  of  50  degrees. 
No  European  nation  in  that  latitude  understood  astronomy  in  those 
early  periods.  The  veneration  of  the  Indians  and  Chinese  for  the 
Lama  of  Thibet  is  a  proof  that  the  religion  of  those  nations  original 
ed  in  that  quarter. 

9.  But  does  that  region  exhibit  any  traces  of  having  been  ever 
inhabited  by  a  polished  people  ?  Here  the  theory  of  M.  Bailly  seems 
to  be  least  supported  by  proof  He  observes,  that  ancient  mines 
have  been  discovered  in  those  parts  of  Silperia,  which  have  been 
wrought  to  great  extent  in  a  period  beyond  all  record  or  tradition; 
that  ancient  sepulchres  have  been  found,  in  which  there  were  orna- 
ments of  gold  of  skilful  workmanship ;  but  the  facts  specified  are  so 
few  as  to  warrant  no  positive  inference. 

10.  This  theory  is  an  amusing  specimen  of  the  author's  ingenu- 
ity ;  but  it  has  not  the  force  to  draw  our  assent  to  his  conclusions. 
We  have  noticed  it  as  specifying  many  curious  facts  relative  to  the 
manners  and  attainments  of  the  ancient  nations,  and  as  furnishing 
strong  evidence  of  the  common  origin  of  manldnd.  The  nations 
above  mentioned,  though  many  of  them  remote  from  one  another, 
were  all  connected,  as  links  ot  a  chain,  by  proximity ;  whence  it  is 
easy  to  conceive  that  knowledge  should  diverge  from  a  centre  to 
a  very  distant  circumference.  M.  Bailly  has  given  no  reasonable 
ground  for  fixing  that  centre  in  the  position  wliich  he  has  assigned 
to  it. 

SECTION  LI. 

REIGjN  OF  PHILIP  II.  OF  SPAIN.  REVOLUTION  OF  THE 
NETHERLANDS  AND  ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  REPUBLIC 
OF  HOLLAND. 

1.  After  a  short  survey  of  the  Asiatic  kingdoms,  we  return  to  the 
history  of  Europe  in  the  sixteenth  century. 

In  the  time  of  Philip  II.,  the  successor  of  Charles  V.,  the  balance 
of  povver  in  Europe  was  sustained  by  Spain,  France,  England,  and 
Germany,  all  at  this  time  highly  flourishing  and  respectable,  either 
from  the  talents  of  their  sovereigns,  or  their  internal  strength.  Eliz- 
abeth, Henry  11.,  and  Philip  II.,  were  all  acute  and  able  poHticians; 
though  the  policy  of  Philip  partook  more  of  selfish  craft,  and  had 
less  of  the  manly  and  heroic,  than  that  of  either  of  his  rival  mon- 
archs.  Philip  was  at  this  time  sovereign  of  Spain,  the  Two  Sicilies, 
Milan,  and  the  Netherlands.  He  had  likewise,  for  a  kw  years,  the 
power  of  England  at  his  command,  by  his  marriage  with  Mary,  the 
elder  sister  and  predecessor  of  Elizabeth. 

2.  Pope  Paul  IV.,  jealous  of  the  power  of  Philip,  formed  an  alli- 
ance with  Henry  U.  of  France  to  deprive  the  Spaniards  of  Milan 
and  the  Two  Sicilies.  Philip,  with  the  aid  of  the  English,  defeated 
the  French  at  St.  Quintin  in  ricardy,  and  hoped  from  this  signal  vic- 
tory, to  force  the  allies  into  a  peace  ;  but  the  duke  of  Guise  recov 
ered  the  spirits  of  the  French,  by  the  taking  of  Calais  Hvcm  the  Eng- 
lish, which  they  had  now  possessed  for  two  hundred  years.  Anoth- 
er great  victory,  however,  obtained  by  Philip  near  Gravelines, 
brought  on  the  treaty  of  Catteau-Cambrosis  in  1 ,559,  by  which  the- 
jf  rench  surrendered  to  Spain  no  less  thau  eighty-nine  fortified  towns 
in  the  Low  Countries  and  in  Italy. 


MODERN  HISTORY.  195 

3.  Philip,  now  at  ease  from  foreign  disturbances,  began  to  be  dis- 
quieted on  the  score  of  religion.  An  intolerant  bigot  by  nature,  he 
resolved  to  extirpate  every  species  of  heresy  from  his  dominions. 
The  Netherlands,  an  assemblage  of  separate  states,  were  all  subject 
to  Philip,  under  various  titles;  and  he  had  conferred  the  government 
of  Holland,  Zealand,  Friesland,  and  Utrecht,  on  William,  prince  of 
Orange,  a  count  of  the  German  empire.  The  Lutheran  and  Calvin- 
istic  opinions  had  made  great  progress  in  those  quarters ;  and  Philip, 
determining  to  repress  tnem,  established  the  inquisition  with  plenaiy 

f)OWers,  created  new  bishops,  and  prepared  to  abrogate  the  ancient 
aws,  and  give  the  provinces  a  new  political  institution.  These  inno- 
vations created  alarm  and  tumult ;  jmd  the  duke  of  Alva  was  sent  into 
Flanders  to  enforce  implicit  submission. 

4.  The  inquisition  began  its  bloody  work,  and  many  of  the  prin- 
cipal nobility  of  the  provinces  were  its  victims.  The  minds  of  the 
people  were  completely  alienated,  and  a  chief  was  only  wanting  to 
give  union  to  their  measures.  The  prince  of  Orange,  who  was 
under  sentence  of  the  inquisition,  found  no  difficulty  to  raise  an  army  ; 
and  having  easily  retluced  some  of  the  most  important  garrisons, 
he  was  proclaimed  stadtholder  of  Holland  and  Zealand  in  1,570. 
Eighteen  thousand  persons  perished  by  the  hands  of  the  executioner 
in  the  course  of  the  duke  ot  Alva's  government,  which  was  of  five 
years"  duration.  His  place  was  supplied  by  Requesens,  a  man  of  hu- 
manity, but  bound  to  obey  his  inhuman  master,  who,  on  the  death  of 
Requesens,  sent  his  own  brother  don  John  of  Austria,  to  endeavour 
to  regain  the  revolted  states ;  but  the  attempt  was  fruitless.  The 
whole  seventeen  provinces  had  suffered  alike  from  the  tyranny  of 
their  sovereign  ;  but  particular  jealousies  prevented  a  general  union, 
and  only  seven  of  them  asserted  their  independence,  by  a  solemn 
treaty  formed  at  Utrecht,  on  the  23d  of  January,  1,579;  by  which  it 
was  agreed  that  they  should  defend  their  liberties  as  one  united 
republic ;  that  they  should  jointly  determine  in  matters  of  peace  and 
war,  establish  a  general  legislative  authority,  and  maintain  a  liberty 
of  conscience  in  matters  of  religion.  These  seven  united  provinces 
are,  Guelderland,  Holland,  Zealand,  Friesland,  Utrecht,  Overyssel, 
and  Groningen.  William  prince  of  Orange  was  declared  their  chief 
magistrate,  general,  and  admiral,  by  the  title  of  Stadtholder. 

5.  Philip  vented  his  indignation  by  a  proscription  of  the  prince  of 
Orange,  oflering  25,000  crowns  for  his  head  ;  and  he  compassed  his 
revenge  ;  for  this  illustrious  man  was  cut  off  by  an  assassin  in  1,584. 
His  son  Maurice  was  elected  stadtholder  in  his  room,  and  sustained 
his  important  otfice  with  great  courage  and  ability.  With  a  slender 
aid  from  Elizabeth  of  England,  who  delighted  to  traverse  the  plans  of 
Philip,  this  infant  commonwealth  accomplished  and  secured  its  inde- 
pendence, which  it  maintained  till  its  recent  subjugation. 

6.  The  other  ten  provinces,  whose  discontents  were  expressed 
only  by  murmur  and  complaint,  were  soothed  by  a  new  charter  from 
Philip  confirming  their  privileges;  while  at  the  same  time  he  took 
every  possible  measure  to  prevent  any  attempt  on  their  part  to 
throw  off  the  yoke. 


196  MODERN  HISTORY. 


SECTION  LIl. 

9F  THE  CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERNMENT  OF  THE  UNITED 
PROVLNCES. 

1.  The  treaty  of  confederation  of  the  Seven  United  Provinces, 
framed  in  1,579,  and  solemnly  renewed  in  1,583,  is  declared  to  be, 
by  its  nature,  indissoluble.  Each  province  thereby  pre^rved  its 
own  laws,  magistrates,  sovereignty,  and  independence.  They  lorm, 
however,  one  body  politic,  having  renounced  the  right  of  making 
separate  aUijuices  or  treaties,  and  established  a  general  council,  with 
power  of  assembling  the  states,  and  regulating  the  common  affairs  of 
the  republic.  The  assembly  of  the  states-general  was  oiiginally  held 
only  twice  a  year,  but  became  afterwards  a  perpetual  council. 

2.  In  all  mattere  which  regard  not  the  genei'nl  interest  of  the  na- 
tion, each  of  the  states  or  provinces  is  in  itself  a  republic,  governed 
by  its  own  laws  and  magistrates,  and  possessing  a  supreme  legislative 
authority.  The  deputies  from  each  of  the  towns  form  the  council  of 
the  province,  in  which  is  vested  its  separate  government ;  and  these 
deputies  are  regulated  by  the  instructions  of  their  constituents.  The 
votes  of  the  majority  of  deputies  decide  in  the  provincial  council  in 
all  matters  whicii  regard  not  the  general  interest  of  the  nation. 

3.  The  great  council  of  the  states-general  always  met  in  assembly 
at  the  Hague,  and  is  composed  of  the  deputies  from  the  seven  prov- 
inces, of  which  Holland  sends  three,  Zealand  and  Utrecht  two,  and 
the  others  one  ;  each  deputy  being  regulated  by  the  council  of  his 
province.  A  majority  of  voices  is  here  decisive,  unless  in  the  great 
questions  of  peace,  war,  and  alliance,  in  which  unanimity  is  requisite. 
The  disadvantage  of  this  constitution  is  the  delay  and  dilliculty  in 
the  execution  of  public  measures.  All  the  towns  and  all  the  nobles 
of  a  province  must  deliberate  and  instruct  their  deputy,  before  the 
.states-general  can  take  the  matter  under  consideration.  This  great 
delect  is  partly  corrected  by  the  power  and  influence  of  the  stadt- 
holder. 

4.  The  stadtholder  is  commander  in  chief  of  the  sea  and  land 
forces,  and  disposes  of  all  the  military  employments.  He  presides 
over  all  the  courts  of  justice,  and  has  the  power  of  pardoning  crimes. 
He  appoints  the  magistrates  of  the  towns,  trom  a  list  made  by  them- 
selves ;  receives  and  names  ambassadors,  and  is  charged  with  the  ex- 
ecution of  the  laws.  He  is  supreme  arbiter  in  all  differences  between 
the  provinces,  cities,  or  other  members  of  the  state. 

5.  William,  the  tirst  stadtholder,  did  not  abuse  these  high  powers ; 
nor  did  his  successors,  Maurice  and  Heniy-Frederick.  But  under 
William  II.  the  states  became  jealous  of  an  exorbitant  authority  in 
their  chief  magistrate,  and  on  his  death  the  office  was  for  some  time 
abolished.  In  that  interval  the  republic  was  almost  annihilated  by 
the  arms  of  Lewis  XIV^ ;  and,  sensible  of  their  error,  they  restored 
the  office  of  stadtholder  in  the  person  of  William  HI.,  who  retrieved 
the  fortunes  and  honour  of  his  country.  In  gratitude  for  his  services, 
the  dignity  was  made  hereditary  in  his  family,  a  solecism  in  the  gov- 
ernment of  a  republic.  On  the  death  of  William  without  issue,  the 
otfice  was  once  more  abolished  for  twenty  years,  when  it  was  again 
restored,  declared  hereditary  in  the  family  of  Orange,  and  descendi- 
ble even  to  the  issue  of  a  daughter.    The  only  restrictions  are^,  that 


MODERN  HISTORY.  197 

the  succeedbg  prince  shall  be  of  the  protestant  religion,  and  neither 
king  nor  elector  of  tl\e  German  empire. 


SECTION  LIII. 
REIGN  ON  PHILIP  II.  CONTINUED. 

1 .  The  loss  of  the  Netherlands  was  in  some  degree  compensated 
to  Philip  11.  by  the  acquisition  of  the  kingdom  of  rortagal.  Muley 
Mahomet,  king  of  Fez  and  Morocco,  dethroned  by  his  uncle  Muley 
Moluc,  solicited  the  aid  of  don  Sebastian  king  of  Portugal  to  regain 
his  throne.  Sebastian  landed  with  an  army  in  Africa,  but  was  de- 
feated by  the  Moors  and  slain ;  and  the  contending  Moorish  princes 
perished  in  the  same  engagement.  Sebastian  was  succeeded  by  his 
grand-uncle  don  Henry,  who  died  after  a  reign  of  two  years.  The 
competitors  for  the  crown  were  don  Antonio  prior  of  Crato,  and 
Philip  II.,  paternal  and  maternal  uncles  of  the  last  sovereign.  Philip 
defeated  bis  rival  in  a  decisive  engagement  at  sea,  and,  without  fur- 
ther opposition,  took  possession  of  the  throne  of  Portugal,  1,580. 

2.  Elizabeth  of  England  had  warmly  espoused  the  cause  of  the 
revolted  Netherlands,  and  her  admiral  sir  Francis  Drake  had  taken 
some  of  the  Spanish  settlements  in  America.  To  avenge  these  in- 
juries, the  invincible  armada,  of  150  ships  of  war,  27,000  men,  and 
3,000  pieces  of  cannon,  was  equipped  by  Philip  for  the  invasion  of 
England.  The  English  fleet,  of  108  ships,  attacked  them  in  the 
night,  and  burnt  and  destroyed  a  great  part  of  the  squadron.  A 
storm,  which  drove  them  on  the  rocks  and  sands  of  Zealand,  com- 
pleted their  discomfiture,  and  only  50  shattered  vessels,  with  6,000 
men  returned  to  Spain,  1,588. 

3.  The  restless  spirit  of  Philip  II.  was  engaged  at  the  same  time  in 
the  reduction  of  the  Netherlands,  tl»e  project  for  tlie  invasion  of 
England,  and  the  dismembering  of  the  kingdom  of  France.  The 
last  scheme  was  as  ineffectual  as  the  two  former.  It  was  defeated  at 
once  by  the  conversion  of  Henry  IV.  to  the  catholic  religion.  The 
policy  of  Philip  had  nothing  in  it  great  or  generous.  His  restless 
ambition  was  fitted  to  embroil  Europe  ;  but  he  had  not  the  judgment 
to  turn  the  distresses  which  he  occasioned  to  his  own  advantage. 
In  his  own  kingdoms,  as  in  his  domestic  life,  he  was  a  gloomy  and  in- 
human tyrant.  Yet,  from  tbe  variety  and  magnitude  of  his  designs, 
the  power  by  which  th.ey  were  supported,  and  the  splendour  of  his 
dominion,  the  character  of  Spain  was  high  and  respectable  in  the 
scale  of  the  nations  of  Eurone. 


SECTION  LIV. 

STATE  OF  FRANCE  IN  THE  END  OF  THE  SIXTEENTH  CEN 
TURY ;  UNDER  HENRY  II.,  FRANCIS  II.,  CHARLES  IX.,  HENRY 
III.,  AND  HENRY  IV- 

1.  The  reformed  religion  had  made  the  greater  progress  id 
France  from  the  impolitic  persecution  which  it  sustained  from 
Uenry  II.,  the  son  and  successor  of  Francis  I.,  who,  though  he  aided 
the  proteetants  of  Germany  in  resisting  the  despotism  of  Charles  Vjj 
ihowed  iK>  mercy  to  their  brethren  in  his  own  kiogdonx 


/] 


198  MODERN  HISTORY. 

2.  On  the  death  of  Henry  II.  the  conspiracy  of  Amboise  was  plan- 
ned by  the  prince  of  Conde,  for  the  destruction  of  the  duke  of  Guise, 
who  ruled  the  kingdom  under  Francis  II.,  and  to  whose  intolerance 
and  cruelty  the  protestants  attributed  all  their  calamities.  Guise 
owed  his  ascendancy  chiefly  to  the  marriage  of  his  niece,  Mary 
queen  of  Scots  with  the  young  monarch ;  and  the  detection  of  this 
conspiracy,  the  massacre  of  its  principal  leaders,  and  the  barbarous 
punishment  of  all  who  partook  in  it,  while  they  confirmed  his  power, 
served  only  to  increase  the  rancour  of  the  contending  parties. 

3.  Francis  11.  died  after  a  reign  of  one  year,  1,560,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  brother  Charles  IX.,  a  boy  of  ten  years  of  age.  The 
queen-mother,  Catharine  de  Medicis,  who  had  no  other  principle  but 
the  love  of  power,  was  equally  jealous  of  the  influence  of  the 
Condes  and  the  Guises.  An  ecclesiastical  assembly,  held  by  her  de- 
sire at  Poissy,  gave  toleration  to  the  protestants  to  exercise  their 
worship  through  all  France,  without  the  walls  of  the  towas.  The 
zeal  or  the  imprudence  of  the  duke  of  Guise  infringed  this  ordinance, 
and  both  parties  flew  to  arms.  The  admiral  Coligni  commandQd  the 
troops  of  the  protestants,  who  were  aided  by  1U,000  Germans  from 
the  Palatinate.  Philip  of  Spain,  to  increase  the  disorders,  sent  an 
army  to  the  aid  of  the  catholics. 

4.  The  horrors  of  civil  war  were  aggravated  by  murders  and 
assassinations.  The  duke  of  Guise  was  the  victim  of  the  frantic  zeal 
of  an  enthusiast.  After  many  desperate  engagements,  with  various 
success,  a  treacherous  peace  was  agreed  to  by  the  catholics.;  and 
Coligni,  with  the  chiefs  of  the  protestant  party,  were  invited  to 
court,  and  received  by  the  queen-mother  and  her  son  with  the  most 
extraordinary  marks  of  favour:  among  the  rest  Henry  of  Navarre, 
to  whom  the  young  monarch  had  given  his  sister  in  marriaae.  Such 
were  the  preparatives  to  the  infernal  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew. 
On  the  night  of  the  23d  of  August,  1,572,  at  the  ringing  of  the  matin 
bell,  the  catholics  made  a  general  massacre  of  all  the  protestants 
throughout  the  kingdom  ol  France.  Charles  IX.,  a  monster  of 
cruelty  assisted  in  the  murder  of  his  own  subjects. 

5.  Amid  those  horrors  Henry  duke  of  Aiijou,  brother  of  Charles 
IX.,  was  elected  king  of  Poland ;  but  had  scarcely  taken  possession 
of  his  throne,  when  he  was  called  to  that  of  France  by  the  death 
of  its  execrable  sovereign,  1,574.  The  weakness  of  the  new  mon- 
arch, Henry  III.,  was  unht  to  compose  the  disordei-s  of  the  kingdom. 
Equally  bigoted  and  profligate,  he  became  the  scorn  of  his  subjects, 
and  the  dupe  of  the  contending  factions. 

6.  The  protestant  party  was  no.v  supported  by  the  prince  of 
Conde  and  young  Henry  of  Navarre,  descended  from  Robert  of 
Bourbon,  a  younger  son  of  Lewis  IX.  The  duke  of  Alencon,  the 
king's  brother,  had  likewise  joined  their  party.  The  catholics,  to 
accumulate  their  strength,  formed  a  bond  of  union,  termed  tlie  league^ 
nominally  for  defiance  of  the  state  and  its  religion,  but  in  reality  for 
usurping  all  the  powers  of  government,  and  suppressing  the  protes- 
tant faith.  Of  this  dangerous  association  Henry  III.,  with  the  weakest 
policy,  declared  himself  the  head,  and  thus  the  avowed  enemy  of 
one  naif  of  his  subjects.  He  s;iw  his  error  when  too  late,  and, 
dreading  the  designs  of  the  duke  of  Guise,  and  his  brother  the  cardinal 
of  Lorraine,  whose  authority  had  superseded  his  own,  he  basely  rid 
himself  of  his  fears  by  procuring  their  assassination.  This  vicious 
and  eootemptible  tyrant,  after  a  reign  of  fifteen  y  ears^  was  assassinated 


MODERN  HISTORY.  195 

by  Jaques  Clement,  a  jacobin  monk,  from  the  frenzy  of  fanaticism, 
1,589. 

7.  The  next  heir  of  the  crown  was  Henry  of  Navarre,  who  had 
been  educated  a  protestant  by  his  mother,  the  daughter  of  Henry 
d'Albert  kingof  JNavarre.  At  the  age  of  sixteen  he  had  been  declared 
head  of  the  parly  of  the  Huguenots ;  his  uncle  the  prince  of  Conde 
and  the  admiral  Coligni  acting  as  his  lieutenants.  His  first  military 
enterprises  were  unsuccessful,  hiviled  to  Paris,  at  the  peace  ot 
1,57^,  to  marry  the  sister  of  Charles  IX.,  he  narrowly  escaped  from 
the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew,  but  remained  three  years  a  prison- 
er. On  the  death  of  Charlps  he  again  took  the  field  against  the 
army  of  the  league,  which  he  defeated  in  the  battle  of  Coutras, 
1,587,  and  still  more  signally  in  that  of  Arques,  1,589.  After  the 
death  of  Henry  ill.,  he  won  the  celtbratud  battle  of  Ivry ;  and, 
being  acknowledged  sovereign  of  France  by  all  but  the  party  of  the 
league,  than  in  possession  of  Paris,  he  laid  siege  to  the  city,  which 
must  have  capitulated  if  Philip  11.  had  not  sent  succours.  Religion  was 
the  sole  cause  of  the  disunion  of  France,  and  the  only  obstacle  to 
the  acknowledgment  of  Henry''s  title  by  the  greater  part  of  his  sub 
jects.  By  the  earnest  pei'suasion  of  Rosni  (duke  of  Suily),  a  protes 
tant,  Henry  was  prevailed  on  to  declare  himself  a  catholic  He  ab 
jured  at  St.  Denis,  and  was  crowned  king  at  Chartres,  1,694.  H**- 
soon  after  took  possession  of  Paris ;  but  it  took  him  several  years 
both  of  war  and  negotiation,  before  he  gained  the  whole  of  his  king 
dom,  exhausted  as  it  was,  and  ruined  by  ci\  il  discord. 

8.  The  subsequent  life  of  this  excellent  prince  was  devoted  to  the 
reparation  of  those  misfortunes.  After  forcing  Philip  11.  to  conclude 
the  advantageous  peace  of  Vervins,  1,598,  his  whole  attention  was 
bestowed  on  the  improvement  of  Ids  kingdom,  by  reforming  its  laws, 
regulating  its  finances,  encouraging  agriculture  and  manufiictures, 
enlarging  and  embellishing  the  cities,  and  finally  by  successfully 
reconciling  the  partisans  of  the  contending  religions.  In  all  his  bene- 
ficial schemes,  he  found  an  able  assistant  in  his  minister  the  duke  of 
Sully,  who  has  beautifully  depicted  the  lite  and  character  of  his  mas- 
ter. In  his  memoirs  we  see  not  only  the  great  designs,  but  the  pri- 
vate virtues,  the  engaging  and  amiable  manners  of  this  illustrious 
man,  who,  while  he  was  the  arbiter  of  the  contending  powers  ol 
Europe,  was  the  indulgent  father  of  a  happy  people. 

9.  The  period  of  the  splendour  and  happiness  of  France  was  ot 
short  duration.  Henry  IV.,  worthy  to  he  immortal,  was  assassinated 
at  the  age  of  fifty-seven.  May  4,  1,610,  by  Ravaillac,  an  insane  fanat- 
ic. At  the  tiiTie  of  his  dea*ti,  he  meditated  the  great  project  of  a 
perpetual  peace  between  the  states  of  Europe,  a  design  highly  char- 
acteristic of  the  benevolent  mind  of  its  author.  But  the  weaknesses  ol 
mankind,  and  the  impossibility  of  reasoning  with  nations  as  with  wise 
individuals,  must  certainly  have  rendered  this  design  impracticable  at 
that  period. 


SECTION  LV^ 

HISTORY  OF  ENGLAND  AND  OF  SCOTLAND  IN  THE  REIGNS 
OF  ELIZABETH  AND  MARY  QUEEN  OF  SCOTS. 

1.  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Henry  VTII.,  by  Anna  BuUen,  succeeded 
to  the  throne  on  the  death  of  her  sister  Mary,  1,658  j  and  Enflan<! 


200  MODERN  HISTORY. 

attained  a  high  degree  of  splendour,  under  the  rule  of  this  great  and 
politic  princess,  whose  talents  enabled  her  to  pursue  the  true  intereste 
of  her  people,  while  her  vigorous  and  intrepid  mind  led  her  to  take 
an  important  part  in  maintaining  the  balance  of  power  in  Europe. 
While  she  encouraged  at  home  every  useful  art  and  manufacture, 
she  colonized  a  great  part  of  North  America,  supported  the  infant 
republic  of  Holland  against  its  tyrannical  enemy,  humbled  the  pride 
of  Spain  in  the  defeat  of  its  invincible  armada,  and  assisted  Henry  IV. 
in  the  recovery  of  his  kingdom.  It  was  her  fortune  to  have  the  aid 
of  most  able  ministers,  and  her  merit  to  place  her  confidence  in  their 
counsels. 

2.  If  Elizabeth  had  been  equally  endowed  with  the  virtues  of  the 
heart  as  with  the  powers  of  the  mind,  she  would  have  shone  the 
most  illustrious  character  in  the  annals  of  modern  Europe.  Her 
conduct  to  her  cousin  Mary  queen  of  Scots  has  fixed  an  indelible 
stain  on  her  character.  Mary,  the  daughter  of  James  \'.,  and  great 
grand-daughter  of  Henry  ML,  educated  in  France,  and  married, 
when  very  young,  to  the  dauphin,  afterwards  Francis  II.,  had  im- 
prudently assumed  the  arms  and  title  of  queen  of  England,  by  the 
persuasion  of  her  maternal  uncles  the  Guises.  The  pretence  was 
the  illegitimacy  of  Elizabeth,  declared  by  Henry  V4II.,  on  his  divorce 
from  Anna  Builen.  This  false  step  laid  the  foundation  of  all  the 
miseries  of  the  queen  of  Scots. 

3.  The  reformation  was  at  this  time  going  forward  in  Scotland 
with  the  most  ardent  zeal.  The  earls  of  Argyle,  Morton,  Glencairn, 
and  others,  its  chief  promoters,  had,  by  their  own  authority,  suppress- 
ed the  worship  of  tlie  mass  over  a  great  part  of  the  kingdom. 
The  catholic  bishops,  by  an  ill-judged  persecution  of  the  reformers, 
greatly  increased  the  number  of  their  proselytes.  They  began  to 
muster  their  strength,  and,  headed  by  John  Knox,  a  disciple  of  Cal- 
vin, a  virtuous  man,  but  of  the  most  furious  and  intemperate  zeal, 
threw  down  the  altars  and  images,  expelled  the  priests,  and  demol- 
ished the  churches  and  monasteries.  The  protestants  were  now 
acting  in  arms,  and  in  open  defiance  of  goverament ;  and  the  queen- 
mother,  Mary  of  Guise,  attempted,  by  the  aid  of  French  troops,  to 
reduce  her  subjects  to  submission.  They  applied  for  aid  to  Elizabeth 
the  protestant  queen  of  England,  who  SL'ut  an  army  and  a  fleet  to  their 
assistance.  The  death  of  the  queen-mother  was  followed  by  a  capit- 
ulation, by  which  it  was  agreed  that  the  French  should  evacuate 
Scotland,  and  that  Mary  should  renounce  all  pretension  to  the  crown  of 
England.  The  protestant  religion,  under  presbyterian  forms,  was 
now  established  in  the  room  of  the  catholic. 

5.  In  this  situation  of  Scotland,  Mary,  at  the  age  of  eighteen,  on 
the  death  of  her  mother,  and  of  her  husband  Francis*  II.,  returned 
to  her  hereditary  kingdom ;  having  fortunately  escaped  an  English 
fleet,  which  Elizabeth  had  despatched  to  take  her  prisoner  on  her 
passage.  Her  misfortunes  began  from  that  hour.  Her  protestant 
subjects  regarded  their  catholic  queen  with  abhorrence,  and  looked 
up  to  her  enemy  Elizabeth  as  their  siipport  and  defender.  That 
artful  princess  had  secured  to  her  interest  the  very  men  on  whom 
the  unsuspecting  Mary  placed  her  utmost  confidence,  her  bastard 
brother  the  earl  of  Murray,  the  earl  of  Morton,  and  secretary  Leth- 
iagton.  The  views  of  Murray  aimed  at  nothing  less  than  his  sister's 
crown,  and  the  obstacles  which  opposed  liis  criminal  ambition  served 
only  to  render  his  attempts  more  daring  and  dagitious. 

b.  The  marriage  of  Mary  with  her  cousin  lord  Daroh^)  son  of  the 


MODERN  HISTORY.  201 

eari  of  Lennox,  who  stood  in  the  same  relation  to  Elizaoeth,  w;i8  not 
agreeable  to  that  princess.  Encouraged  by  Elizabeth's  ministers, 
Randolph  and  Cecil,  Murray  formed  a  conspiracy  to  seize  and  impris- 
on Mary,  to  put  to  death  her  husband,  and  usurp  the  goveniment ; 
and  on  the  detection  of  his  designs,  attempted  to  support  them  by 
open  rebellion.  Defeated,  exiled,  pardoned,  and  loaded  with  benefits 
by  his  injured  sovereign,  he  persevered  in  the  same  atrocious  pur- 
poses, till  he  at  length  accomplished  them. 

6.  The  spouse  of  Mary  had  incurred  her  resentment  by  his  vices 
and  foUies.  Taking  advantage  of  the  weakness  of  his  mind,  Mur- 
ray, Morton,  and  Lethington,  had  rendered  him  jealous  of  the  par- 
tiality of  Mary  for  her  foreign  secretary,  the  aged  Rizzio,  and  en- 
gaged him  in  the  barbarous  act  of  murdering  this  ill-fated  wretch 
at  the  feet  of  tlie  queen,  to  whose  garments  he  clung  for  protection. 
The  purpose  of  this  shocking  outrage  was  to  procure  the  abortion 
of  Mary,  then  big  with  child,  and  possibly  her  death ;  or,  if  she 
should  survive,  to  alienate  completely  her  affections  from  her  hus- 
band, and  thus  to  rem'er  her  suspected  of  the  design  which  they 
had  projected  of  cuttiiig  him  off  by  assassination.  In  the  latter  pur- 
pose they  succeeded.  'Ihe  house  which  Darnley  inhabited  was  blown 
up  by  gunpowder :  his  body  was  found  strangled  near  the  place,  and 
a  report  immediately  prevailed,  that  Mary  had  been  accessory  to  liis 
murder. 

7.  A  most  imprudent  step,  to  which  she  was  conducted  by  the 
same  band  of  traitoi^s,  gave  countenance  to  this  suspicion.  At  the 
earnest  recommendation  of  Morton  and  some  of  her  chief  nobility, 
she  married  the  earl  of  Bothwell,  a  man  openly  stigmatized  as  one 
of  the  murderers  of  her  husband.  He  had,  it  is  true,  been  absolved 
on  trial  for  that  crime,  and  had  by  tbrce  made  himself  master  of  her 
person.  The  plans  of  Murray  and  his  associates,  successful  to  the 
utmost  of  their  wishes,  were  now  ripe  for  consummation.  On  the 
pretext  of  the  queen's  guilt  of  murder  and  adultery,  she  was  confined 
by  Murray  in  the  castle  of  Lochleven,  and  there  compelled  to  resign 
her  crown  into  the  handsof  her  unnatural  brother,  who  was  to  govern 
the  kingdom  as  regent  during  the  minority  of  her  infant  son,  now 
proclaimed  king  by  the  title  of  James  VI.,  1,567.  Bothwell  escaped 
beyond  sea,  and  died  in  Denmark. 

3.  A  great  part  of  the  nation  reprobated  those  infamous  proceed- 
ings. Mary  escaped  from  her  confinement,  and  at  the  head  of  an 
army  gave  battle  to  the  rebels  at  Langside ;  but,  being  defeated,  she 
fled  for  shelter  to  the  north  of  England.  Elizabeth,  who  had  secretly 
encouraged  all  the  machinations  of  her  enemies,  had  now  gained  a 
great  object  of  her  ambition  ;  she  had  in  her  hands  a  hated  rival,  and, 
by  her  support  of  Murray  and  his  party,  the  absolute  command  ol 
the  kJngdo:a  of  Scotland.  Yet  policy  required  some  show  of 
friendship  and  humanity  to  the  queen  of  Scots,  who  claimed,  as  a 
suppliant,  her  protection  and  aid.  She  professed  her  desire  to  do 
her  justice,  but  first  required  that  she  should  clear  hei-self  of  the 
crimes  alleged  against  her.  To  this  Mary  agreed,  with  the  intrepid- 
ity of  conscious  mnocence.  In  a  conference  held  for  that  purpose, 
Murray  openly  stood  forth  as  the  accuser  of  his  sL«ter  and  queen, 
appealing  to  certain  letters  said  to  have  been  written  by  her  to  Both- 
well,  plainly  intimating  her  guilt.  Copies  of  these  letters  were  pro- 
duced. Mary  demanded  the  originals,  boldly  declaring  them  to  be 
the  forgeries  of  her  enemies;  but  they  were  never  produced.  She 
retorted  on  Murray  and  Morton  the  charge  of  Darnley 's  murder; 


202  MODERN  HISTORY. 

and  the  conference  was  broken  off  at  the  command  of  the  queen  of 
England,  who  detained  Mary  in  close  imprisonment. 

9.  The  ungeneroos  policy  of  Elizabeth  was  condemned  by  her 
own  subjects.  The  duke  of  Norfolk,  the  first  of  her  nobility,  and, 
though  a  protestant,  favoured  by  the  catholic  party  in  England, 
secretly  projected  to  marry  the  queen  of  Scots.  The  discovery  of 
his  views  having  given  alarm  to  Ehzabeth,  brought  that  ill-fated 
nobleman  to  the  block,  and  hastened  the  doom  of  the  unfortunate 
Mary.  Worn  out  with  the  miseries  of  her  confinement,  she  private- 
ly solicited  the  aid  of  foreign  princes  for  her  deliverance.  Her 
cause  was  espoused  by  all  the  catholics  of  Engiand  ;  and  some  of  the 
most  intemperate  of  these  had  formed  a  plot  to  deliver  her  from 
captivity,  and  to  place  her  on  the  throne,  by  the  murder  of  Eliza- 
oeth.  This  dangsirous  conspiracy  was  discovered,  and  its  authors 
deservedly  suffered  death.  The  schemes  of  Mary  for  her  own  de- 
Uverance  were  held  presumptive  of  her  acquiescence  in  the  whole  of 
the  plot.  Though  an  independent  sovereign,  she  was  brought  to 
ti'ial  before  a  foreign  tribunal  which  had  already  decreed  her  fate  ; 
and,  being  condemned  to  sutler  death,  she  was  beheaded  at  Fother- 
ingay  castle,  1,587,  in  the  forty-fifth  year  of  her  age,  and  the  nine- 
teenth of  her  captivity  in  England.  Previously  to  this  event,  Murray 
had  fallen  the  victim  of  the  private  revenge  of  a  gentleman  whom  he 
had  injureil ;  Letliington  poisoned  himself  in  prison,  to  escape  the 
sentence  of  his  enemies ;  and  Morton,  some  time  regent  of  the  king- 
dom, was  afterwards  tried  and  suffered  death  for  his  concern  in  the 
murder  of  Darnley. 

10.  We  have  mentioned  the  fonnidable  preparations  of  Philip  II. 
for  the  invasion  of  England,  and  their  disastrous  issue  in  the  total 
destruction  of  the  invincible  armada.  The  English,  in  their  turn, 
made  descents  on  the  Spanish  coasts  ;  and  the  glory  of  the  nation 
was  nobly  sustained  by  those  great  admirals,  Raleigh,  Howard, 
Drake,  Cavendish,  and  Hawkins.  The  earl  of  Essex  distinguished 
himself  in  tho-^e  expeditions,  and  won  the  favour  of  Elizabeth,  both 
by  his  prowess  and  personal  accomplishments.  ITie  death  ot'  Lei- 
cester, her  former  favourite,  and  of  her  minister  Burleigh  left  Essex_ 
unrivalled  in  her  affections,  and  of  chief  authority  in  the  direction  of 
her  councils.  Haughty,  and  impatient  of  control,  he  disgusted  the 
nobles ;  and  his  failure  in  queUing  a  rebellion  in  Ireland  gave  them 
ground  to  undermine  him  in  the  favour  of  his  sovereign.  In  the  mad- 
ness of  inordinate  ambition,  he  proposed  to  possess  himself  of  the 
person  of  the  queen,  and  compel  her  to  remove  his  enemies,  and 
acquiesce  in  all  his  measures.  This  treasonable  enterprise  brought 
him  to  the  scaffold,  1,600. 

11.  From  that  time  Elizabeth  fell  into  profound  melancholy,  and  soon 
after  died  in  the  seventieth  year  of  her  age,  1,603,  having  named  for 
her  successor  James  VI.  of  Scotland.  Her  talents  were  great,  and 
the  firmness  of  her  mind  was  unequalled ;  but  her  private  char- 
acter was  tarnished  by  cruelty,  hypocrisy,  and  an  insatiable  desire 
of  admiration.  Her  maxims  of  government  were  despotic,  and  she 
had  little  regard  for  the  liberties  of  her  people,  or  the  privileges  of 
her  parliaments,  to  whom  she  never  allowed  the  liberty  of  disputing 
her  commands.  The  actual  government  of  England  in  those  days 
was  little  different  from  an  absokile  monarchy. 


MODERN  HISTORY.  309 


SECTION  LVI. 

HISTORY  OF  GREAT   BRITAIN  IN  THE   REIGNS   OF  JAMES  h 
AND  CHARLES  I. 

1.  James  VI.  of  Scotland  fsucceeded  by  hereditary  right  to  the 
throne  of  England,  thus  uniting  the  two  crowns;  a  prince  of  consid- 
erable learning  and  talents,  but  of  little  vigour  of  mind  or  political 
energy.  \  He  became  unpopular  from  his  notions  of  an  uncontrollable 
prerogative,  to  which  unwisely  proclaiming  his  title,  he  provoked 
his  subjects  to  question  it.'  The  current  of  public  opinion  was  now 
strongly  turned  to  an  extension  of  the  rights  of  the  subject,  and  to  a 
retrenchment  of  the  powers  of  the  crown ;  and  during  this  reign  the 
seeds  were  sown  of  that  spirit  of  r.esistance  on  the  part  of  the  peo- 
ple, which  was  destined  in  the  next  to  overturn  the  constitution. 

2.  Domestic  events  were  such'  as  chietly  distinguished  the  reign 
of  James  I.  A  conspiracy  was  discovered  in  1,6(J3  for  subverting 
the  government,  and  placing  the  king's  cousin,  Arabella  Stuart,  on 
the  throne,  in  which  the  lords  Cobham  and  Grey,  and  Sir  Walter  Ra- 
leigh were  principally  concerned.  The  two  Ibrmer  were  pardoned, 
and  Raleigh  was  condemned,  but  reprieved.  On  the  ground  of  his 
infringement  of  the  peace  with  Spain,  by  unwarrantably  attacking 
one  of  her  American  settlements,  he  was  beheaded  on  his  former 
sentence,  after  an  interval  of  tifteen  years. 

3.  Another  conspiracy  followed,  of  a  still  more  dangerous  nature, 
the  gunpowder^  treason ;  a  plot  of  the  catholics  to  destroy  at  one 
blow  the  king  and  the  whole  body  of  the  pai^liament,  1,604.  It  was 
discovered  from  a  circumstance  of  private  friendship,  on  the  very 
eve  of  its  accomplishment;  and  the  principal  conspirators  suffered 
capital  punishment.  The  public  indignation  now  raged  against  the 
catholics ;  and  the  humanity  of  James,  which  sought  to  mitigate  this 
fury,  was  as  ungenerously  as  ateurdly  construed  into  a  iavour  which 
he  entertained  for  their  religious  principles. 

4.  It  was  a  peculiar  weakness  of  the  king  to  attach  himself  to 
undeserving  favourites.  Such  was  Carre  earl  of  Somei-set,  who  had 
no  other  recommendation  but  a  handsome  person,  and  who,  after 
several  years'  exercise  of  all  the  insolence  of  power,  fell  into  dis- 
grace, on  conviction  of  his  concern  in  an  infamous  murder.  His 
place  was  supplied  by  Villiers,  afterwards  duke  of  Buckingham,  a 
man  devoid  of  every  talent  of  a  minister  and  odious  to  all  ranks 
of  the  state.  He  planned  a  journey  of  Charles  prince  of  Wales  into 
Spain  to  court  the  intanta,  and  by  his  folly  and  insolence  frustrated 
the  treaty  on  the  brink  of  its  conclusion. 

5.  Elizabeth,  the  daughter  of  James,  was  married  to  the  protestant 
elector  Palatine,  who  was  dispossessed  of  his  electorate  by  the  empe- 
ror Ferdinand  II.,  for  imprudently  accepting  the  crown  of  Bohemia, 
till  then  an  appanage  of  the  empire.  James  was  urged  by  parlia- 
ment to  a  war  in  defence  of  his  son-in-law,  which  touched  the  nation 
both  as  a  point  of  honour  and  as  the  cause  of  the  protestant  interest 
He  sent  a  feeble  armament,  which  was  of  no  service,  the  only  mili- 
tary enterprise  of  his  reign.  His  favourite  project  was  a  complete 
anion  of  the  kingdoms  of  England  and  Scotland  ;  a  measure  which, 
however  beoeticial,  the  mutual  prejudices  of  the  two  nations  were  as 


204  MODERN  HISTORY. 

yet  too  violent  to  bear.  As  a  preparatory  step,  tne  episcopal  hie- 
rarchy was  introduced  into  Scotland ;  but  this  served  only  as  the  in- 
centive of  future  commotions.  James  I.  died  in  1625,  in  the  59tli 
year  of  his  age,  and  the  22d  of  his  reign  over  England. 

6.  On  an  impartial  estimate  of  the  character  of  the  succeeding 
monarch,  Charles  I.,  it  may  be  allowed,  that  this  unfortunate  prince 
would  have  reigned  with  high  popularity,  if  the  nation  in  his  reign 
had  entertained  the  same  opinions  of  the  regal  prerogative,  of  the 
powers  of  parliament,  and  of  the  liberty  of  the  subject,  which  had 
prevailed  for  the  two  preceding  centuries.  But  it  was  his  lot  to 
mount  the  throne  at  that  critical  period  when  the  public  opinion  had 
undergone  an  entire  revolution  on  those  topics ;  and,  with  many  ex- 
cellent endowments  both  of  head  and  heart,  he  wanted  that  political 
prudence  which  should  have  taught  him  to  yield  to  the  necessity  of 
the  times. 

7.  Charles  was  offended  with  his  first  parliament,  on  their  refusal 
of  adequate  supplies  for  the  war  in,support  of  his  brother-in-law,  the 
elector  Palatine.  Engaged  to  his  allies,  the  kin^,  dissolving  the  par- 
liament, issued  warrants  tor  borrowing  money  ol  the  subjecl.  A  new 
parliament  was  found  equally  uncomplying,  and  evinced  its  jealousy 
of  the  king  by  the  impeachment  of  his  minister,  Buckingham.  Charles 
avenged  the  insult  by  imprisoning  two  members  of  the  house  of  com- 
mons. A  dissension  thus  begun  was  continually  aggravated  by  new 
causes  of  ofience.  The  levying  of  money  from  the  subject  was  en- 
forced by  billeting  soldiers  on  those  who  refused  to  lend  to  the  crown ; 
and  some  were  even  imprisoned  on  that  account.  A  war  was  under- 
taken against  France,  by  Buckingham's  instigation,  a  sufficient  cause 
of  its  unpopularity;  and  it  ended  in  a  fruitless  attempt  on  Kochelle. 
The  king  again  dissolved  his  parliament,  1,026. 

8.  A  new  parliament  exhibited  a  spirit  of  determined  reformation. 
A  Fetition  of  BigM  was  passed  by  both  houses,  which  declared  the 
illegality  of  raising  money  without  their  sanction,  or  of  enforcing  loans 
irom  the  subject,  annulled  all  taxes  imposed  without  the  consent  of 
parliament,  and  abolished  the  exercise  of  the  martial  law ;  and  Charles 
was  obliged,  with  much  reluctance,  to  give  his  assent  to  this  great 
retrenchment  of  prerogatives,  sanctioned  by  the  usage  of  the  most 
popular  of  his  predecessors. 

9.  The  taxes  of  tonnage  and  poundage  had  usually  been  continued 
from  one  reign  to  another.  On  this  ground  the  king  conceived  that 
he  was  warranted  to  levy  them  without  a  new  grant ;  and  a  member 
of  the  house  of  commons  was  imprisoned  on  refusal  to  pay  them. 
This  arbitrary  measure  excit'^d  an  outrageous  ferment  in  that  assem- 
bly, and  the  consequence  was  a  new  dissolution  of  the  parUament, 
1,629. 

10.  It  was  now  a  measure  of  necessity  to  make  peace  with  France 
and  Spain.  The  king  persevered  in  levying  the  tonnage,  poundage, 
and  snip-money;  and  high  fines  were  imposed  for  various  offences, 
without  trial,  by  authority  of  the  star-chamber.  The  legahty  of  the 
tax  of  ship-money  was  disputed  by  John  Hampden,  who  was  con- 
demned by  the  court  of  exchequer,  contrary,  as  was  generally 
thought,  to  justice  and  the  laws  of  the  realm. 

11.  Those  discontents  were  increased  by  religious  enthusiasm. 
Charles,  by  the  advice  of  Laud,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  had  relax- 
ed the  penalties  against  catholics,  and  countenanced  some  innova- 
tions in  the  ceremonials  of  church  worship,  preludes,  as  they  were 
tenned,  to  the  popish  idolatries.     He  had  likewise  imprudently  at- 


MODERN  HISTORY.  205 

tempted  to  introduce  the  liturgy  of  the  church  of  England  among  the 
Scots.  These  measures  excited  io  Scotland  very  general  disct  nl-'-nt, 
and  produced  the  most  violent  commotion.  A  bond,  termed  the  Aia- 
tional  Covenant^  containing  an  oath  of  resistance  to  all  religir  V!S  ini'.o- 
vations,  was  subscribed  in  Scotland  by  all  ranks  and  conditions ;  and 
in  a  general  assembly  at  Glasgow  the  episccpai  hierarchy  was  sol- 
emnly abolished,  1,638.  To  maintain  this  violent  procedure  the 
Scots  reformers  took  up  arms,  and,  after  seizing  and  fortifying  the 
most  important  places  of  strength  in  the  kingdom,  boidiy  marched 
into  the  heart  of  England. 

12.  It  was  now  absolutely  necessary  to  assemble  a  parliament,  and 
the  king  at  length  saw  that  the  torrent  was  irresistible,  and  rescived, 
though  too  late,  to  yield  to  it.  A  bill  passed  tor  abolishing  the  k  n- 
nage  and  poundage  without  consent  of  parliament,  and  receivoa  the 
royal  assent.  Monopolies  of  every  kincl  were  abolished.  A  parlia- 
ment was  agreed  to  be  summoned  every  third  year.  Unsatished 
with  these  concessions,  the  commons  impeached  the  earl  of  Strafford, 
the  king's  first  minister,  of  high  treason,  together  with  Laud,  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  who  were  charged,  as  the  chief  counsellors  of 
the  crown,  with  a  design  of  subverting  the  laws  and  constitnticu  of 
the  realm.  The  fate  of  Strafford,  whose,  trial  by  his  peers  would 
have  terminated  in  his  acquittal,  was  secured  by  a  bill  of  attainder, 
to  which  the  king  was,  with  the  greatest  reluctance,  forced  to  give 
his  assent.  The  commons  seized  that  moment  of  anguish  to  ob- 
tain his  consent  to  a  decisive  measure,  a  bill  which  rendered  the 
parliament  perpetual,  by  declaring  that  it  should  not  be  dissolved  nor 
adjourned  except  by  its  own  decree,  1,641.  Strafford  and  Laud  were 
both  beheaded. 

13.  This  last  measure  of  the  commons  evinced  a  determined  pur- 
pose to  overturn  the  constitution.  Their  proceedings  hitherto  had 
the  show  of  justice,  and  most  of  them  might  be  vindicated  on  the 
principles  of  true  patriotism.  But  from  this  period  their  conduct 
was  treason  to  their  country  and  its  government.  The  last  bill  de- 
stroyed the  equal  balance  of  the  constitution  of  England,  and  every 
subsequent  measure  was  a  step  towards  its  annihilation. 

14.  The  Irish  catholics  took  advantage  of  those  disorders,  and, 
with  the  purpose  of  assuming  the  entire  command  of  that  kingdom, 
and  shaking  off  its  dependence  on  England,  attempted,  in  one  day  to 
massacre  all  tlie  protestants  m  Ireland.  To  extuiguish  this  horrible 
rebellion  Charles  consigned  to  the  parliament  the  charge  of  the  war, 
which  they  interpreted  into  a  transference  to  them  of  the  whole  mil- 
itary powers  of  the  crown.  Lnder  this  authority  a  great  force  was 
levied,  and  supplied  with  arms  from  the  royal  magazines. 

1 5.  The  bishops  having  complained  that  their  lives  were  in  danger 
from  the  populace,  and  having  protested  against  the  proceedings  of 
the  lords  in  their  absence,  were  impeached  of  treason  by  the  com- 
mons, and  committed  to  the  Tower.  The  patience  of  Charles  waa 
exhausted.  He  caused  live  of  the  commons  to  be  impeached,  and 
went  in  person  to  the  house  to  seize  them ;  a  breach  of  the  privilege 
of  parliament,  for  which  he  found  it  necessary  to  atone  by  a  humili- 
ating message. 

16.  A  new  hill  of  the  commons,  naming  the  commanders  of  all  the 
fortified  places,  who  should  be  responsible  to  parliament  alone,  was 
understood  to  be  a  declaration  of  war.  The  next  step  was  to  assume 
the  whole  legislative  power,  by  declaring  it  a  breach  of  privilege  to 
dispute  the  law  of  the  land  promulged  by  the  lords  and  commoosi 


206  MODERN  HISTORY. 

But  the  lords  were  merely  a  name,  being  entirely  under  the  control 
of  the  commons. 

17.  The  sword  was  now  to  decide  the  contest.  The  royal  cause 
was  supported  by  a  great  proportioo  of  the  landed  interest,  all  the 
friends  of  the  estabUshed  church,  and  all  the  catholics  in  the  king- 
dom. On  the  side  of  the  parliament  were  the  city  of  London  and 
most  of  the  greater  towns,  with  all  the  dissentens  and  sectaries.  The 
first  campaign  was  favourable  to  the  royalists,  who  defeated  the  par- 
liamentary forces  at  Worcester  and  Edgehill,  but  lost  the  battle  of 
Newbury. 

18.  The  parliament  now  entered  into  a  strict  confederacy  with 
the  Scots,  both  in  the  articles  of  politics  and  religion;  and  the  Solemn 
League  and  Covenant,  a  new  bond  more  specihc  in  its  objects  than 
the  Ibrmer,  and  more  treasonable  in  its  purpose,  was  framed  at  Edin- 
burgh, for  the  purification  of  both  churches,  the  reformation  of  both 
kingdoms,  the  maintenance  of  the  privileges  of  king  and  parlia- 
ment, and  bringing  to  justice  all  maligiiants.  In  consequence  of  this 
confederacy,  20,000  Scots  took  the  field  to  co-operate  with  the  forces 
of  the  parliament. 

19.  At  this  time  Oliver  Cromwell  commanded  a  regiment  of 
horse  under  Fairfax,  general  of  the  parliament ;  but  in  reality  direct- 
ed all  the  measures  of  the  army.  In  Scotland  the  royal  cause  was 
gallantly  sustained  by  the  marquis  of  Montrose;  but  all  was  lost  in 
England  by  the  defeat  at  Naseby,  in  1,645.  The  troops  of  the  roy- 
alists being  entirely  dispersed,  the  king  threw  himself  into  the  hands 
of  the  Scots,  who  basely  delivered  him  up  to  the  commissioners  of 
parliament,  from  whom  he  was  taken  by  Cromwell's  orders,  and  con- 
ducted to  the  army,  which  was  now  master  of  the  kingdom.  Crom- 
well entering  London  assumed  an  absolute  control  over  the  parlia- 
ment, and  imprisoned  all  who  disputed  his  authority.  Charles,  escap- 
ing from  his  confinement,  fled  to  the  isle  of  Wight ;  but  was  there  de- 
tained a  prisoner  in  Carisbrook  castle. 

20.  The  parliament,  suffering  under  this  military  usurpation,  were 
now  sincerely  desirous  of  terminating  a  miserable  anarchy  by  a 
treaty  with  the  king,  and,  after  a  long  negotiation,  all  terms  were 
finally  adjusted.  Charles  agreed  to  resign  to  parliament  the  military 
power,  the  disposal  of  all  the  offices  of  state,  and  the  right  of  creat- 
nig  peel's  without  the  consent  of  parliament:  he  agreed  to  abolish 
the  episcopal  hierarchy,  and  to  establish  the  presbyterian  discipline. 
These  conu-ssions  the  parliament  accepted  by  a  majority  of  suffra- 
ges, and  declared  tiiem  to  be  a  sufficient  basis  for  the  settlement  of 
the  kingdom.  Cromwell  instantly  surrounded  the  house  of  commons, 
and,  excluding  all  but  his  own  partisans  (about  sixty  in  number),  a 
second  vote  was  passed,  rescinding  the  t'ormer,  and  declaring  it 
treason  in  a  king  to  levy  war  against  his  parliament.  A  court  of 
justice  was  then  appointed  to  try  t!ie  king  for  this  act  of  treason. 
The  house  of  lords,  having  unanimously  rejected  this  decree,  were 
hnmediately  voted,  by  this  junto  of  independents,  to  be  a  useless 
branch  of  the  constitution. 

21.  Charles  was  brought  to  trial,  and,  refusing  to  acknowledge  the 
authority  of  his  judges,  was  condemned  to  suffer  death.  lie  was 
beheaded  on  the  30th  of  January,  1,649.  The  arbitrary  proceedings 
of  this  monarch  in  the  beginning  of  his  reiga  were  certainly  suffi- 
cient to  justify  that  resistance  oii  the  part  of  the  people  which  at 
length  produced  its  effect,  in  confining  the  regal  authority  within  its 
jHst  bounds,  and  securing  the  rationai  liberties  of  tiie  subject-.    Bat 


MODERN  HISTORY.  207 

from  the  period  when  this  end  was  attained,  resistance  ceased  to  be 
lawful.  Its  further  operations  were  criminal  in  the  extreme.  The 
subsequent  usurpations  of  the  commons  can  no  more  be  justified  on 
any  constitutional  principle,  than  the  murder  of  the  king  can  be  de- 
fended on  the  score  of  legality,  justice,  or  humanity. 


SECTION  LVII. 
THE  COMMONWEALTH  OF  ENGLAND. 

1.  The  parliament  of  Scotland  had  taken  no  part  in  these  latter 
scenes,  and  had  formally  protested  against  the  trial  of  the  king.  On 
his  death  tliey  proclaimed  Charles  II.  their  sovereign,  but  on  the  ex- 
press condition  of  his  signing  the  covenant,  and  ratifying  their  con- 
fession of  faith.  Ireland  recognised  him  without  any  conditions. 
The  heroic  marquis  of  Montrose  landed  in  the  north  of  Scotland  with 
a  few  foreign  troops,  and  attempted  to  reduce  the  party  ol  the  cove- 
nantee, and  to  establish  the  legal  rirthorit^'  of  the  king,  independent 
of  the  servile  restrictions  with  which  they  had  fettered  it.-  Being 
attacked  by  a  much  superior  force,  he  was  defeated,  and  betrayed 
into  the  power  of  his  enemies,  who  put  him  to  death  by  the  hands 
of  the  executioner,  1,650;  displaying  in  the  circumstances  of  his 
punishment  ail  the  insolence  of  cruelty  which  distinguishes  revenge 
in  the  meanest  of  souls.  Charles  retired  to  ScOflnnd,  and  was  obligfid, 
however  neluctantly,  to  acquiesce  in  all  the  terms  that  were  imposed 
on  him. 

2.  Cromwell,  with  16,000  men,  marched  into  Scotland  against  the 
royalist  covenanters,  whom  he  defeated  in  the  battle  of  Dunbar.  He 
then  followed  the  royal  drmy,  which  retreated  into  England,  and 
destroyed  it  in  the  decisive  battle  of  Worcester,  September  3,  1,651, 
Charles  ded  in  disguise  through  the  western  and  southern  counties, 
till  he  found  an  opportunity  of  escaping  to  France ;  and  Cromwell 
returned  in  triumph  to  London. 

3.  The  republican  parli<imont  formed  and  executed  great  designs. 
A  war  with  Holland  was  most  ably  maintained  on  both  sides  by  three 
great  naval  commanders,  Blake,  the  Britit^h  admiral,  and  Van  Tromp 
and  de  Ruyter,  the  Dutch  admirals ;  but  the  advantage  was  greatty 
in  favour  of  the  English,  who  took  above  1 ,600  Dutch  ships.  The 
parliament,  elated  by  these  successes,  justly  conceived  that,  while 
the  nation  wtis  thus  powerful  at  sea,  the  army  was  an  unnecessary  bur- 
den, and  determined  to  reduce  it.  To  prevent  this  measure,  Crom- 
well framed  a  remonstrance  of  the  amiy,  demanding  (he  election  of 
anew  parliament.  This  remonstrance  being  disregarded,  he  entered 
the  house  of  comnions,  which  he  had  surrounded  with  his  troops,  and 
declaring  the  parliament  dissolved  by  his  authority,  forcibly  turned 
the  memijers  out  of  doors.  The  republic  of  England,  which  had 
subsisted  four  years  and  three  months,  was  thus  annihilated  in  one 
moment,  April  20,  1,653. 

4.  It  was  necessary,  however,  that  there  should  be  the  appearance 
of  a  parliament.  A  few  mean  persons,  of  fanatical  character,  were 
chosen  by  Cromwell's  partisans,  tVom  the  diflerent  counties  of  Eng- 
land, with  five  from  Scotland,  and  six  from  Ireland,  to  hold  their  func- 
tion for  fifteeen  months.  This  assembly,  termed  Barebone's  parlia- 
ment^ from  its  leading  member,  a  leather-seller,  became  the  -ecora  ol 
the  public,  and  was  dissolved,  by  its  own  vote,  after  five  months. 


208  MODERN  HISTORY. 

5.  The  government  was  now  vested  in  the  council  of  officers, 
who  nominated  OUver  Cromwell  lord  protector  of  the  three  king- 
doms, invested  him  with  the  power  of  making  peace,  war,  and  alli- 
ance, and  authorized  a  standing  army  of  30,000  men  to  be  kept  up 
for  the  support  of  government.  His  administration  was  despotic, 
vigorous,  and  spirited.  He  maintained  the  honour  of  the  nation  in 
the  war  with  the  Dutch,  compelling  them  to  yield  the  honour  of  the 
flag,  and  to  compensate  to  the  India  company  all  its  losses.  He  was 
successful  likewise  in  his  negotiations  with  France  and  Spain.  But 
in  his  domestic  government  he  was  traversed  by  his  parliaments, 
whom  it  cost  him  a  continual  struggle,  and  even  violence,  to  keep  in 
order.  One  parliament,  properly  prepared,  voted  him  the  regal 
title,  which,  by  the  council  ol  his  best  friends,  he  was  tbrced,  most 
unwiliinglj,  to  refuse.  In  recompense  of  this  self-denial,  the  parliar 
ment  conhrmed  his  title  oi'  protector,  with  a  fixed  revenue,  and  de- 
creed his  right  of  appointing  a  successor.  He  was  king  in  all  but 
the  name. 

6.  By  consent  of  parflament  Cromwell  appointed  a  house  of  lords; 
but  all  the  ancient  peers  declined  the  proffered  honour.  He  was 
forced  to  choose  peers  from  the  commons  ;  and  thus  he  lost  the  ma- 
jority in  the  lower  house.  His  temper  soured  with  disappointment, 
a  prey  to  chagrin,  and  in  continual  fear  of  assassination,  he  fell  at 
length  into  a  mortal  disease,  and  died  in  the  tifty-ninth  year  of  his  age, 
September  3,  1,658. 

7.  Richard  Cromivell,  son  of  Oliver,  succeeded  to  the  protectorate 
by  his  father's  appointment  He  was  a  man  of  weak  understanding 
and  facile  temper,  utterly  unfit  for  his  hazardous  situation,  which 
accordingly  he  maintained  only  for  a  few  months,  resigning  his  othce 
on  the  22d  of  April,  1,659.  His  brother  Henry,  viceroy  of  Ireland, 
tminediately  foiiovved  his  example.  The  family  of  the  Cromwells, 
which  the  talents  of  one  man  had  elevated  above  the  sovereigns  of 
their  country,  returned  to  its  original  obscurity. 

8.  The  remains  of  that  nominal  parliament  which  had  put  the  king 
to  death,  termed,  in  derision,  the  rump^  was  now  dissolved  by  the 
council  of  otficers.  Of  these  every  aspiring  individual  had  his  own 
separate  views  of  ambition.  Intrigue,  cabal,  and  anarchy,  were  univer- 
sal; and  the  nation,  looking  forward  with  horror  to  a  series  of  calantv- 
ities,  began  earnestlv  to  desire  the  restitution  of  its  ancient  govern- 
ment. George  Monk,  commander  of  the  army  in  Scotland,  judged 
those  symptoms  favourable  for  restoring  the  exiled  monarch  to  the 
throne  of  his  ancestors.  Marching  his  army  into  England,  he  declar- 
ed his  resolution  to  bring  about  the  election  of  a  free  parliament, 
which  all  men  knew  to  be  synonymous  with  the  restoration  of  the 
king.  It  was  of  course  violently  opposed  by  the  republican  party, 
who  even  attempted  to  excite  a  new  civil  war;  but  they  were  forced 
at  length  to  acquiesce  in  the  measure.  A  free  parliament  was  assena- 
bled,  and  a  message  was  presented  from  Charles,  offering  a  full  in- 
demnity, complete  liberty  of  conscience,  and  payment  of  all  arrears 
to  the  army.  The  message  was  received  with  transports  of  joy,  and 
Charles  II.  was  proclaimed  king  on  the  29th  day  of  May,  1,660. 


MODERN  HISTORY.  209 

SECTION  LVIII. 
I  HE  REIGNS  OF  CHARLES  II.  AND  JAMES  II. 

1.  The  nation,  without  imposing  any  terms  on  their  new  sove- 
reign, trusted  implicitly  to  his  good  dispositions.  Charles  was  humane 
and  complacent,  but  indolent,  luxurious,  and  prodigal ;  and  therefore 
was  neither  able  to  support  the  national  honour  abroad,  nor  to  com- 
mand obedience  and  respect  to  his  domestic  government.  The  sale 
of  Dunkirk  was  a  measure  offensive  to  the  pride  of  the  nation.  A 
war  with  Holland,  supported  at  a  vast  expense,  and  maintained  in 
many  desperate  but  indecisive  €ngagf'ments,  was  attended  finally 
with  no  material  benefit.  By  the  treaty  of  Breda,  concluded  in  1,667, 
New  York  was  secured  to  the  English,  the  isle  of  Folerone  to  the 
Dutch,  and  Acadia  in  North  America  to  the  French. 

2.  The  sale  of  Dunkirk,  and  the  unsuccessful  issue  of  the  war, 
attributed  to  the  counsel  of  the  earl  of  Clarendon,  procured  the  dis- 
grace and  banishment  of  that  illustrious  man,  1,667.  The  peace  was 
scarcely  concluded  with  Holland,  when  England  joined  with  her  and 
Sweden  in  a  triple  alliance,  to  oppose  the  progress  of  the  arms  of 
Lewis  XIV.  in  the  Low  Countries;  and  that  object  being  attained  by 
the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  in  1,668,  the  French  monarch  gained 
the  English  over  to  his  interest  in  a  new  war  against  the  Dutch, 
which  brought  their  republic  to  the  brink  of  destruction. 

3.  The  domestic  administration  of  Chirles  was  embroiled  from 
various  causes,  originating  in  the  personal  character  and  dispositions 
of  the  sovereign.  He  trusted  toprotligate  and  worthless  counsellors. 
His  arbitrary  notions  of  government,  and  the  partiality  which  he 
showed  to  the  catholics,  gave  perpetual  alarm  and  uneasiness  to  a 
great  proportion  of  his  subjects.  Complaints  resounded  from  every 
quarter ;  and  the  parliament  requiretl  a  test-oath,  abjuring  popery, 
from  all  persons  in  public  employment.  On  refusal  to  take  this  oath, 
the  king's  brother,  James  duke  of  York,  was  deprived  of  his  office 
of  high  admiral. 

4.  Titus  Gates,  a  worthless  impostor,  pretended  to  have  discov- 
ered a  plot  of  the  catholics  for  assassinating  the  king,  burning  Lon- 
don, massacring  the  protestants,  and  placing  the  duke  of  York  on 
the  throne.  Another  villain,  named  Bedloe,  joined  his  evidence 
to  that  of  Gates ;  and  on  their  perjured  testimony,  afterward  fully 
exposed,  a  few  miserable  priests  suffered  death.  A  new  test  was 
imposed,  which  excluded  all  papists  from  both  iiouses  of  parliament. 
The  treasurer  Danby  was  impeached  for  advising  the  last  peace  with 
France,  though  it  was  proved  that  he  had  ;»ctt;d  by  his  sovereign'-s 
orders ;  and  a  bill  passed  the  house  ol'  commons,  excluding  the  duke 
of  York  from  the  succession  to  the  crown.  A  more  important  bill 
for  the  general  liberty,  the  act  of  habcus  corpus  whs  the  work  of  the 
same  session  of  parliament.     (Sect.  LIX.,  §  14,) 

5.  The  distinguishing  epithets  of  whig  and  tory  were  now  first 
known;  the  former,  the  opposers  of  the  crown,  -igainst  the  latter, 
its  partisans ;  and  each  party,  as  in  all  factions,  carried  its  principle* 
to  an  extreme.  The  whigs,  predominant  in  the  next  parliament, 
raged  with  fury  against  the  catholics,  md  insisted  on  the  king's  assent 
to  the  bill  for  the  exclusion  of  bis  biotiier.  ills  onl>  expedi: !:!  v^as 
to  dissolve  the  parliament,  but  he  found  tiieir  successt  is  eyua^  vio- 

S9  27 


aid  MODERN  HISTORY. 

lent.  After  various  fruitless  attempts  to  conciliate  their  favour  to  his 
measures,  a  dissolution  of  this  parliament  ensued,  the  last  which 
Charles  assembled. 

6.  But  ihe  great  cause  of  dissatisfaction  remained.  The  duke  of 
York  Wis  at  the  bottom  of  all  the  measures  of  government.  A  con- 
spiracy M  as  formed  by  Shaftesbury,  Russel,  Sydney,  and  the  duke  of 
Monuiouth,  natural  son  of  the  king,  on  the  pretence  of  vindicating 
the  national  liberties.  It  was  discovered  by  one  of  the  associates, 
and  Kussel  and  Sydney  sulfered  capital  punishment.  The  detection 
of  this  coo?oiracy  strengthened  the  authority  of  the  sovereign.  The 
duke  of  i  :  i'k  was  restored  to  his  office  of  high  admiral,  and  tacitly 
ackuowied^ed  as  the  successor  to  the  crown.  Charles  II.  died  on 
the  6th  of  February,  1,685,  ifi  the  55th  year  of  his  age,  and  the  25th 
of  his  reign. 

7.  Tlie  ci'.ike  of  York  succeeded  to  the  throne  by  the  title  of 
James  II.  His  reign  was  short  and  inglorious.  He  was  the  instru- 
ment of  his  own  misfortunes,  and  ran  headlong  to  destruction.  The 
catholics  at  this  time  were  not  the  hundredth  part  of  the  nation, 
yet  James  was  weak  enough  to  make  the  desperate  attempt  of  sub- 
stituting the  popish  faith  in  room  of  the  protestant.  Discarding  the 
nobility  from  his  councus,  he  was  directed  solely  by  Romish  priests. 
In  the  vt:y  outset  of  his  reign  he  expressed  his  contempt  of  the  au- 
thority o;  parli-ciment,  and  a  tirm  purpose  to  exercise  an  unlimited 
despotism. 

8.  Tne  duke  of  Monmouth,  having  excited  a  new  rebellion,  was 
defeated,  made  prisoner,  and  beheaded ;  and  the  most  inhuman 
rigour  was  exercised  in  the  punishment  of  all  his  partisans.  The 
paniament  was  io  general  submissive  to  the  king''s  will,  which  for  a 
while  met  with  no  opponuion  nor  control.  A  declaration  was  pub- 
lished, establishing  full  iiberiy  of  conscience  in  matters  of  religion ; 
and  several  bishops,  wiio  refused  to  publish  it  in  their  diocesses, 
were  committed  to  prison.  A  catholic  president  was  appointed  to 
one  of  the  coJeges  at  Oxford.  An  ambassador  was  sent  to  the  pope, 
and  a  papal  nuncio  received  in  London.  The  catholics  openly  boast- 
ed that  theirs  would  soon  be  the  religion  of  the  state. 

6.  James  iiad  ihree  children;  Mary,  the  wife  of  the  stadtholder 
WuLam  prince  of  Orange  ;  Anne,  married  to  prince  George  of  Dei> 
niaikj  and  James,  an  infant.  The  stadtholder  had  considered  his 
right  to  the  crown  of  England  as  certain  before  the  birth  of  this 
infant,  and,  after  that  event,  projected  still  to  gain  it  by  arms  or  in- 
trigue ;  the  infatuaticn  of  the  king  and  the  general  discontent  of  the 
people  giving  him  ttie  most  flattering  invitation.  James  was  inform- 
ed of  tnose  views  of  his  son-in-law,  but  would  give  them  no  credit, 
tiii  actually  apprized  of  his  landing  with  an  army,  November  loth, 
J, 688. 

to.  Ttie  principal  nobility  and  officers  immediately  joined  the 
.standard  of  the  prince  of  Orange;  and  James  was  at  once  abandoned 
by  his  peopl:,  ministers,  favourites,  and  his  own  children.  Leaving 
London  in  -^i.-^guise,  he  was  discovered  and  brought  back  by  the  pop- 
ulace ;  but  the  prince  of  Orange  \visely  favoured  his  escape,  and  he 
jound  means  a  few  days  after,  to  convey  himself  to  France. 

1 1.  Tlje  tijfone  being  declared  vacant,  it  was  proposed  in  a  con- 
vention-parliament, that  the  crown  shouiJ  be  settled  on  the  princess 
M  .ry  and  aei'  isstse,  her  husband  governing  as  regent,  whom  failing, 
on  the  princess  Anae.  Tne  stadtholder  dechuing  the  office  of  regent, 
ib'was  finally  resolved  to  ewifer  the  crown  on  the  prioce  aod  prh^ 


MODERN  HISTORY.  211 

cess  of  Orange,  the  former  to  have  the  sole  administration  of  the 
government. 

1 2.  To  this  settlement  was  added  a  declaration  fixing  the  rights  of 
the  subject  and  the  royal  prerogative.  Of  this  the  most  important 
articles  are  the  following.  The  king  cannot  suspend  the  laws,  nor 
their  execution ;  he  cannot  levy  money  without  consent  of  parlia- 
ment; the  subjects  have  right  to  petition  the  crown;  a  standing 
army  cannot  be  kept  up  in  time  of  peace  but  by  consent  of  parlia- 
ment ;  elections  and  parliamentary  debate  must  be  free,  and  parlia- 
ments must  be  frequently  assembled,  &,c.  Such  was  the  final  settle- 
ment of  the  British  government  at  the  great  era  of  the  revolution. 
At  this  period,  when  the  constitution  became  fixed  and  detei'mined, 
we'  finish  the  sketch  of  the  history  of  our  own  coun?ry. 


SECTION  LIX. 

ON  THE  BRITISH  CONSTITUTION. 

1.  The  rudiments  of  the  constitution  of  England  may  be  traced  as 
far  back  as  the  Norman  conquest.  William  distributed  a  great  pro- 
portion of  the  lands  among  his  Norman  followers,  subjecting  these, 
as  well  as  the  Anglo-Saxons  who  retained  their  property  to  the  feu- 
dal tenures,  and  thus  extinguishing  at  once  the  ancient  liberties  of  the 
people.  England  was  divided  into  60,215  military  fiefs,  all  held 
of  the  crown,  under  the  obligation  of  the  vassaPs  taking  arms  for 
his  sovereign  whenever  required.  In  the  continental  kingdoms  of 
Europe,  as  in  France,  the  feudal  system  arose  by  slow  degrees,  nor 
was  there  of  consequence  the  same  union  of  the  fabric  as  in 
England.  The  feudal  lords  were  independent  of  one  another,  ever 
at  variance  from  their  mutual  pretensions,  and  often  owning  but  a 
very  slender  allegiance  to  the  crown.  Their  vassals  suffered  frona 
oppression,  and  of^ten  struggled  for  their  freedom  ;  but  those  efforts 
being  partial  produced  no  consequence  favourable  to  the  liberty  of 
the  nation.  In  England  all  were  oppressed  by  the  enormous  weight 
of  the  crown ;  it  was  a  common  grievance,  and  produced  at  times  a 
violent  effort  for  the  general  liberties  of  the  people. 

2.  The  forest-laws  imposed  by  tbe  conqueror  (Sect.  XV.,  §  2,  11.) 
were  a  grievance  felt  by  the  whole  nation,  as  rendering  every  man's 
property  precarious,  and  subject  to  the  arbitrary  encroachments  of 
the  crown.  It  was  no  wonder  that  the  barons  and  their  vassals  should 
cordially  unite  to  rid  themselves  of  so  intolerable  a  hardship.  Henry 
I.  found  it  necessary  to  conciliate  his  subjects,  by  mitigating  the  most 
rigorous  of  the  feudal  laws.  A  greater  advance  was  made  under 
Henry  II.,  by  the  institution  of  the  trial  by  jury.  But  John  impru- 
dently resisting  this  natural  progress  toward  a  rational  freedom,  was 
soon  compelled  into  those  important  concessions,  the  Churta  de  Foresta 
and  Magna  Charta.  From  that  time  the  constitution  of  England  was 
that  of  a  limited  monarchy,  whatever  we  may  judge  of  the  actual 
government,  which  was  often  most  arbitrary  and  despotical. 

3.  The  next  memorable  era  in  the  progress  of  the  English  consti- 
tution was  the  reign  of  that  weak  prince  Henry  III.,  when  the  par- 
liament received  a  new  form,  by  the  admission  of  the  representatives 
of  the  people,  the  deputies  of  the  counties  and  boroughs.  (Sect. 
XXII.,  ^  2.)  His  successor  Edward  I.  acknowledged  their  authority 
in  obtaining  all  his  subsidies,  and  ratified  a  new  law,  which  declareu, 


218  MODERN  HISTORY. 

that  no  tax  should  be  levied  without  the  consent  of  Ior<b  and  com* 
mons.  The  Magna  Charta  was  confirmed  no  less  than  eleven  times 
in  the  course  of  this  reign. 

4.  Thus  the  constitution  continued  advancing  till  its  progress  was 
suspended  by  the  civil  wars  of  York  and  Lancaster.  Tne  rights  of 
both  prince  and  people  seemed  then  to  be  entirely  forgotten;  and 
the  race  of  Tudor  found  no  resistance  from  parliament  to  their  vigor- 
ous and  despotic  sway.  The  talents  of  Elizabeth,  and  the  nigh 
character  which  her  government  sustained  with  foreign  powers,  ex- 
tinguished all  domestic  disquiets,  while  the  predominant  feeling  \vas 
the  m  lintenance  of  the  power  and  dignity  of  the  crown. 

5.  But  undei*iithe  succeeding  prince,  when  his  power  and  dignity 
were  abased  by  his  own  weakness,  the  nation  began  to  awake  frr-m 
its  lethargy  ;  and  that  spirit  of  opposition,  which  in  this  reign  c;'n- 
fined  itself  to  complaints,  in  the  next  broke  forth  with  alarming  vio- 
lence. Charles  1.,  endowed  with  superior  energy  of  character,  acted, 
as  he  conceived,  on  a  principle  of  duty,  which  obliged  him  to  main- 
tain the  prerogative  of  his  predecessors,  and  to  transmit  it  unimpaired 
to  his  posterity;  but  he  was  imprudent  in  exerting  with  rigour  an 
authority  which  he  wanted  ultimate  resources  to  support.  He  was 
compelled  to  si^n  the  Petition  of  Rights^  2i  grant  more  favourable  to 
liberty  than  Magna  Charta.  The  true  patriots  were  satisfied  with 
this  concession,  which  conferred  the  most  ample  constitutional  free- 
dom. '  But  the  popular  leaders  made  patriotism  the  cloak  of  insatia- 
ble ambnion;  and  advanced  in  their  demands  with  every  new  com- 
pliance. The  last  appeal  was  made  to  the  sword,  and  the  contest 
ended  in  the  destruction  of  the  constitution. 

6.  The  despotism  which  succeeded,  and  the  fluctuation  of  power 
from  the  long  parliament  to  the  protector,  and  finally  to  the  leaders 
of  a  standing  army,  afforded  demonstrative  evidence  how  vain  was 
the  projjjct  of  a  republic,  under  Avhich  the  demagogues  had  masked 
their  designs.  Weary  of  anarchy,  the  nation  returned  with  high 
satisfaction  to  its  former  constitution,  a  limited  monarchy. 

7.  New  encroachments  under  Charles  II.  produced  new  limita- 
tions; and  the  act  oH  Habeas  Corpus  gave  the  utmost  possible  security 
to  pereonal  liberty.  The  violent  and  frantic  invasion  of  the  consti- 
tution by  James  II.,  banished  himself  and  his  posterity  from  the 
throne,  and  produced  a  new  and  solemn  contract  between  the  king 
and  the  people.  Regarding,  therefore,  the  revolution  as  the  final 
settlement  of  the  English  constitution,  we  shall  endeavour  briefl}'  to 
delineate  the  chief  features  of  that  great  political  structure. 

8.  The  constitution  of  Gr3at  Britain  may  be  viewed  under  two 
distinct  heads,  the  legislative  power,  and  the  executive  power ;  the 
last  comprehending  the  prerogative  of  the  crown. 

The  power  of  legislation  belongs  to  parUament,  whose  constituent 
parts  are,  the  king,  lords,  and  commons.  The  house  of  lords  con- 
sists of  the  temporal  peers  of  England,  and  of  the  spiritual,  or  the 
two  archbishops  and  twenty-four  bishops.  To  these,  since  the 
unions  with  Scotland  and  Ireland,  are  added  sixteen  delegates  from 
the  peerage  of  the  former  kingdom,  and  thirty-two  from  the  latter. 
The  liouse  of  commons  consists  of  tne  deputies  or  representatives 
of  the  counties  and  principal  towns  and  boroughs  of  England,  and 
the  two  universities,  amounting  in  all  to  51  o  members;  to  whom, 
since  the  unions,  are  added  45  Iron.  Scotland  and  100  from  Ireland. 
These  deputies  are  chosen  by  the  freeholders  who  possess  a  prop 
'*rty  yielding  a  certain  yearly  rent.    The  chancellor  generally  pr^ 


MODERN  HISTORY.  213 

aides  in  the  house  of  lords ;  the  speaker  is  president  in  the  house  of 
oommons. 

9.  The  king  is  the  most  essential  component  part  of  parliament, 
because  he  alone  has  the  power  to  convoke,  prorogue,  and  dissolve 
it  He  has  likewise  a  negative  on  all  its  acts,  which  are  invalid 
without  his  approbation  ;  and  each  house  has  a  negative  on  the  de- 
crees of  the  other.  It  is  likewise  competent  to  the  king  to  propose 
any  measure  to  be  laid  before  the  parliament. 

10.  All  questions  regarding  public  affairs  and  national  measures 
may  originate  in  either  house  of  parliament,  except  grants  of  money, 
which  must  always  take  their  rise  in  the  house  of  commons,  and 
cannot  be  altered,  though  they  may  be  rejected,  by  |^e  lords.  Any 
matter  must  be  primarily  discussed  in  that  house  in  which  it  origi- 
nates, and,  until  it  is  there  decided,  cannot  be  received  by  the  other 
house,  unless  a  conference  should  be  demanded.  A  bill  refused  by 
either  house  is  utterly  void;  and  a  bill  passed  by  both  houses  is  void, 
if  refused  by  the  king. 

11.  The  executive  power  of  government  is  vested  in  the  .king. 
(1.)  The  first  branch  of  his  office  is  the  administration  of  justice. 
The  judges  of  all  courts  of  judicature  are  the  king's  substitutes. 
He  is  the  prosecutor  of  all  crimes,  and  has  the  power  of  pardoning 
and  suspending  the  execution  of  all  sentences.  (2.)  He  is  the  foun- 
tain of  all  honour,  the  giver  of  all  titles  and  dignities,  and  the  dis- 
poser of  ail  the  offices  of  state.  (3.)  He  is  the  superintendant  of 
commerce,  and  has  the  power  of  regulating  weights  and  measures, 
and  of  coining  money.  (4.)  He  is  the  head  of  the  church,  and 
names  the  archbishops  and  bishops.  (B.)  He  is  commander  in 
chief  of  all  the  sea  and  land  forces,  and  can  alone  equip  fleets,  levy 
armies,  and  appoint  all  their  officers.  (6.)  He  has  the  power  of  mak- 
ing war,  peace,  and  alliance,  and  of  sending  and  receiving  ambassa 
dors.  (7.)  He  is  above  the  reach  of  all  courts  of  justice,  and  is  not 
responsible  to  any  judicature  for  his  conduct  in  the  administration  ol 
government. 

12.  These  high  powers  of  the  sovereign,  which,  at  first  sight, 
would  seem  to  render  him  an  absolute  monarch,  are  thus  admirably 
controlled.  The  king  is  dependent  on  parliament  for  all  subsidies, 
without  which  he  can  neither  maintain  his  fleets  and  armies,  nor  pay 
the  salaries  of  officers.  The  parliament  indeed  settles  a  revenue  on/ 
the  king  for  Hfe,  but  this  is  merely  sufficient  for  the  maintenance  of 
his  household,  and  for  supporting  a  proper  dignity  of  estabUshment. 
As  the  king's  revenue  must  be  renewed  by  padiament  at  the  begin- 
ning of  every  reign,  it  is  in  their  power  to  withhold  it  till  all  abuses 
shall  be  remedied.  At  those  periods  therefore  the  constitution  may 
be  brought  back  to  its  first  principles,  and  all  encroachments  of  the 
prerogative  may  be  restrained. 

13.  The  king  can  never  reign  without  a  parliament  It  must  by 
law  be  assembled  once  in  three  years,  on  a  notice  of  forty  days 
before  its  meeting.  Though  the  king  is  the  head  of  the  church,  yet 
he  cannot  alter  the  established  religion,  nor  frame  ecclesiastical 
regulations.  These  must  be  made  by  the  assembly  of  the  clergy.  The 
king  cannot  interfere  in  the  ordinary  administration  of  justice,  nor 
refuse  his  consent  to  the  prosecution  of  crimes.  He  may  pardon 
oflenceSj  but  cannot  exempt  the  offender  from  pecuniary  compensa- 
tion to  tne  party  injured.  He  cannot  alter  the  standard  of  money, 
either  in  weight  or  alloy.  He  cannot  raise  an  army  without  the  coo- 
cent  of  parliament ;  and  though  a  moderate  standing  force  is  kept  up 


214  MODERN  HiSiv^iir. 

with  their  consent,  yet  the  funds  for  its  paynment  require  an  annuat 
renewal  by  parliament.  Though  the  sovereign  is  not  amenable  to 
any  judicature,  yet  his  ministers  are  responsible  for  all  the  measures 
of  government,  and  are  impeachable  by  the  commons  at  the  bar  of 
the  house  of  lords,  for  every  species  of  misconduct  or  misdemeanour. 
The  freedom  of  parliamentary  discussion  is  secured,  because  no 
member  can  be  questioned  for  any  opinions  or  words,  except  in  that 
house  of  parliament  in  which  they  were  uttered. 

1 4.  The  personal  security  and  the  rights  of  the  subject  are  fur- 
ther guarded  by  these  three  peculiarities  of  the  British  constitution, 
the  liabeas  corpus,  trial  by  juries,  and  the  liberty  of  the  press.  By 
the  act  of  Iwhffis  corpus,  every  prisoner  must  be  brought  before  a 
judge,  the  cause  of  his  detainer  certified,  and  the  judge  is  authorized 
and  botind  to  discharge  him,  if  the  cause  of  his  imprisonment  be  in- 
sutiicient  or  illegal.  The  violation  of  this  statute  is  punishable  by  the 
highest  penalties.  The  habtas  corpus  may  be  suspended  in  times  of 
danger  to  the  state,  as  during  the  existence  of  a  conspiracy  or  rebel- 
lion. Though  this  act  does  not  extend  to  Scotland,  yet  the  subjects  of 
that  part  of  the  united  kingdoms  are  equally  secured  by  their  own 
laws.     (Statute  1,701,  c.  6.) 

15.  All  crimes  must  be  tried  by  a  jurv  of  twelve  men  in  England 
and  Ireland,  and  fifteen  in  Scotland.  The  prisoner  has  a  right  ot 
challenging  or  objecting  to  the  jurors  ;  and  (except  in  Scotland),  with- 
out showing  any  cause,  he  may  challenge  twenty  successively  in  or- 
dinary cases,  and  Ihirty-tive  in  cases  of  treason.  The  jury  are  judges 
both  of  the  law  and  the  fact ;  nor  has  the  opinion  of  the  court  any 
weight  in  their  decision,  but  such  as  they  choose  to  give  it. 

16.  The  liberty  of  the  press  is  a  guardian  of  the  constitution,  be 
cause  it  is  competent  for  any  individual  to  convey  to  the  public  his 
opinion  of  the  whole  conduct  of  government,  and  the  merits  of  its  con- 
ductors; to  canvass  every  counsel  of  state,  and  to  examine  every  pub- 
lic measure  ;  thus  forcibly  restraining  all  ministers  and  magistrates 
within  the  limits  of  their  duty.  It  is  further  the  guardian  of  injuri'd 
rnnocence, and  the  redresser  of  all  wrongs  that  e\,tde  tlie  cognizance 
of  law.  Yet  this  most  valuable  right,  if  unrestrained,  would  be  the 
source  of  the  greatest  mischief  If  it  were  allowable  with  impunity 
to  assail  the  established  government,  to  convulse  society,  to  dissem- 
inate atheism,  to  injure  the  reputation,  or  to  endanger^the  life  and 
property,  of  individuals,  by  false  accusations,  there  would  be  an  end 
of  all  liberty  and  civil  happiness.  The  liberty  of  the  press  consists 
in  this,  that  there  is  no  examination  of  writings  previous  to  the  print- 
ing and  publishing  of  them;  but,  after  publication,  such  writings  as 
ofend  in  any  of  the  above  particulars  are  punishable  by  law,  on  trial 
of  the  otfence  by  jury.  Tinas  the  public  is  properly  constituted  the 
judge  and  censor  of  all  writings  addressed  to  itself 

17.  Such  are  briefly  the  outlines  of  the  admirable  fabric  of  the 
British  constitution.     J^sto  perpetua !  {may  it  exist /"or  ever !) 


SECTION  LX. 
OF  THE  PUBLIC  REVENUE  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN. 

1.  The  property  belonging  to  the  crown  of  Great  Britain,  which 
was  anciently  very  great,  and  fully  adequate  to  the  maintenance  ot 
government,  consisted  of  domain-lands,  the  first  fruits  and  tenths  of 


MODERN  HISTORY.  216 

chnrch-benefices,  the  rents  of  vacant  bishoprics  and  abbeys,  the  prof- 
its of  military  tenures,  fines  imposed  in  courts  of  justice,  iorteitures, 
&:c.  From  alienations  made  by  the  sovereigns,  and  retrenchments  of 
their  prerogative,  the  property  of  the  crown  Ls  now  become  so  in- 
considerable, that  the  kin^  may  be  regarded  as  tutirely  dependent 
on  the  people  tor  the  support  of  his  dignity,  and  the  means  of  carry- 
ing on  the  business  of  the  state.  The  public  revenue,  destined  for 
these  two  purposes,  arises  now  from  the  subsidies  granted  by  the 
people.  Tbe  supphes  are  voted  by  the  conunons,  and  the  means 
of  iurnishing  them,  by  taxes  proposed  by  the  chancellor  of  the 
exchequer,  must  receive  their  sanction. 

2.  Of  these  taxes  some  are  annual,  as  the  land  tax  and  malt  tax ; 
others  are  perpetual,  as  the  customs,  excise,  salt  duty,  pcst-otlice 
duty,  stiunps,  house  and  window  tax,  duties  on  servants,  hackney 
coaches,  pensions,  &c.  The  customs  are  a  tax  paid  by  the  merchant 
on  all  imported  and  exported  commodities;  the  excise  is  an  inland 
imposition,  laid  sometimes  on  the  consumer,  and  sometimes  on  the 
retail  seller. 

2.  The  produce  of  these  taxes  is,  in  the  first  place,  destined  to 
the  payment  of  the  interest  of  the  national  debt,  and  afterward  to 
the  ordinary  support  of  government. 

The  national  debt  arose  soon  after  the  revolution,  when  it  was 
thought  hazardous  to  impose  annual  taxes  equal  to  the  annual  ex- 
pense of  government,  and  more  expedient  to  borrow  large  sums  for 
the  immediate  service  of  the  state,  raising  animally  no  more  than 
to  pay  the  interest  of  that  debt.  The  same  system  has  been  since 
persevered  in ;  so  that  the  national  debt,  which  a  century  ago  was 
16  miUons,  is  now  above  300  millions.  To  pay  the  interest  of  this 
enormous  sum  the  produce  of  the  taxes  (excepting  the  malt  and 
land  tax)  are  primarily  destined ;  and  as  somewhat  more  is  annually 
raised  than  the  interest  of  the  debt  and  the  maintenance  of  govern- 
ment demand,  the  surplus  constitutes  a  sinking  fund  for  paying  off 
the  principal  of  the  debt. 

4.  Ttie  produce  of  the  taxes,  originally  separate  funds,  is  now 
thrown  into  two  or  three  capital  funds ;  one  of  which  is  mortgaged 
by  parUament  tor  the  maintenance  of  the  king's  household  and  the 
civil  list,  namely,  the  salaries  of  officers  of  state,  judges,  and  ambas- 
sadors, private  expenses,  pensions,  kc. 

5.  INotwithstaniiing  the  little  prospect  of  an  extinction  of  the 
national  debt,  government  maintains  its  credit,  and  will  always  find 
lenders,  because  the  terms  granted  are  beneficial,  and  the  security  is 
transferable ;  so  that  a  lender  can  thus  always  obtain  payment  of  his 
principal  sum,  and  frequently  make  gain  by  the  transference.  The 
value  of  stock  rises  and  falls  from  various  occasional  causes,  as  na- 
tional prosperity,  or  the  reverse,  plenty  or  scarcity  of  money,  quan- 
tity of  public  debt.  On  this  variation  is  founded  the  practice  ot 
stock-jobbing,  that  is,  either  buying  and  selling  actual  property  in  the 
public  funds,  which  is  a  lawful  speculation,  or  gaming  and  wagering 
on  the  price  of  stock,  which  is  an  illicit  but  common  practice.  The 
practice  of  stock-jobbing,  even  by  the  transference  ol  actual  proper- 
ty, and  far  more  by  gaming  on  that  which  is  fictitious,  is  prejudicial 
to  commerce  and  manufactures,  by  engrossing  a  great  part  of  the 
national  wealth,  repressing  industry,  encouraging  fraud,  and  oftea 
t-empting  to  the  most  treacherous  and  tkngerous  devices  for  rakii^ 
and  sinking:  the  fuods. 


SCg  MODERN  HISTOKY. 

SECTION  LXI. 
HISTORY  OF  FRANCE  UNDER  LEWIS  XIII. 

1.  France,  which  under  Henry  IV.  had  risen  from  a  state  of  miser- 
able anarchy  to  high  prosperity  and  splendour,  sunk,  upon  his  death, 
into  weakness,  faction,  and  disorder.  Mary  of  Medici,  regent  in  the 
minority  of  her  son  Lewis  Xlil.,  a  weak  womin,  and  of  restless  am- 
bition, disgusted  the  nobility  by  her  partiality  for  her  Italian  courtiexs. 
Concini,  her  first  minister,  created  marshal  d'Ancre,  became  so  uni- 
versally odious,  that  he  was  openly  murdered  in  the  Louvre,  and 
his  body  torn  to  pieces.  The  queen  was  removed  from  Paris,  and 
kept  for  two  years  a  prisoner  at  Blois,  till  relieved  by  the  duke 
d'Epernon,  to  serve  his  own  purposes  of  ambition.  The  queen's  party 
was  at  war  with  that  of  her  son,  and  the  whole  kingdom  in  a  state  of 
anarchy. 

2.  The  genius  of  cardinal  Richelieu,  who  was  now  brought  into 
power  by  Mary  of  Medici,  soon  effected  a  wonderful  change.  He 
reconciled  the  mother  and  her  son,  soothed  the  contending  factions, 
and,  on  the  king's  assuming  the  government,  directed  every  public 
measure  to  the  complete  re-establishment  of  the  power  and  dignity 
of  the  monarchy.  The  party  of  the  Calvinists,  alienated  by  perse- 
cution, attempt'-d  to  throw  oti  their  allegiance,  and  to  establish  an  in- 
dependent state,  of  which  Rochelle  was  to  be  the  capital.  Richelieu 
bargained  with  the  Dutch  to  furnish  a  fleet  for  subduing  their  prot- 
estant  brethren,  and  the  Dutch  now  fought  as  keenly  for  the  catho- 
lic religion  as  they  had  lately  fought  for  the  protestant.  The  Eng- 
lish sent  a  fleet  to  the  aid  of  the  people  of  Rochelle,  who  for  a  year 
maintained  a  most  obstinate  siege  against  the  French  troops,  com- 
manded by  the  cardinal  in  person.  They  were  at  length  forced  to 
surrender.  Rochelle  and  all  the  other  protestant  cities  of  France 
were  stripped  of  their  privileges,  and  their  fortitications  were  de- 
stroyed.    Thus  Calvinism  was  for  ever  crushed  in  France. 

3.  Lewis  Xlll.,  though  a  weak  prince,  saw  his  advantage  in  en- 
tering into  all  the  great  designs  of  his  minister.  Richelieu  influ- 
enced the  politics  of  all  Europe ;  and  the  power  of  Austria  was 
attacked  in  Germany,  Flanders,  Spain,  and  Italy.  His  talents  weie 
equally  displayed  in  active  war,  in  foreign  negotiation,  and  in  his 
domestic  arrangements.  Yet  at  this  very  time  a  formidable  cabal 
wa3  undermining  him.  Mary  of  Medici  was  jealous  of  the  man 
whom  she  had  raised  :  and  the  duke  of  Orleans,  the  king's  brother, 
sought  to  supplant  him  in  power.  Richelieu,  with  astonishing  intre- 
pidity of  mind,  repressed  this  conspiracy.  Fortifled  by  the  king's 
authority  he  seized  the  marshal  de  Mariliac,  one  of  his  most  danger- 
ous enemies,  at  the  head  of  his  army ;  and  uied  and  put  him  to 
death  by  a  lawless  stretch  of  power.  Orleans,  apprehensive  of  a 
similar  fate,  fled  from  the  kingdom ;  and  Mary  of  Medici,  arrested 
and  removed  from  court,  ended  her  career  of  ambition  in  voluntary 
exile  at  Brussels.  Orleans,  supported  by  the  duke  de  Montmorenci, 
attempted  a  rebeUion ;  but  their  army  was  defeated,  and  Montmo- 
renci executed  for  treason.  The  queen  had  taken  part  with  the 
ecniies  of  the  cardinal,  who  imprisoned  her  confessor,  and  seized 
art  examined  her  papers.  Aooe  of  Austria  waa  very  near  ehariog 
thfc  late  of  Mary  c^  Medici. 


MODERN  HISTORY.  217 

4  Amidst  all  this  turbulence  of  foreign  war  and  state  cabal,  Riche- 
lieu cuhivated  literature,  encour.iged  the  sciences,  instituted  the 
French  academy,  and  composed  i-ifxes  tor  the  theatre.  The  admin- 
istration of  Richelieu,  though  turbulent  from  laciion  and  civil  war, 
was,  on  the  whole,  extremely  glorious  for  Fraiice  ;  and  sowed  the 
seeds  of  its  splendour  in  the  succeeding  reign  of  Lewis  XIV.  The 
death  of  this  great  minister,  in  1,642,  was  soun  after  followed  by  the 
death  of  his  sovereign  Lewis  XllL,  in  1,643. 


SECTION  LXIl. 

SPAIN  UNDER  PHILIP  III.   AND  PHILIP  IV.     CONSTITUTION  OF 
PORTUGAL  AND  OF  SPAIN. 

1.  From  the  death  of  Philip  II.  Spain  declined  in  power,  and,  not- 
withstanding its  great  sources  of  wealth,  the  national  tinances  were 
in  the  utmost  disorder.  Fhiiip  III.  was  forced  to  conclude  a  peace 
with  the  Dutch,  and  to  restore  to  the  house  of  Nassau  its  confiscated 
estates.  With  a  weak  and  despicable  policy  he  expelled  from  his 
kingdom  all  the  Moors,  who  were  the  most  industrious  of  its  inhabi- 
tants, 1,610.  This  depopulation,  with  that  already  produced  by  its 
American  colonies,  rendered  Spain  a  lifeless  and  enervated  mass. 
Philip  was  entirely  under  the  inlluence  of  his  minister  the  duke  of 
Lerma. 

2.  The  national  weakness  and  disorders  increased  under  Philip  IV., 
who,  equally  spiritless  as  his  father,  was  implicitly  ruled  by  his  min- 
ister Olivarez.  His  reign  was  a  continued  series  of  miscarriages  and 
defeats.  The  Dutch  seized  Brazil;  the  French  invaded  Artois; 
Catalonia  revolted  to  France;  and  Portugal  shook  off  its  yoke,  and 
became  an  independent  kingdom. 

3.  No  revolution  was  ever  effected  with  such  ease  and  celeritar 
as  that  of  Portugal.  The  people  were  disgusted  with  the  rigorouis 
and  impolitic  administration  of  Olivarez.  The  duke  of  Braganza, 
descended  from  the  ancient  kings  of  Portugal,  had  the  command  of 
the  army.  Instigated  by  the  ambition  of  the  duchess,  and  seeing  the 
spirit  of  the  nation  favourable  to  his  views,  he  caused  himself  to  be 
proclaimed  king  at  Lisbon.  The  Spanish  guards  were  attacked  and 
routed,  and  the  chief  partisans  of  the  government  put  to  death  by 
the  populace.  All  the  principal  towns  followed  the  example  of  the 
capital,  and  soon  alter  all  the  foreign  settlements.  From  that  era, 
1,640,  Portugal  became  an  independent  sovereignty,  after  having 
been  sixty  years  an  appanage  of  the  kingdom  of  Spain, 

4.  The  government  of  Portugal  approaches  to  an  absolute  mon- 
archy. The  consent  of  the  states  or  xortes^  consisting  of  clergy, 
nobility,  and  commons,  was  formerly  necessary  to  the  imposition  of 
taxes,  and  the  settlement  of  the  succession  to  the  crown.  But  this 
assembly,  convoked  only  by  the  royal  mandate,  has  for  a  long  time 
ceased  to  meet.  The  ordinary  business  of  government  is  transacted 
by  the  king  and  his  council  of  state,  which  is  appointed  by  himself. 
The  revenue  of  the  crown  arises  from  its  domains,  including  the 
femily  estates  of  Braganza ;  from  the  duties  on  exports  and  imports, 
from  the  taxes,  and  from  a  stated  proportion  of  the  gold  brought  from 
Brazil.  The  state  of  the  commerce  and  manufactures  of  Portugal 
is  extremely  low.  Though  the  soil  and  climate  are  favourable  to 
Cultivation,  yet  the  agriculture  of  the  kingdom  is  much  neglecUd. 

T  28  ^ 


218  MODERN  HISTORY. 

5.  The  reigns  of  Philip  III.  and  IV.  of  Spain,  though  an  era  of 
national  humiliation,  derived  some  fame  from  the  state  of  literature. 
Dramatic  composition,  poetry,  romance,  and  even  history,  were 
cultivated  with  great  success.  But  these  pursuits  are  in  some  sort 
the  amusements  of  indolence,  which  was  the  predominant  character 
of  the  people.  This  character  may  have  arisen  from  two  sources. 
The  torrent  of  wealth  poured  in  from  America  retarded,  in  the  lower 
classes,  domestic  industry  and  manufactures,  while  it  increased  the 
pride  of  tlie  gentry,  and  made  them  disdain  all  occupation ;  and  the 
despotism  of  the  government  strongly  repressed  all  enterprise  and 
activity  in  the  people. 

6.  The  constitution  of  Spain,  of  which  the  sovereignty  was  in  an- 
cient times  elective,  is  now  that  of  an  absolute  monarchy.  The 
crown  is  hereditary;  though  at  different  times,  as  in  1,619  and  1,713, 
there  has  been  a  new  limitation  of  the  succession  made  by  the  mon- 
arch. The  Cortes^  or  states  of  the  kingdom,  limited  in  former  times 
the  power  of  the  sovereign;  but  Charles  V.  annihilated  their  author- 
ity, by  depriving  the  nobility  and  clergy  of  their  seat  in  those  as- 
semblies. The  remaining  members,  the  deputies  of  the  towns,  are 
entirely  under  the  control  of  the  monarch.  The  king's  council,  or 
Consejo  Real^  is  the  organ  of  government ;  but  no  department  of  the 
state  has  any  constitutional  power  to  regulate  the  will  of  the  prince. 


SECTION  LXIII. 

AFFAIRS  OF  GERMANY  FROM  THE  ABDICATION  OF  CHARLES 
V    TO  THE  PEACE  OF  WESTPHALIA. 

1.  To  preserve  the  connexion  of  the  affairs  of  Germany  with 
those  of  the  other  kingdoms  of  Europe,  we  must  return  to  the  period 
of  the  abdication  of  Charles  V.,  when  the  empire  was  distracted 
by  the  political  factions  and  quarrels  of  its  independent  princes,  and 
by  the  contending  sects  of  the  catholics,  Lutherans,  and  Calvinists. 
Ferdinand  vainly  attempted  to  reconcile  those  factions,  and  to  unite 
the  three  religions.  Maximilian  II.  had  still  less  power  to  effect  this 
object  than  his  predecessor ;  nor  was  the  state  of  affairs  changed 
during  the  succeeding  reig:is  of  Rodolphus  II.  and  Matthias.  A  civil 
war  of  thirty  years  duration  reduced  the  empire  to  extremity. 
Under  Ferdinand  II.,  a  zealous  catholic,  the  protestant  states  of  Bo- 
hemia, which  had  sutfered  under  the  government  of  Matthias,  con- 
ferred their  cr  iwn  on  the  elector  Palatine.  Ferdinand,  in  revenge, 
deprived  him  both  of  his  crown  and  electorate. 

2.  The  protestant  cause  was  declining  fast  in  Germany,  and  every 
thing  seemed  to  indicate  success  to  the  schemes  of  Ferdinand  for  its 
entire  annihilation,  when  it  received  new  vigour  from  the  interven- 
tion of  Gustavus  Adolphus  king  of  Sweden.  This  great  prince  de- 
feated the  im[>erial  generals,  and  carried  the  protestant  banners  trium- 
phantly through  Germany.  The  emperor  was  completely  humbled, 
and  the  elector  Palatine  was  on  the  eve  of  restoration  to  his  domin- 
ions, when  the  heroic  Gustavus  was  slain  in  the  battle  of  Lutzeix, 
1,632.  The  war  was  successfully  prosecuted  by  the  Swedish  gener- 
als, while  cardinal  Richeheu  harassed  the  house  of  Austria  both  in 
Qermany  and  Spain. 

3.  la  the  aucceeding  reign  of  Ferdinand  III^  the  protestants  of 


MODERN  HISTORY.  219 

Germany  found  the  most  active  support  both  from  the  Swedes  and 
the  French.  The  emperor  was  Ibrced  to  conclude  the  pe^ice  of 
Westphalia  in  1,648 ;  and  these  powers  dictated  the  terms.  By  this 
celebrated  treaty  all  disputes  were  settled  between  the  contending 
princes  of  the  empire,  and  also  between  the  contending  religions  ; 
the  Swedes  were  indemnitied  for  the  charges  of  the  war,  and  ac- 
quired Pomerania,  Stettin,  Wismar,  and  other  provinces,  and  their 
sovereign  the  dignity  of  prince  of  the  empire ;  its  chief  posse3- 
sions  were  restored  to  the  Falatme  family ;  the  king  of  France  was 
made  landgrave  of  Alsace ;  and  an  equal  establishment  of  the  three 
religions  was  decreed.  This  salutary  peace  laid  the  foundation  of 
the  future  greatness  and  prosperity  of  the  German  empire. 


SECTION  LXIV. 

FRANCE  UNDER  LEWIS  XIV. 

1.  On  the  death  of  Lewis  XIII.  in  1,633,  his  son  Lewis  XIV.  suc- 
ceeded to  the  throne  in  the  hfth  year  of  his  age.  Europe,  as  we 
have  seen,  was  in  a  most  turbiilent  state  ;  and  France,  under  the  ad- 
ministration of  Riche-jieu,  acted  a  conspicuous  part  in  exciting  those 
genei'al  commotions.  The  queen  mother  Aime  of  Austria,  appointed 
regent  by  the  states,  c^xise  for  h»r  minister  the  cardinal  iVlazarin,  an 
Italian,  and  from  that  ciicumst;  e  odious  to  the  people.  The  Span- 
iards, taking  advantage  of  t)'  king''s  minority  and  the  popular  dis- 
contents, made  an  attack  on  Champagne ;  but  were  defeated  in  a 
series  of  engagements  by  the  great  Conde.  The  marshal  de  Tu- 
renne  shared  with  him  the  palm  of  glory.  The  peace  of  Westpha- 
lia composed  those  differences. 

2.  At  this  very  time  the  commotions  of  the  Fronde  broke  out  in 
Puis.  The  jealousy  of  Mazarin's  power,  felt  by  the  nobility,  the 
unpopularity  of  his  measures,  the  disorder  of  the  finances,  and  the 
Oppression  of  new  taxes,  inflamed  the  naffon ;  and  the  intrigues  of 
the  coadjutor,  afterwards  cardinal  de  Retz,  blew  the  flame  into  a 
civil  war.  The  parliament  of  Paris  took  part  with  the  rebels,  who 
were  headed  by  the  prince  of  Conti,  the  dukes  of  Longueville  and 
Bouillon,  and  the  chief  nobility.  The  queen  and  the  Royal  family 
removed  to  St.  Germain's,  and  the  ministerial  party  besieged  Paris. 
Turenne,  who  at  tirst  supported  them,  was  gained  over  by  the 
rebels.  The  women,  who  are  always  concerned  in  the  disturbances 
of  France,  acted  a  conspicuous  part  in  those  of  the  Fronde.  A  short 
pacitication  ensued  ;  but  the  imprudent  violence  of  Mazarin  soon  re- 
newed the  disorders.  At  length  the  parliament  of  Paris  assumed 
the  right  of  banishing  this  unpopular  minister,  who  retired  to  the 
imperial  dominions  ;  but  his  influence  continued  to  regulate  the 
measures  of  state. 

3.  A  change  ensued  on  the  king's  coming  of  age,  1,652.  De 
Retz  and  Orleans,  the  chief  promoters  of  the  rebeflion,  were  ban- 
ished, and  Mazarin  resumed  nis  station  as  minister.  Conde  had 
joined  the  Spaniards  in  an  attack  on  the  French  Netherlands,  but 
was  overmatched  by  Turenne,  who  revenged  this  insult  by  the  taking 
of  Dunkirk  and  several  fortiiied  towns  under  the  Spanish  govern- 
ment. By  convention  with  Cromwell,  Dunkirk  had  been  ceded  to 
ihe  pngUsh,  !md  afterwards  sold  to  France  by  Churles  II.,  as  has  been 
veJated. 


220  MODERN  HISTORY. 

4.  The  war  with  Spain  ended  in  1 ,659,  by  the  peace  of  the  Py- 
renees. Many  cessions  were  made  on  both  sides,  but  France  kept 
Roussiilon  and  part  of  Artois.  It  was  stipulated  that  Lewis  XI v. 
should  marry  the  inianta,  daughter  of  Philip  IV^,  but  should  renounce 
all  right  which  might  thence  open  to  the  crown  of  Spain. 

5.  The  treaty  of  the  Pyrenees  gave  peace  to  the  south  of  Europe. 
The  wars  in  the  north  between  Sweden,  Poland,  and  Denmark, 
which  arose  after  the  abdication  of  Christina  of  Sweden,  were  termi- 
nated in  the  year  following  by  the  treaty  of  Oliva.  Christina,  a  sin- 
gular, but  not  a  graat  woman,  held  the  sceptre  of  Sweden  for  twen- 
ty-two years  after  the  death  of  her  father,  Gustavus  Adolphus.  At 
length,  tired  of  the  cares  of  government,  and  affecting  a  passion  for 
hterature  and  philosophy,  she  resigned  the  crown  to  her  cousin, 
Charles  X.,  in  1,654.  Soon  after  this  event  Casimer  king  of  Poland 
was  induced  by  age  and  sickness  to  abdicate  the  throne,  alter  an  hon- 
ourable reign. 

6.  Mazarin  died  in  1,661,  and  Lewis  XIV.  entered  on  a  vigorous 
and  splendid  career.  The  finances,  which  from  the  time  of  Henry  IV. 
had  been  in  extreme  disorder,  were  admirably  regulated  by  Colbert ; 
and  the  commerce  and  manufactures  of  the  kingdom,  wisely  en- 
couraged by  government,  were  soon  in  the  most  flourishing  situation. 
The  canal  of  Languedoc  joined  the  bay  of  Biscay  and  the  Med- 
iterranean ;  the  principal  sea-ports  were  enlarged  and  fortified ;  and 
the  internal  police  of  the  kingdom  was  regularly  and  strictly  enforc- 
ed. At  the  same  time  the  arms  of  France  aided  England  against  the 
Dutch,  Germany  against  the  Tuiks,  and  Portugal  against  Spain. 

7.  On  the  death  of  Philip  IV .,  Lewis,  pretending  that  Spain  had 
failed  in  payment  of  the  dowry  of  his  queen,  besieged  and  took  Lisle, 
with  several  other  fortified  towns  of  Flanders ;  and  in  the  next  cam- 
paign made  himself  master  of  Franche-Comte.  Lewis  marched  with 
his  armies,  but  the  glory  of  these  conquests  was  owing  to  Turenne 
and  Vauban.  The  triple  alliance  formed  by  England,  Holland,  and 
Sweden,  checked  this  career,  and  brought  about  the  treaty  of  Aix- 
b-Chapelle,  1,668,  by  which  Lewis,  though  he  retained  Flanders, 
restored  Franche-Comte,  and  confirmed  tlie  peace  of  the  Pyrenees. 

8.  The  strength  and  prosperity  of  the  kingdom  continued  to 
increase  under  the  able  administration  of  Colbert  and  Louvois.  The 
civil  factions  of  Holland  between  the  stadlholder  and  the  party  of 
the  De  VVits,  templed  Lewis  to  undertake  the  conquest  of  that  coun- 
try. England,  Germany,  and  Sweden,  favoured  his  views.  He 
overran  the  provinces  of  Utrecht,  Overyssel,  and  Guelderland,  and 
advanced  almost  to  the  gates  of  Amsterdam,  when  the  Dutch  inun- 
dated the  country  by  letting  in  the  sea,  and  the  French  were  forced 
to  retreat. 

9.  The  confederate  powers  now  became  jealous  of  the  ascendan- 
cy of  France ;  and  the  prince  of  Orange  had  sufficient  influence 
with  England,  and  both  branches  of  the  house  of  Austria,  to  obtain 
their  alliance  in  aid  of  the  republic.  The  arms  of  Lewis,  however, 
continued  to  be  successful,  and  the  peace  concluded  at  Nimeguen, 
in  1,678,  was  much  to  the  honour  of  France.  Franche-Comte  was 
assured  as  a  part  of  her  dominions,  and  Spain  allowed  her  right  by 
conquest  to  a  great  proportion  of  the  Netherlands. 

10.  Notwithstanding  the  peace,  Lewis,  with  the  most  culpable 
insincerity,  seized  Strasburg,  and  secretly  assisted  the  Hungarians 
and  Turks  in  their  attack  on  the  imperial  dominions.  Vienna  must 
have  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks,  if  it  had  not  been  seasonably 


*^  MODERN  HISTORY.  22^. 

Believed  by  the  victorious  arms  of  John  Sobieskl  king  of  Poland  in 

1,683. 

11.  One  of  the  weakest  and  most  impolitic  measures  of  Lewis 
XIV.,  was  the  revocation  of  the  ed^t  of  Nantes,  granted  by  Henry 
IV.  for  the  toleration  of  the  proteWants.  While  their  worship  was 
suppressed,  their  churches  demolished,  and  their  ministers  banished, 
the  protestant  laity  were  forbidden,  under  the  most  rigorous  penal- 
ties, to  quit  the  kingdom,  1,685.  France,  however,  by  this  measure, 
lost  above  500,00U  of  her  most  industrious  and  useful  subjects;  and 
the  name  of  Lewis  XIV.  was  execrated  over  a  great  part  of  Europe. 
Not  long  after  tliis  time  a  similar  excess  of  intolerant  bigotry  pre- 
cipitated James  11.  from  the  throne  of  Britain,  and  forced  him  to  seek 
an  asylum  from  the  monarch  of  France. 

12.  William  prince  of  Orange,  the  inveterate  enemy  of  Lewis, 
brought  about  the  league  of  Augsburg,  1,686;  and  the  war  w«s 
renewed  with  France  by  Germany,  Spain,  England,  and  Holland. 
The  French  arms  were  still  successful.  Lvixembiirg  defeated 
William  in  the  battles  of  Steenkirk  and  Nerwindcn;  iNcaiiles  was 
victorious  in  Spain;  and  an  army  of  R»0,000  French  ravaged  the 
Palatinate,  and  took  many  of  the  most  iniporiant  towns  on  (he  Rhine. 
T*his  was  the  crises  of  the  glory  of  Lewis,  whose  fortunes  were  to 
sustain  the  most  mortifying  reverse. 

13.  Those  various  and  most  extensive  mililnry  enterprises,  how 
ever  flattering  to  the  pride  of  the  monarch,  had  heen  attended  with 
enormous  expense,  and  no  solid  advantage  to  tlie  nation.  The 
finances  had  fallen  into  disorder  after  the  dcaih  of  Colbert,  and  a 
peace  was  absolutely  necessary.  By  the  treaty  cf  Ry^v^•ick,  concluded 
in  1,697,  Lewis  restored  to  Spain  all  the  cont|vie>ts  made  in  the  two 
last  Weirs,  several  towns  to  the  emperor,  the  duchy  of  Lorrai;ie  to  its 
duke,  and  acknowiedged  the  right  of  Wiiiiam  to  the  crown  of  Eng- 
land. 

14.  The  succession  of  the  kingdom  of  Spain,  on  l!ie  expectecj 
death  of  Charles  II.,  without  issue,  was  now  the  dject  of  political 
intrigue.  The  emperor  and  the  king  of  France  had  the  only  natural 
righi  of  succession ;  but  William  111.,  of  England,  from  the  dread 
of  such  an  increase  of  power  to  either,  proposed  a  treaty  of  partition 
of  the  Spanish  dominions,  at  home  and  abroad,  between  the  elector 
of  Bavaria,  the  dauphin,  and  the  emperor's  second  son.  Charles  II. 
chose  rather  to  make  his  own  destination,  and  appointed  by  will  that 
the  duke  of  Anjou,  second  son  of  the  dauphin,  should  inherit  Spain; 
on  whose  death  without  issue,  it  should  devolve  on  the  archduke 
Charles,'  youngest  son  of  the  emperor. 

15.  On  the  death  of  Charles  the  duke  of  Anjou  succeeded  to  the 
throne  of  Spain,  in  virliio  of  this  settlement.  The  emperor,  the 
king  of  England,  and  the  Dutch,  proposed  to  separate  from  his 
crown  tlie  Spanish  dominions  in  Italy.  In  this  enterprise  prince 
Eugene,  son  of  the  count  de  Soissons,  commanded  the  imperial 
troops,  an  illustrious  renegade  from  irance,  of  great  prowess  and 
military  skill. 

16.  James  II.  of  England  died  in  1,701  at  St.  Germain's,  and  Lewis 
gave  mortal  offence  to  the  government  of  thru  country  by  acknowl- 
edging the  title  of  his  son.  On  the  death  of  king  ^\  iliiam  in  the 
year  following  war  was  declared  by  Lngiand,  Holland,  i.nd  the  em- 
pire, against  France  and  Spain.  Lewis  Xlv .  was  now  in  tiie  decline 
of  lite.  He  had  lost  tho  ablest  of  his  ministers  and  his  greatest  gei>- 
erals.    The  finances  ol  the  kingdom  were  exhausted.    The  armies 

T2 


222  MODERN  HISTORY* 

of  his  enemies  were  commanded  by  Eugene  and  the  duke  of  Marl- 
borough, the  ablest  generals  of  the  age,  and  supported  by  the  treas- 
ures of  the  united  powers.  Savoy  and  Portugal  joined  this  formidable 
confederacy,  to  overvvlielm  botl^  branches  of  the  house  of  Bourbon 
and  place  the  emperor's  son  ohtoc  throne  of  Spain. 

17.  Marlborough  took  Venlo,  Ruremonde,  and  Liege.  Eugene 
and  Marlborough  defeated  Tallard  and  Marsin,  with  the  elector  of 
Bavaria,  in  the  signal  battle  of  Blenheim,  1,704,  England  and  Hol- 
land attacked  Spain  by  sea  and  land.  Catalonia  and  Valencia  were 
subdued  in  six  weeks.  Gibralter  was  taken  by  the  English,  and 
has  ever  since  remained  in  their  possession,  hi  the  battle  of  Rami- 
lies,  Marlborough  defeated  Vilieroy,  and  left  20,000  dead  on  the  held. 
The  contest,  at  first  doubtful  in  Italy,  ended  alike  disastrously  for  the 
house  of  Bourbon.  The  archduke  Charles  was  in  the  mean  time 
proclaimed  king  at  Madrid ;  and  Philip  V.  had  serious  thoughts  of 
abandoning  Spain,  and  establishing  his  dominion  in  America.  But 
the  successes  of  the  duke  of  Berwick,  natural  son  of  James  II.,  recov- 
ered for  a  while  his  desponding  spirit,  and  even  prompted  his  grand- 
father Lewis  to  avenge  himself  on  England,  by  aiding  the  bold  but 
desperate  enterprise  of  establishing  the  pretended  Jam.es  on  the 
throne  of  Britain. 

18.  But  France  and  Spain  were  daily  losing  ground.  The  pope 
had  acknowledged  the  tide  of  the  archduke  Charles;  the  English 
seized  the  Mediterranean  islands  ;  and  Lewis,  fallen  from  all  his 
proud  pretensions,  humbly  entreated  a  peace,  which  was  refused, 
unless  on  the  condition  of  dethroning  his  grandson  with  his  own  arms. 
He  maintained  for  a  while  this  unequal  contest,  and  was  at  length 
forced  to  propose  terms  equally  humiliating ;  the  cession  of  all  his  con- 
quests in  the  Netherlands  and  on  the  Rhine  ;  the  acknowledgment  of 
the  archduke's  title  to  the  crown  of  Spain ;  and  a  promise  to  give  no 
aid  to  his  grandson.  But  these  terms  were  refused,  and  the  inhuman 
condition  still  insisted  on,  that  he  should  assist  in  dethroning  his 
grandson.  A  last  exertion  was  made  in  Spain  under  the  duke  of 
Vendome,  at  the  head  of  a  prodigious  army ;  and  the  victory  ob- 
tained by  the  French  at  Vllla-vitiosa  restored  Philip  V.  to  the  throne 
of  Spain.  His  competitor,  tne  archduke,  soon  after  became  em- 
peror, on  the  death  of  his  elder  brother. 

19.  The  intrigues  of  the  cabinet  of  queen  Anne,  and  the  coming 
in  of  a  tory  mini-tcy,  changed  the  politics  of  Europe.  It  was  re- 
solved to  make  peace  with  i^'rance  and  Spain,  and  the  treaty  was 
concluded  at  Utrecht  in  1,713.  It  was  stipulated  that  Philip  king 
of  Spain  should  renounce  ail  eventual  right  to  the  crown  of  France, 
and  tiis  brother  to  the  crown  of  Spain.  The  Dutch  obtained  an  ex- 
tension of  frontier,  and  the  emperor  a  great  part  of  Spanish  Flanders. 
The  English  gained  from  Spam,  Gibraltar  and  Minorca,  and  I'rom 
France,  Acadia,  Newfoundland,  and  Hudson's  Bay,  with  the  demolition 
of  the  harbor  of  Dunkirk.  In  the  following  year,  a  peace  was  con- 
ciudt  d  at  Rastadt  between  France  and  the  empire. 

20.  1  ne  conclusion  of  this  peace,  after  an  honourable  war,  was 
■the  most  nemorable  event  in  the  reign  of  queen  Anne,  if  we  except 
the  union  of  the  two  kingdoms  of  England  and  Scotland,  in  1 ,706,  which 
was  brought  about  by  the  negotiation  of  commissioners  mutually 
chosen,  to  secure  the  rights  of  each  kingdom  in  the  best  manner  for 
their  niutual  benefi*.  It  was  stipulated  that  both  sbould  be  represent- 
ed by  one  pariiam^nt  (Sect.  LIX.,  §  8),  that  they  should  have  the 
some  ja-rvileges  with  respect  to  commerce,  and  that  «ach  kingdom 


MODERN  HISTORY.  \ 

should  retain  its  own  laws  and  established  religion.  The  succession 
to  the  crown  was  limited  to  the  house  of  Hanover.  Queen  Anne 
died  on  the  30th  of  July,  1,714.  Lewis  XIV.  died  on  the  1st  of 
September,  1,713,  in  the  78th  year  of  his  age.  He  was  a  prince  of 
great  vigour  of  mind,  of  good  talents,  though  unimproved  by  educa- 
tion, of  dignified  yet  amiable  mannei"s.  His  greatest  lault  was  inor- 
dinate ambition,  to  which  he  sacrificed  the  real  interests  of  his  people. 
It  was  his  highest  honour,  that  he  discerned  and  recompensed  every 
species  of  merit.  France  was  in  his  time  equally  illustrious  by  the 
great  military  talents  of  her  generals,  and  by  the  splendour  of  liter- 
ature and  of  the  ails  and  sciences. 


SECTION  LXV. 

OF   THE    CONSTITUTION  OF  FRANCE   UNDER    THE   MONAR- 
CHY. 

1.  It  is  necessary  for  understanding  the  history  of  France,  that 
we  should  have  some  acquaintance  with  its  former  monarchical  con- 
stitution :  we  shall  therefore  briefly  trace  the  progress  of  the  gov- 
ernment under  the  different  races  of  its  sovereigns.  The  regal  pre- 
rogative was  extremely  hmited  under  the  Merovingian  princes. 
(Sect.  II.,  III.)  The  general  assembly  of  the  nation  had  the  right  of 
electing  the  sovereign,  and  the  power  of  legislation.  Under  the 
Carlovingian  race  the  authority  acquired  by  Pepin  and  Charlemagne 
sunk  to  nothing  in  the  hands  of  their  weak  posterity ;  and  though 
the  crown  had  ceased  to  be  elective,  the  regal  dignity  was  a  mere 
shadow.  The  power  of  the  state  had  passed  into  the  hands  of  a 
turbulent  aristocracy,  ever  at  variance  among  themselves,  and  uniting 
only  to  abase  the  crown  and  to  oppress  the  people. 

2.  Under  the  third  or  Capetian  race  the  crown  acquired  more 
weight,  and  many  of  the  sovereigns  exerted  a  proper  spirit  in  re- 
straining the  power  of  the  nobles,  and  hi  punisiiing  their  lawless 
outrages.  To  balance  the  weight  of  the  aristocracy  Philip  the  fair 
introduced  the  third  estate  to  the  national  assemblies,  which  for 
above  four  centuries  had  consisted  only  of  the  nobles  and  clergy. 
The  chief  power  of  the  state  began  now  to  shift  to  the  scale  of  fhe 
monarch.  The  national  assembly  interfered  rather  to  ratify  than  to 
decree  ;  and  in  the  fifteenth  century  the  right  of  legislation  was  under- 
stood to  reside  wholly  in  the  crown.  The  right  of  taxation  seemed 
to  follow  of  course.  The  assemblies  or  states-general  were  now 
rarely  convened,  and  from  the  reign  of  Lewis  Xlll.  were  discontinued. 

3.  But  another  power  gradually  rose  in  the  state,  which  in  some 
measure  supplied  the  function  of  the  assemblies  in  limiting  the  royal 
prerogative.  The  parliaments  were  originally  the  chief  courts  of 
justice  in  the  territory  where  they  were  established.  The  parlia- 
ment of  Paris  naturally  claimed  a  higher  respect  and  dignity  than 
the  parliaments  of  the  provinces ;  and,  acquiring  a  right  of  appeal 
from  their  decrees,  was  considered  as  the  paramount  jurisdiction, 
and  the  depository  of  the  laws  of  the  kingdom.  The  sovereigns  of 
France,  on  first  assuming  the  powers  of  legislation  and  taxation,  prol 
duced  their  edicts  to  be  registered  in  the  court  of  the  parliament  of 
Paris,  and  frequently  consulted  with  its  members  on  momentous 
afiairs  of  state,  as  in  questions  of  peace,  war,  or  alliance.    Thus  the 


m  MODERN  HISTORY. 

nation  began  to  regard  the  parliament  of  Paris  as  a  body  which 
shared  the  powers  of  government  with  the  monarch.  In  the  latter 
reigns  the  parliament  availed  itself  of  that  general  opinion,  and  made 
a  bSld  stand  in  opposing  any  arbitrary  stretches  of  the  king's  author- 
ity, by  refusing  to  verify  and  register  his  edicts. 

4.  But  as  this  power  of  the  parliament  was  in  reality  a  usurpation, 
it  was  constantly  *a  subject  of  dispute.  The  members  of  this  court 
were  in  no  sense  the  representatives  of  the  people,  nor  vested  with 
any  portion  of  the  constitutional  authority  of  the  national  assemblies. 
They  were  in  the  king's  nomination,  removable  by  him  at  pleasure, 
and  even  subject  to  entire  annihilation  as  a  body  at  his  command. 
Even  without  so  violent  a  remedy,  the  sovereign  could  at  any  time 
frustrate  their  opposition  to  his  will,  by  personally  appearing  in  the 
hall  of  parliament,  and  commanding  his  edict  to  be  registered. 

5.  Yet  a  power  thus  easily  defeasible  had  its  advantages  to  the 
state,  and  operated  as  a  considerable  restraint  on  the  royal  authority. 
Considering  itself  iis  the  guardian  of  the  public  liberty,  it  remonstrat- 
ed against  all  arbitrary  encroachments  of  the  crown,  and  by  giving 
alarm  to  the  nation,  furnished  an  opposition  sufficiently  powerful  to 
obtain  its  ends.  The  provincial  parliaments,  though  they  likewise 
registered  the  royal  edicts,  never  assumed  any  similar  authority. 
They  were  only  the  chief  courts  of  civil  judicature. 

6.  The  king  of  France  was  therefore  to  be  considered  as  an  ab- 
solute monarch,  whose  authority  was  in  some  degree  limited  by  the 
consuetudinary  regulations  of  the  state,  and  could  not  easily  become 
entirely  despotic  and  tyrannical.  The  crown  was  hereditary,  but 
could  not  descend  to  a  female,  nor  to  a  natural  son.  The  royal  rev- 
enue was  partly  fixed  and  partly  arbitrary.  The  fixed  revenue  cnnv 
prehended  the  royal  domains,  the  duties  on  wines  and  salt,  the  land 
tax,  capitation  tax,  and  gift  of  the  clergy ;  the  other  arose  from  all 
other  taxes  which  the  monarch  thought  tit  to  impose,  and  from  the 
sale  of  offices.  Most  of  these  duties  were  leased  out  to  the  farmers- 
general. 

7.  The  Gallican  church,  though  catholic,  and  acknowledging 
the  spiritual  authority  of  the  pope,  had  greatly  abridged  his  ancient 
prerogatives  within  the  kingdom.  The  assembly  of  the  church 
declared,  in  1,682,  that  no  temporal  sovereign  could  be  deposed  by 
the  pope,  nor  subjects  absolved  from  their  allegiance  :  it  decreed  the 
subjection  of  the  pope  to  the  councils  of  the  church,  and  denied  his 
infallibility  when  in  opposition  to  the  canons  of  those  councils.    The 

{)ope  had  no  power  to  levy  money  in  France  without  the  royal 
icense.  In  short,  the  ecclesiastical  authority  was  in  all  repctc  ="^^ 
ordinate  to  the  civil. 


^  SECTION  LXVl. 

OF  PETER  THE  GREAT,  CZAR  OF  MUSCOVY,  AND  CHARLES 
XII.,  KING  OF  SWEDEN. 

1.  Two  most  illustrious  men  adorned  the  north  of  Europe  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  age  of  Lewis  XIV.,  Peter  the  great  of  Muscovy, 
and  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden. 

Russia  is  said  to  have  received  the  light  of  Christianity  in  the  . 
tenth  century,  but  its  history  is  utterly  unknown  till  the  middle  of 


MODERN  HISTORY.  225 

the  fifteenth.  At  that  period  John  Basilowitz  redeemed  the  enopire 
from  its  subjection  to  the  Tartars,  and  extended  its  limits.  His  suc- 
cessors maintained  a  considerable  splendour  as  sovereigns ;  but  their 
dominions  were  uncultivated,  and  their  subjects  barbarians.  Alexis 
Michaelowitz,  father  of  Peter  the  great,  was  the  tirst  who  pubUshed 
a  code  of  lavvs.  At  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century  Siberia  was 
added  to  the  empire,  which  till  that  time  had  been  bounded  by  the 
hmits  of  Europe. 

2.  Peter,  the  youngest  son  of  the  emperor  Alexis,  became  mas- 
ter of  the  empire  in  1,689,  by  setting  aside  a  weak  elder  brother, 
and  banishing  a  factious  sister,  who  had  seized  the  government.  He 
was  uneducated,  and  his  youth  had  been  spent  in  debauchery  ;  but 
his  new  situation  immediately  displayed  his  talents,  and  gave  birth  to 
the  wisest  plans  for  the  improvement  of  a  barbarous  people.  The 
anny  and  navy  demanded  his  tirst  attention.  He  began  by  breaking 
the  turbulent  "militia  of  the  Strelitzes,  and  by  degrees  formed  a  regu- 
lar army  of  12,000  men  on  the  strictest  model  of  discipline.  He  em- 
ployed some  Dutchmen  to  build  a  small  tleet,  and  made  the  first  ex- 
periment of  his  arms  in  taking  Azof  from  the  Turks  in  1,696. 

3.  Having  §i;iined  the  little  instruction  which  he  possessed  from 
foreigners,  Peter  resolved  to  travel  in  search  of  knowledge.  Ap- 
pointing Le  Fort,  an  able  Genevese,  his  ambassador,  he  travelled 
as  a  private  person  in  his  suite  through  Germany  to  Holland,  and 
studied  the  art  of  ship-building,  by  working  in  the  docks  with  his 
own  hands.  Thence  he  passed  to  England,  and  in  a  similar  manner 
acquired  the  knowledge  of  every  art  fitted  for  the  improvement  of 
his  kingdom.  The  relative  sciences  were  cultivated  with  the  same 
ardour  and  success  ;  and  in  sixteen  months  he  returned  to  Moscow  to 
reduce  those  important  acquirements  into  practice. 

4.  Regiments  were  raised  and  trained  to  exercise  on  the  German 
model ;  the  finances  arranged  and  systematized ;  the  church  re- 
formed by  new  canons  and  regulations;  the  partriarchate  abolish- 
ed ;  and  a  much  abused  civil  and  criminal  jurisdiction  taken  from 
the  clergy.  It  was  necessary  to  carry  this  relbrm  even  to  the  abo- 
lition of  the  national  dress,  and  the  suppression  of  ancient  usages 
and  habits  of  life,  innovations  reluctantly  submitted  to,  but  enforced 
by  absolute  power. 

5.  While  this  great  genius  was  thus  employed  in  new-modelling 
and  polishing  a  barbarous  empire,  a  competitor  arose  to  dispute  with 
him  the  sovereignty  of  the  north,  and  to  divide  the  admiration  of 
Europe.  Charles  XII.  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  Sweden  in  1,695, 
at  fifteen  years  of  age  ;  a  prince  whose  singular  heroism  of  character 
and  extraordinary  achievements  have  ranked  him  with  the  greatest 
conquerors  of  antiquity.  The  situation  of  his  kingdom  speedily 
brought  his  genius  into  display.  Russia,  Poland,  and  Denmark,  joined 
in  a  league  to  seize  and  divide  his  dominions.  The  attack  was 
begun  by  the  Danes  on  Holstein,  while  the  king  of  Poland  invaded 
Livonia,  and  the  czar,  Ingria.  Charles  immediately  landed  an  army 
on  Zealand,  at  the  gates  of  Copenhagen,  and  in  six  weeks  forced  the 
king  to  purchase  the  safety  of  his  capital  and  kingdom,  by  laying 
down  his  arms,  and  making  full  indemnity  to  the  duke  of  Holstein. 
He  now  hastened  into  Ingria,  and  at  the  battle  of  Nart^a  defeated 
60,000  of  the  Russians,  and  took  30,000  prisoners.  Such  was  the 
first  campaign  of  Charles  XII.,  then  a  boy  of  seventeen. 

6.  Poland  was  destined  to  receive  a  more  humiUaling  chastise- 
ment.   Charles  reduced  Courland  and  Lithuania,  penetrated  into  the 

29 


226  MODERN  HISTORY. 

heart  of  the  kingdom,  and  subdued  the  capitals  of  Warsaw  and  Cra- 
cow.  He  then  assembled  the  states,  declared  king  Augustas  de- 
posed, and  signified  his  pleasure  that  Stanislaus,  his  own  dependant, 
sliould  be  elected  sovereign  of  Poland.  The  factions  of  the  king- 
dom aided  this  revolution,  and  the  will  of  Charles  was  complied 
with.  The  deposed  king  retired  to  his  electoral  dominions  of 
Saxony. 

7.  A  negotiation  begun  with  the  czar  was  abruptly  terminated  by 
Charles,  who  declared  (hat  he  would  negotiate  only  at  Moscow. 
Entering  the  Russian  dominions  with  45,000  men,  he  was  in  the  way 
of  executing  his  threat,  when  he  was  induced,  by  a  treaciierous 
promise  of  aid  from  the  Cossacks,  to  march  through  the  Ukraine  in 
the  depth  of  winter.  His  army  was  wasted  by  fatigue  and  famine, 
when  he  was  encountered  by  the  czar  at  Pultowa;  and  the  fate  of 
Russia,  Sweden,  and  Poland,  hung  upon  that  battle.  Charles  was 
entirely  defeated :  9,000  Swedes  fell  in  the  field,  and  14,000  were 
taken  prisoners,  1,709.  Augustus  was  restored  to  the  throne  of 
Poland,  and  the  czar  took  possession  of  Finland  and  Livonia. 

8.  With  the  wreck  of  his  army,  reduced  to  1,800  men,  Charles 
retreated  into  the  Turkish  dominions,  and  formed  a  camp  near  Ben- 
der. He  endeavoured  to  prevail  upon  the  grand  seignior  to  arm 
against  the  czar,  and  succeeded  after  a  long  negotiation.  Two  hun- 
dred thousand  Turks  took  the  field,  and  the  czar's  army,  far  inferior 
in  number,  was  surrounded,  and,  after  ineffectual  resistance,  forced 
to  capitulate  to  the  grand  vizier.  The  news  of  this  capitulation  de- 
stroyed all  the  hopes  of  Charles  ;  and  his  subsequent  conduct  seems 
the  result  of  frenzy.  The  grand  seignior  having  intimated  his  de- 
sire tiiat  the  Swedes  should  quit  his  territories,  Charles  fortified  his 
camp,  and  declared  that  he  would  defend  it  to  the  last  extremity. 
After  every  means  ineftectuallv  tried  to  make  him  alter  this  resolu- 
tion, he  was  attacked  by  the  Turkish  army,  and  taken  fighting  sword 
in  hand  amidst  a  massacre  of  his  troops. 

9.  In  the  mean  time  the  czar  and  the  king  of  Denmark  were  rav- 
aging Sweden.  Charles  returned  in  disguise  with  two  of  his  officers, 
to  his  own  dominions,  and  immediately  conceived  the  design  of 
wresting  Norway  from  Denmark.  Faihng  in  the  outset  of  this  enter- 
prise, he  was  persuaded  by  Gortz,  his  prime  minister,  to  attempt  to 
dethrone  George  II.,  to  seize  a  part  of  his  continental  dominions,  and 
to  place  the  pretender  James  on  the  throne  of  England.  This 
project  was  concerted  between  Gortz  and  Alberoni,  prime  minister 
of  Philip  V.  The  czar  joined  in  the  scheme,  and  made  peace  with 
Sweden  ;  but  an  unforeseen  event  broke  all  their  measures.  In  be- 
sieging the  Norwegian  fortress  of  Frederickshall,  Charles  was  killed 
by  a  cannon-ball,  on  the  1  1th  of  ])ecember,  1,718. 

10.  Sweden  gained  by  the  death  of  Charles  a  reformation  of  her 
government,  and  a  salutary  limitation  of  the  arbitrary  power  of  the 
sovereign.  His  sister  Ulrica  succeeded  to  the  throne,  and  raised  to 
it  her  husband,  Frederick  landgrave  of  Hesse-Cassel.  The  states 
made  peace  with  all  the  hostile  powers.  The  czar  was  now  engaged 
in  a  war  with  Persia,  in  the  view  of  obtaining  the  command  and 
commerce  of  the  Caspian.  This  object  he  accomplished,  and  gained, 
by  cession  from  the  sophi,  three  provinces  of  the  P^^rsian  empire. 

Peter  the  great  died  .lanuary  28,  1,725,  and  was  succeeded  by  the 
czarina  Catherine,  formely  a  Livonian  captive,  who  possessed  merit 
equal  to  her  elevated  station.  His  only  son,  Alexis  Petrowitz,  had 
been  condemned  to  lose  his  life  for  treason,  and  the  mode  of  his 


MODERN  HISTORY.  22T 

death,  which  immediately  followed  his  condemnation,  is  unknown. 
Russia  owes  to  Peter  the  great  all  those  beneficial  improvements 
which  have  raised  her,  within  the  period  of  a  century,  from  barba- 
fism  and  obscurity,  to  the  highest  rank  among  tiie  powers  of  Europe. 


SECTION  LXVIL 

A  VIEW  OF  THE  PROGRESS  OF  SCIENCE  AND  LITERATURE 
IN  EUROPE,  FROM  'J^HE  END  OF  THE  FIFTEENTH  TO  THE 
END  OF  THE  SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY. 

1.  We  have  seen  how  much  literature  and  the  sciences  were  in- 
debted to  the  art  of  priming  for  their  advancement  and  dissemination 
toward  the  end  of  the  tilteenth  century.  (Sect.  XXXIV.,  ^  12.) 
From  that  period  classical  learning,  criticism,  poetry,  and  history, 
made  a  rapid  progress  in  most  of  the  kingdoms  ol"  Europe.  Philos- 
ophy did  not  keep  pace  with  literature.  The  dogmas  of  Aristotle 
l)a<l  kept  possession  of  the  schools  till  the  seventeenth  century,  and 
had  engrafted  themselves  even  on  the  doctrines  of  theology.  It 
required  a  superior  genius  to  dissipate  the  mist  of  eiror,  and  to 
break  the  tetters  on  all  advancement  in  usetul  science.  Such  was 
the  great  Bacon  lord  Verulam,  the  most  profound  philosopher,  and 
perhaps  the  most  universal  gennis,  that  any  age  has  produced.  We 
find  in  his  works  an  estimate  of  the  actual  attainments  in  all  the 
sciencesj  a  catalogue  of  the  desiderata  in  each  department,  and  a 
detail  of  the  methods  best  suited  to  prosecute  improvement  and  new 
discoveries.  In  fine,  we  owe  to  Bacon  the  sure  method  of  advanc- 
ing in  knowledge  by  experiment  and  the  observation  of  nature, 
instead  of  system  and  conjecture. 

2.  The  philosophy  of  Bacon  produced  its  effect  only  by  slow  de- 
grees. Gassendi,  though  he  exposed  the  doctrines  of  Aristotle,  was 
still  a  theorist,  and  attempted  to  revive  the  atomic  system  of  Epicu- 
rus. Des  Cartes  followed  in  the  same  track,  and  reared  a  whimsical 
theory  of  the  universe,  produced,  as  he  supposed,  by  the  fortuitous 
combination  of  atoms,  moving  in  vortices  through  the  immensity  of 
space  ;  a  theory  recommended  by  the  ingenuity  with  which  it  was 
supported,  and  its  apparently  solving  many  ot  the  phenomena  of 
nature.  A  century  before  Copernicus  had  published  his  system  of 
the  planets,  which,  though  condemned  by  the  church,  was  received 
by  Des  Cartes  and  the  best  philosophers. 

3.  Gahleo,  in  1,609,  constructed  telescopes  (Sect.  XXXI V^,  §  5), 
and  discovered  the  satellites  of  the  larger  planets,  Ju}  iter  and  Saturn, 
and  their  motions,  for  which  he  was  rewarded  by  imprisonment,  as  a 
supporter  of  the  Copernican  heresy.  Kepler  investigated  the  laws 
which  regulated  the  motions  of  the  planets,  and  the  analogy  between 
their  distances  from  the  sun  and  periodical  revolutions.  The  discov- 
eries in  astronomy  led  to  improvements  in  navigation,  and  a  great  ad- 
vancement of  geometry  in  all  its  branches.  Napier,  in  1,614,  abridg- 
ed calculation  by  the  invention  of  logarithms.     The  Toricellian  ex- 

Seriments  determined   the   weight   of  the  atmosphere.     In  1,616 
larvey  discovered  the  circulation  of  the  blood. 

4.  The  Royal  Society,  which  originated  from  private  meetings  of 
the  English  philosophers,  was  incorporated  by  Charles  II.,  in  1,662. 
tnd  has  greatly  contributed  to  the  advancement  of  the  sciences  and 


228  MODERN  HISTORY. 

useful  arts.  The  Royal  Academy  of  Scierx^es  was  instituted  in  I,66S 
by  Lewis  XIV.  Similar  institutions  were  I'oanded  iii  inost  of  tiie  cir-un- 
tries  of  Europe ;  among  which  there  is  a  communication  of  science, 
and  a  laudable  emulation  excited  by  the  publicciiun  of  theii  transac- 
tions. 

5.  In  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century  arose  the  immortal  Newton, 
who,  by  exliaustiiig  the  most  important  discoveries  of  the  latvs  cf  na- 
ture, has  rendered  it  impossible  for  jvosteriiy  lo  eclipse  his  f  ime.  He 
had  discovered,  before  the  age  of  twenty-four,  tlie  theory  of  universal 
gravituiion,  a  principle  which  solves  the  chief  phenomena  of  nature, 
and  connects  and  regulates  the  whole  machine  of  the  universe,  iiis 
theory  of  light  and  colours  is  the  foundation  of  the  whole  science  of 
optics,  and  his  Principia  the  basis  and  elements  of  all  pliilosopiiy. 

6.  Locke,  the  contemporary  of  Newton,  successfully  applied  lord 
Bacon's  mode  of  investigation  to  the  study  of  the  human  mind ;  and, 
utterly  rej»icting  the  systems  of  the  old  philosoph'.^rs,  examined  the 
soul  by  attending  to  its  operations.  From  the  simple  fict  that  all 
knowledge  is  prog'.:essive,  and  that  an  infant  gains  its  ideas  gradually 
through  the  medium  of  its  senses,  he  drew  the  general  conclusion, 
that  there  are  no  innate  ideas  in  the  mind,  but  that  all  are  either  im- 
mediate perceptions  conveyed  by  the  senses,  or  acts  of  the  mind  re- 
flecting on  those  perceptions;  a  conclusion  wiiicii  has  been  obstinate- 
ly controverted,  chiedy  by  drawing  from  it  false  consequences,  but 
which  has  never  yet  been  shaken. 

7.  The  progress  of  literature  in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth 
centuries  was  equally  remarkable  with  that  of  science  and  philoso- 
phy. Trissino  was  the  tirst  of  the  moderns  who  composed  an  epic 
poem  in  the  language  of  his  country,  LP  Italia  liberata  da  Goti^  and 
the  first  Italian  wiio  wrote  a  regular  tragedy,  Sophomsha.  Of  merit 
mucii  superior  to  the  epic  poem  of  Trissino  is  the  Lntsiad  of  the 
Portuguese  Camoens,  a  work  abounding  with  passages  of  high  iJoelic 
beauty,  and  displaying  a  sublime  imagination.  In  the  end  of  the  six- 
teenth century  Spain  produced  the  Araucana  of  Ercilla,  an  epic  poem 
of  great  inequality  of  merit,  but  frequently  exhibiting  novelty  ot 
figures  and  bold  conceptions.  The  subject  is  a  revolt  of  the  f  eru- 
vians  against  the  Spaniards. 

8.  liut  the  principal  epic  poems  of  this  age  are  the  Orlando  Fu- 
rioso  of  Ariosto,  and  the  Gierusukminc  Liberata  of  Tasso :  the  former 
a  work  most  irregular  in  its  plan,  most  unconnected  and  desultory  in 
its  conduct,  most  extravagant  and  absurd  in  the  characters  of  its  per- 
sons, but  displaying  alternately  every  excellence  of  poetry  in  the 
various  departments  of  the  descriptive,  comic,  satiric,  moral,  and 
suiilime.  The  Gierusaleiaine  of  Tasso,  of  a  regular  plan  and  perlect 
poiisii  in  its  structure,  has  been  frequently  brought  in  comparison 
with  the  equally  highly  tinished  poem  of  the  JEiieid;  nor  does  the 
Italian  sutler  much  in  the  comparison.  There  is  a  romantic  charm 
both  in  the  incidents  and  characters  of  his  poem,  which  must  evei  ren- 
der it  a  favourite  with  all  readers  of  genuine  taste. 

9.  From  the  time  of  Tasso  the  genius  of  epic  poetry  lay  dormant 
for  a  century,  till  the  days  of  Milton;  for  the  Fairy  Queen  of  Spenser 
is  rather  a  romantic  allegory  than  an  epic  poem.  The  Paradise  Lost, 
compared  with  the  great  poems  of  antiquity,  is  more  irregular  and 
less  perfect  as  a  whole  than  the  Iliad,  JFneid,  and  Odyssey ;  but  ex- 
hibits, in  detached  parts,  more  of  the  sublime  and  beautiful  than  any 
of  them.  It  has  been  well  remarked,  that  the  mequality  of  this  poem 
aiises  ki  a  great  measure  from  the  nature  of  the  subject,  of  which 


MODERN  HISTORY.  229 

some  parts  are  the  most  lofty  which  can  enter  into  the  human  mind, 
and  others  could  only  have  been  supported  by  a  laborious  elegance 
and  polish,  which  the  author's  genius  could  not  stoop  to  bestow. 

10.  Lyric  poetry  was  cultivated  in  the  sixteenth  century,  in  Italy^ 
France,  and  England,  but  with  no  great  success.  The  less  poems  ot 
Ariosto  and  Tasso  have  no  tincture  of  the  genius  displayed  in  the  if 
greater  works.  Chiabrera  is  perhaps  the  only  lyric  poet  of  this 
period  that  merits  distinction.  In  France,  Ronsard  and  Bellay  imi- 
tated Petrarch  with  all  his  false  wit,  but  without  his  passion.  Marot, 
however,  in  the  naivete  and  easy  vein  of  his  humour,  is  justly  ae- 
counted  the  master  of  La  Fontaine.  In  the  beginning  of  the  seven- 
teenth centnry  French  versirication  received  a  considerable  polish 
from  the  compositions  of  Racan,  and  yet  more  from  those  of  Mal- 
herbe  ;  and  toward  the  end  of  that  century  lyric  poetry  was  cultivat- 
ed with  high  success  by  La  Farre,  Chapelle,  and  Bachaun^ont,  Chau- 
lieu  and  Gresset. 

1 1 .  The  English  lyric  poetry  of  the  sixteenth  century,  of  Spenser, 
Surrey,  Harrington,  Sydney,  and  even  Shakespeare,  is  harsh  and 
unharnionious;  nor  is  much  improvement  discernible  till  the  time  of 
Cowley  and  Waller.  The  merit  of  Cowley  as  a  lyric  poet  was  too 
highly  prized  in  his  own  age,  and  is  underrated  in  ours.  With  all  his 
false  wit,  pedantry,  and  obscurity,  he  is  often  both  sublime  and 
pathetic  in  no  moderate  degree.  The  lyric  ode  in  the  third  book  of 
the  Daviihis  has  lew  parallels  in  the  English  language.  As  a  prose 
writer,  Cowley  shines  in  that  age  with  superior  excellence.  Waller 
is  more  polished  and  harmonious  than  any  of  the -preceding  or  con- 
temporary poets,  but  his  wit  is  quaint,  and  his  elevation  too  frequent- 
ly bombast. 

12.  Dry  den,  in  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century,  carried  lyric 
poetry  to" perfection.  His  Ode  on  St  Cecilia's  day  surpasses  all  the 
lyric  compositions  both  of  ancient  and  modern  times.  He  shines 
conspicuously  as  a  satirist,  possessing  the  keen  and  caustic  wit,  with- 
out the  indelicacy,  of  Juvenal  or  Horace.  His  veiijions  from  Chau- 
cer and  Boccacio  are  easy  and  spirited,  and  display  a  happy  talent 
for  poetical  narrative.  His  numerous  dramatic  pieces,  though  exhib- 
iting both  invention  and  poetic  beauty,  are  deticient  in  true  passion, 
and  in  the  just  delineation  of  character. 

13.  At  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  drama  in  Europe  be- 
gan to  furnish  a  rational  entertainment.  At  that  period.  Lope  de 
V  ega  and  Calderona  in  Spain,  and  Shakespeare  in  England,  produced 
those  pieces,  which,  though  irregular  and  stained  with  blemishes, 
are  at  this  day  the  admiration  of  their  countrymen.  The  Spanish 
plays  of  that  age  have  been  a  rich  mine  for  succeeding  dramatists, 
both  among  the  French,  Italians,  and  English.  The  merits  of  Shakes- 
peare are  familiar  to  every  person  of  taste.  Ignorant  of  the  rules 
of  his  art,  he  is  the  pure  child  of  nature,  and  thus  exhibits  often  her 
caprices  and  absurdities ;  but  these  are  redeemed  by  the  most  trans- 
cendent beauties.  The  old  English  drama  is,  with  all  its  irregular- 
ities, incomparably  superior  to  the  modern,  both  in  touching  the  pas- 
sions and  in  displaying  just  views  of  human  character.  The  person* 
are  more  discriminated  by  various  and  appropriate  features,  and  the 
nicer  shades  of  nearly  resembling  characters  are  thus  more  distinctly 
marked.  The  mixture  of  the  comic  and  tragic  in  the  same  plot, 
though  condemned  by  modem  practice,  is  a  great  source  of  pleasure 
in  the  pieces  of  Shakespeare  und  Lit  contemporaries ;  nor  is  there  any 
thing  in  such  a  mixture  but  what  is  consonant  to  nature.    To  a  pep 


a30  MODERN  HISTORY 

son  of  true  taste  it  will  be  found  often  to  heighten,  by  contrast,  the 
capital  emotion  to  be  exciter!. 

14.  The  compositions  for  the  French  stage,  in  the  end  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  are  strictly  conformable  to  dramatic  rules; 
and  many  of  those  pieces  are  models  of  a  correct  and  polished  taste. 
The  morality  of  the  French  drama  of  that  age  and  the  next  is  in  gen- 
eral purer  than  ours ;  but  their  pieces  are  deficient  in  the  nice  delin- 
eation of  character,  and  in  the  power  of  exciting  the  passions. 
Corneille  and  Racine  brought  the  1-  rench  tragedy  to  its  highest  ele- 
vation ;  as  Mohere  the  comedy.  Corneille  has  more  grandeur  and 
sublimity  than  his  rival,  who  excels  him  in  the  tender  and  pathetic. 
The  comedies  of  Moliere,  highly  amusing  in  the  present  time,  were 
more  particularly  valuable  in  the  age  when  they  were  written,  and 
had  a  sensible  effect  in  correcting  its  prevailing  follies ;  the  pedantry 
of  the  ladies,  the  ignorance  and  quackery  of  the  physicians,  and  the 
pride  and  arrogance  of  the  French  noblesse.  The  last  of  the  emi- 
nent dramatists  who  adorned  France  in  the  seventeenth  century  was 
the  elder  Crebillon,  who  drew  many  sublime  and  impassioned  scenes 
from  the  source  of  terror  ;  and  who,  in  all  his  works,  was  as  emi- 
nently the  friend  of  virtue  as  his  worthless  son  has  been  the  pander 
of  vice. 

15.  The  most  eminent  historians  of  the  sixteenth  century  are, 
De  Thou,  Davila,  and  Machiavel.  De  Thou  has  written  the  annals 
of  his  own  time,  from  1,545  to  1^607,  with  great  judgment,  and  in 
most  elegant  Latin  composition.  The  history  of  Davila,  the  annals 
of  the  civil  wars  of  France  in  the  time  of  the  league,  though  the 
work  of  a  partisan,  is  composed  with  no  common  degree  of  candour 
and  impartiality.  In  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century  Machia- 
vel wrote  his  History  of  Florence,  of  which  the  style  is  classical  and 
the  matter  well  arranged,  but  too  much  interrupted  by  reflections  and 
political  discussions.  In  the  seventeenth  century  Bentivoglio  com- 
posed his  History  of  the  Civil  Wars  of  Flanders,  with  the  most  ac- 
curate knowledge  of  his  subject,  perspicuity  of  narrative,  and  ele- 
gance of  style.  Among  the  English  historians  in  the  beginning  of 
that  period  Raleigh  is  the  most  distinguished ;  though  his  History  of 
the  VVorld  is,  in  point  of  style,  inferior  to  the  judgment  shown  in  the 
arrangement  of  the  matter.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth 
century.  Clarendon's  History  of  the  Rebellion  is  a  work  of  the  high- 
est merit,  whether  we  consider  the  authenticity  of  the  facts,  the  deep 
knowledge  of  human  nature  displayed  in  the  deUneation  of  the 
characters,  or  the  grave  and  manly  eloquence  of  the  style.  If,  in 
the  opposition  of  political  opinions,  he  has  been  deemed  too  partial 
in  defence  of  his  sovereign,  even  his  adversaries  have  admitted  his 
perfect  integrity,  and  entire  conviction  of  the  rectitude  of  the  cause 
which  he  supports. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS. 


SECTION  I. 

A  GENERAL   VIEW   OF   THE   HISTORY  OF  MANKIND  IN  THE 
PRIMEVAL  AGES. 

1 .  In  contemplating  those  great  outlines  of  history,  the  memorable 
and  important  events  which  have  determined  the  condition  of  man- 
kind, and  rendered  the  aspect  of  the  moral  and  intellectual  world 
such  as  we  now  view  it,  we  shall  tind  abundant  subjects  for  observa- 
tion and  efiection.  In  many  cases  we  shall  be  obliged  to  have  re- 
course to  conjecture,  founded  on  different  degrees  of  probability : 
and  some  of  those  probabilities  may  be  so  corroborated  by  general 
existing  circumstances  as  to  amount  almost  to  certainty. 

2.  Of  the  primeval  state  of  mankind  we  know  little  from  historical 
information,  and  can  form  an  opinion  of  it  only  from  conjecture 
founded  on  the  nature  of  things,  t  rom  the  extremely  slow  progress  of 
civilization  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  men  must  have  existed  a 
long  time  before  they  began  to  write  the  history  of  such  transactions 
and  events  as  they  deemed  most  important  All  their  care  and  atten- 
tion would  at  first  be  employed  in  providing  the  means  of  supplying 
their  physical  wants,  and  of  rendering  their  existence  tolerable.  In 
that  state  of  simple  nature  they  would  not  think  of  transmitting  an  ac- 
count of  their  actions  tp  posterity,  and  could  hardly  have  any  oc- 
currences worth  recording.  Here  our  knowledge  of  human  nature 
and  of  human  wants  will  supply  the  deficiency  of  history.  From 
the  experience  of  our  own  wants,  and  of  the  means  of  supplying  them, 
we  may  infer  almost  with  certainty,  that  habitations  would  be  built  as 
a  shelter  from  the  inclemency  of  the  weather :  and  in  fact  we  find 
this  to  be  the  case  in  all  those  countries  which  are  at  present  occupied 
by  savages.  In  process  of  time  some  attention  would  be  given  to 
the  cultivation  of  the  soil,  to  make  the  earth  produce  such  vegetables 
as  were  tit  for  the  food  of  man.  The  arts  most  essential  to  the  com- 
fortable existence  of  the  human  species  would  be  invented  before 
the  use  of  letters. 

3.  From  all  these  ciixumstances  we  may  reasonably  suppose  that 
the  first  rude  sketch  of  history  would  be  the  traditionary  tales  de- 
livered from  father  to  son  through  successive  generations ;  and  these 
in  reality  constitute  the  basis  of  the  first  historical  records.  Such  are 
the  fabulous  relations  of  the  first  historians  among  the  Greeks.  It 
appeal's  that  the  Greeks  had  adopted  the  historical  legends  of  the 
Egyptian  priests,  who  were  accustomed  to  cover  their  religion  and 
learning  with  the  mystical  veil  of  allegory ;  and  that  in  many  cases 
they  mistook  the  Egyptian  mode  of  allegorizing  the  early  periods  of 
history,  and  have  presented  to  posterity  an  absurd  and  monstrous 
tissue  of  fabulous  narrative  of  kings  who  never  reigned,  and  of  heroes 
ef  celestial  descent. 


232  MODERN  HISTORY. 

4.  Superstition  being  natural  to  man  before  the  mind  is  enlightened 
by  philosophy,  it  is  no  wonder  that  tlie  writings  of  the  first  historians 
contain  many  relations  of  the  communication  of  gods  and  demi-gods 
with  mankind,  .md  of  the  frequent  interference  of  supernatural 
agents  in  human  affairs.  The  vivid  imaginations  of  the  early  Greek 
authors,  heated  with  superstition,  and  unrestrained  by  philosophy, 
expanded  into  wild  exuberance,  and  fabricated  the -most  absurd  and 
ridiculous  tales.  Hence  the  period  of  time  which  elapsed  between 
the  establishment  of  political  and  civil  society  in  Greece,  and  the 
Trojan  war  may  be  justly  denominated  the  fabulous  age  ;  and  indeed 
most  part  of  what  is  related  concerning  that  war,  has  evident  marks 
of  fiction  stamped  upon  it;  for  all  tlie  historical  accounts  of  it  are 
eriginally  founded  on  the  poems  of  Homer.  No  writings  can  claim 
the  title  of  an  authentic  history  of  Grecian  affairs  before  the  Fer- 
fiian  wars.  The  histories  of  all  other  heathen  nations  were  not  less 
fabulous  and  absurd  than  those  of  the  Greeks;  and  indeed  all  that 
we  know  concerning  them  has  been  transmitted  to  us  through  the 
medium  of  Greek  writers. 

5.  When  we  consider  the  general  state  of  the  world  in  the  early 
ages,  with  respect  to  political,  commercial,  and  literary  communica 
tion,  however  we  may  amuse  ourselves  with  perusing  the  accounts 
transmitted  to  us  of  the  traivactlous  of  remote  antirjuity,  reason  tei!:? 
lis  that  they  are  notiung  but  fiction  or  historical  romance.  Until 
the  Greeks  (who  were  the  inventors,  or  at  least  the  improvers  of 
arts  and  sciences)  had  attained  a  considerable  degree  of  civilisation 
and  opulence,  and  had  begun  to  cuhivate  the  arts  of  convenience, 
luxury,  and  elegance,  httle  credit  is  due  to  profane  history.  This 
period  cannot  be  tixed  long  before  the  first  Persian  war,  which  hap- 
pened about  503  years  before  the  birth  of  Christ.  For  information 
relative  to  the  state  of  mankind,  and  the  events  which  occurred 
before  that  period,  we  must  have  recourse  to  the  writings  of  the 
Jews. 

6.  This  consideration  naturally  leads  us  to  tuni  our  attention  to 
those  ancient  records  of  t!)e  Jews,  which  have  always  been  deemed 
sacred  by  them,  and  of  which  the  authenticity  has  been  acknowl- 
edged by  the  generality  of  mankind,  who  have  perused  them  with 
due  attention.  The  Jewish  annals  are  the  most  ancient  of  all  that 
have  been  transmitted  to  us,  and  t!ie  most  intrinsically  rational  and 
probable.  They  likewise  contain  a  series  of  transactions  and  events 
equally  curious  and  interesting.  In  them  we  find  the  only  rational 
account  of  the  creation  of  the  world,  and  the  Ueginning  of  things ; 
of  the  dispersion  of  mankind,  and  tlie  origin  of  ancient  nations. 


SECTION  II.       ■ 

SUMxMARY  VIEW  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

1.  The  Israelites,  or  ancient  Jews,  were  those  distinguished  peo- 
ple, who  were  favoured  by  the  immediate  care  of  the  Almighty, 
and  conducted  by  his  especial  guidance  to  Judea,  a  place  of  resi- 
dence promised  to  their  remote  ancestors.  In  consequence  of  their 
obstinacy,  idolatry,  and  wickedness,  and  more  particularly  for  the 
rejection  of  their  Messiah,  they  were  subdued  by  the  Romans,  after 
sustaining  a  siege  in  their  metropolis,  Jerusalem,  unparalleled  in  the 


MODERN  HISTORY.  233 

annals  of  history  for  its  distresses,  calamities,  and  slaughter.  Jerusa- 
lem was  reduced  to  ruins,  the  Jewish  governftient  was  totally  sub- 
verted, and  the  sur\  iving  people  were  dispersed  over  most  parts  of 
the  world.  Their  descendants  still  remain  unmixed  with  the  rest 
of  mankind,  and  are  marked  by  their  original  features  of  national 
peculiarity  :  they  adhere  with  the  most  zealous  attachment  to  the 
religion  of  the'ir  forefathers,  and  cherish  the  hopes  of  restoration  to 
their  former  prosperity  and  country  by  means  of  a  glorious  and  tri- 
umphant Deliverer.  . 

2.  They  preserve,  with  the  most  watchful  care,  the  sacred  books 
of  their  ancient  writers.  And  astonishing,  vo-y  astonishin-g  it  is  to 
observe,  that  in  the  prophetical  parts  of  these  sacred  books  are  contained 
all  the  events  before  mentioned  of  their  extraordinary  history.  Their 
particular  conduct,  and  the  vicissitudes  of  their  national  aflairs,  were 
predicted  by  their  prophets,  and  more  especially  by  Moses,  their 
great  law-giver,  in  the  infancy  of  the  world,  at  the  vast  distance  of 
thirty-three  centuries  from  the  present  times.  The  accomplishment 
of  these  predictions  bears  the  fullest  and  most  striking  evidence  to 
the  truth  an^  inspiration  of  their  prophets,  and  illustrates  the  dis- 
pensations of  Providence  to  his  chosen  people. 
-  3.  These  sacred  books  contain  likewise  predictions  the  most  exact 
of  the  character,  otfice,  and  actions  of  the  Messiah  of  the  Jews,  the 
great  Law-giver  of  the  christians,  the  appointed  Saviour  of  the  world. 

4.  Such  interesting  circumstances  as  these,  in  addition  to  the  pe 
culiar  nature  of  the  Jewish  polity,  considered  as  a  divine  institution, 
the  curious  manners  and  customs,  and  tlie  memorable  actions  of  the 
descendants  of  Abraham,  the  most  ancient  people  of  whom  we  have 
any  authentic  accounts,  combine  to  place  these  books  first  in  order 
of  importance,  as  in  order  of  time.  If  we  consider  the  great  antiqui- 
ty, the  subjects,  and  the  cliaracters  of  the  ■a-riters,  of  these  books,  and  the 
f)lace  which  they  occupy  in  the  order  of  general  history,  particular 
y  as  they  stand  connected  with  the  christian  revelation,  they  will  be 
found  to  deserve  our  very  earnest  attention. 


SECTION  III. 
THE  ANTIQUITY  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES. 

1.  No  writings  of  any  other  nation  can  be  brought  into  competi- 
tion, in  respect  of  antiquity,  with  those  of  the  Jews.  In  proof  of 
this  assertion  it  may  be  remarked,  that  Moses  lived  more  than  a 
thousand  years  before  the  age  of  Herodotus,  who  is  reputed  the 
father  of  Grecian  history.  As  another  proof  of  the  priority  of  the 
Jews  to  the  Greeks,  it  appears  by  the  coniiession  of  the  Greek  wri- 
ters, that  they  received  the  letters  of  their  alphabet  from  the  Phoe- 
nicians ;  and  there  are  very  suthcient  grounds  for  believing  that  the 
Phoenicians  derived  the  art  of  writing  from  the  Jews.  The  learned 
and  acute  Porphyry,  who  was  an  equal  enemy  both  to  Jews  and 
christians,  and  much  attached  to  the  learning  o(  Greece,  candidly 
acknowledged  that  Moses,  and  the  prophets  who  immr-diately  suc- 
ceeded him,  flourished  nearly  a  thousand  years  bef^e  any  of  the 
Greek  philosophei-s. 

2.  The  books  which  compose  the  canon  of  the  Jewish  scriptures 
have  the  concurrence  of  all  antiq'iity  in  favour  of  their  origiiiaiity. 
They  were  delivered  to  the  Hebrews  in  their  own  language,  wiUi 

U  2  30 


S54  MODERN  HISTORY. 

every  mark  of  genuineness,  by  the  persons  whose  names  they  bear, 
and  those  persons,  by  recording  contemporary  events,  constantly 
appealed  to  well-known  proofs  of  their  regard  to  truth.  The  pro- 
phetical books  in  particular  contain  the  evidences  of  their  inspira- 
tion, as  well  as  of  the  integrity  and  piety  of  their  authors-  The  ex- 
ternal proofs  are  clear  and  strong,  as  well  as  the  internal ;  in  conse- 
quence of  which  all  these  books  have  always  been  preserved  with 
the  greatest  care,  and  have  been  held  in  the  highest  veneration. 

3.  It  is  no  Jess  curious  than  important  to  remark  the  traditions 
preserved  in  the  pagan  world,  which  confirm  the  truth  of  the  Pen- 
tateuch, or  the  five  books  written  by  Moses.  The  Chaldeans  pre- 
served the  history  of  their  Xisurus,  who  was  the  Noah  of  Moses. 
The  Egyptians  asserted  that  Mercury  had  engraved  his  doctrine 
upon  columns,  which  had  resisted  the  violence  of  a  deluge.  The 
Chinese  historians  record  that  Peyrun,  a  mortal  beloved  and  protect 
ed  by  the  gods,  saved  himself  in  a  vessel  from  the  general  inundation 
The  Hindoos  say  that  the  waters  of  the  ocean  spread  over  the  surface 
of  the  earth,  except  one  mountain  to  the  north ;  that  one  woman 
and  seven  men  saved  themselves  on  this  mountain,  with  certain 
plants  and  animals.  They  add,  in  speaking  of  their  god  V^'ishnon,  that 
at  the  deluge  he  transformed  himself  into  a  fish,  and  conducted  the 
vessel  which  preserved  the  relics  of  the  human  race.  This  vessel- 
is  likewise  a  subject  of  tradition  in  the  northern  parts  of  the  world. 
Sulivan's  View  of  Nature,  Letter  67. 

4.  That  the  sacrifice  of  animals  was  necessary  to  appeage  the 
oflended  gods,  was  a  religious  tenet  very  general  and  very  ancient. 
The  account  of  the  long  lives  of  the  patriarchs  is  confirmed  by  wri- 
ters of  various  countries.  Their  primitive  manners,  and  their 
mode  of  performing  sacrifices,  and  offering  prayers  to  the  great  Au- 
thor of  nature  on  the  summits  of  mountains,  and  in  the  retirements 
of  groves,  agree  with  the  descriptions  of  Homer,  and  many  other 
early  writers.  Zoroasterj  the  great  teacher  of  the  ancient  Persians, 
derived  from  the  books  ot  Moses*  the  first  principles  of  his  religion, 
his  ceremonial  laws,  his  account  of  the  creation,  of  the  first  parents 
of  mankind,  of  the  patriarchs,  and  particularly  of  Abraham,  wjioae 
pure  religion  he  professed  to  restore. 

5.  In  the  attributes  and  characters  of  the  heathen  gods  may  be 
found  allusions  to  the  ancient  expressions  of  the  Hebrew  scriptures. 
In  the  customs,  laws,  and  ceremonies  of  many  other  nations  may  be 
traced  a  resemblance  to  the  Mosaical  institutions.  In  the  accounts 
of  the  deities  of  the  Pagans,  and  the  early  heroes  and  benefactors  of 
mankind,  particularly  in  those  which  adorn  the  pages  of  Grecian 
history,  are  represented  many  of  the  patriarchs  and  illustrious  per- 
sons oi  sculpture.  Many  principles  of  the  most  eminent  philoso- 
phers, many  fictions  of  the  most  celebrated  poets,  both  of  Greece 
and  Rome,  and  many  institutions  of  the  most  renowned  heathen  law- 
givers, cannot  fail,  by  their  circumstances  of  resemblance,  to  direct 
our  attention  to  the  great  legislator  of  the  Jews.  The  most  venera- 
ble and  ancient  traditions  of  the  world  seem  to  contain  the  parts  of 
one  original  and  uniform  system,  which  was  broken  by  the  disper- 
•ion  of  the  primeval  families  after  the  deluge,  and  corrupted  by  the 
levolution  of ."  ;es.  They  were  the  streams  which  flowed  through 
the  various  couatries  of  the  earth,  from  the  great  source  of  Mosa- 
ical history.* 

•  See  Stillingfleet,  b.  iii,  c.  5 ;  Bryant's  Mythology ;  Maurice's  Indiaa 
Antit^tiea ;  Raleigh's  History  ©f  the  World,  p,  71. 


MODERN  HISTORY.  235 

6.  Josephus,  the  Jewish  historian,  flourished  in  the  reign  of  the 
emperor  Vespasian.  He  was  a  person  ol  great  learning  and  emi- 
nence, and  conducted  his  inquiries  with  singular  diligence,  indjstry. 
and  care.  He  corroborates  the  testimony  ol'  the  sacred  writers,  and 
illustrates  their  truth  ;  as  he  not  only  gives  a  regular  detail  of  the  most 
remarkable  transactions  of  the  Jews,  but  introduces  considerable 
notices  of  all  those  people,  with  whom  they  formed  alliances,  or  car- 
ried on  wars,  in  his  treatise  against  Apion  he  .exposes  the  contra- 
dictions which  occurred  in  the  Egyptian,  Chaldean,  and  Phoenician 
records  ;  vindicates  the  authority  of  the  Jewish  scriptures  ;  describes 
the  care  which  was  taken  in  their  preservation ;  and  states  their 
superior  pretensions,  more  particularly  in  point  of  antiquity,  to  the 
respect  and  reverence  of  mankind.* 


SECTION  IV. 

THE  SUBJECTS  OF    THE  BOOKS,  AND  CHARACTERS  OF  THE 
WRITERS. 

1.  The  subjects  of  the  books  of  the  Old  Testament  are  truly 
wonderful  and  striking,  and  of  such  a  nature  as  to  surpass  all  monu- 
ments of  profane  learning,  equally  in  importance  as  in  antiquity. 
Of  all  parts  which  compose  the  sacred,  canon,  none  are  more  curious 
than  Genesis^  the  first  book  written  by  Moses ;  because  it  contains  a 
sketch  of  the  earliest  history  of  mankind.  There  stand  recorded 
the  creation  of  the  world  and  its  inhabitants,  the  fall  of  our  first  pa- 
rents from  their  state  of  innocence  and  happiness,  and  their  banish- 
ment from  the  garden  of  Eden  ;  the  repeated  and  signal  promises  of 
a  future  restorer  of  the  lost  blessings  of  mankind  ;  the  history  of  the 
patriarchs,  honoured  by.  the  revelat.ions  of  Jehovah ;  the  description 
of  the  general  deluge  ;  the  dispersion  of  the  progenitors  of  the  hu- 
man race  over  all  the  earth ;  the  adoption  of  a  particular  lamily  to 
perpetuate  the  remembrance,  and  establish  the  worship  of  the  true 
God,  and  their  prosperous  settlement  in  Egypt.  Instances  indeed  are 
mentioned  of  early  depravity,  and  of  the  violence  of  the  passions, 
attended  with  suitable  punishments;  yet  society  appears  under  its 
simplest  form  in  point  of  manners,  and  we  discern  no  traces  of  the 
luxury  and  false  refinement  of  subsequent  times. 

2.  In  the  books  of  the  Jews  is  recorded  an  account  of  the  descen- 
dants of  Israel ;  a  race  of  men  selected  from  all  others,  and  favoured 
with  successive  revelations  of  the  divine  will.  Here  are  shown  the 
instances  of  their  fidelity,  perverseucss,  and  disobedience ;  their 
glory  and  triumphs  ;  their  disgraces,  and  their  subjection  to  foreign 

fowers.  Here  is  seen  the  superintendance  of  a  divine  and  especial 
rovidence  watching  over  innocence,  suspending  wrath,  and  taking 
the  most  signal  vengeance  upon  unrepented  otiences.  Here  are 
developed  the  failings  of  the  most  virtuous  persons,  and  the  obdurate 
wickedness  of  confirmed  sinners.  Here  are  displayed  the  mixed 
characters  even  of  the  most  excellent  men,  the  eminent  examples  of 
faith  and  piety,  of  courage  and  patience,  in  the  conduct  of  Abraham, 
Lot,  Job,  Joseph,  Moses,  David,   Hezekiah,  Josiah,  and   Daniel. 

•  Kelt's  Interpreter  of  Prophecy,  vol.  i,  p.  200.  Lardaer,  vol.  viL  b. 
30,259,&c. 


536  MODERN  HISTORY. 

And  most  interesting  is  it  to  ftbserve,  that  the  knowledge  of  the 
one  true  God  was  communicated  to  this  people,  and  preserved  by 
them  alone ;  that  they  had  the  most  sublime  ideas  of  his  nature 
and  attributes;  that  a  maguiticent  temple  ivas  erected  to  his  honour; 
a  regular  service  was  iastituted ;  holy  ceremonies  were  performed; 
an  order  of  priests  uf  one  particular  family  was  consecrated  ;  a  pure 
worship  was  established  by  his  express  command,  and  regulated  by 
his  particular  laws. .  Thus  were  the  Jews  enlightened  by  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  true  object  of  divine  worship;  and  thus  were  the  purity 
and  holiness  of  their  religious  ordinances  conducted,  at  a  time  when 
all  other  nations  presented  a  wide  scene  of  gross  superstition  and 
mental  darkness ;  when  the  rest  of  the  human  race,  and  even  the 
most  inteiiigent  and  polished  nations  of  Egypt  and  Greece,  showed 
the  most  abject  degradation  of  their  nature,  by  prostrating  them- 
selves before  idols  of  their  own  workmanship ;  and  abused  the  evi- 
dence of  sense,  and  thfi  faculty  of  reason,  by  imputing  to  wood  and 
stone  the  attriimtes  of  divine  power. 

3.  ^Ve  see  likewise  a  succession  of  prophets  raised  up  among  the 
Jews,  to  communicate  the  divine  will,  to  warn  them  of  evils,  and  to 
announce  to  them  blessings  to  come.  These  holy  men,  ever  obedi- 
ent to  the  call  of  Heaven,  rose  superior  to  all  worldly  considerations ; 
and  with  a  spirit  of  intrepidity  and  independence,  'which  clearly 
showed  that  Heaven  wis  the  source  of  their  reliance,  they  executed 
their  sacred  commissions,  unawed  by  the  threats  of  kings,  or  the 
resentment  of  the  people.  They  foretold  remote  events  in  times 
when  they  appeared  most  improbable  ever  to  take  place,  and  when 
no  human  foresight,  and  no  calculation  of  chances,  could  guide  them 
to  the  discovery  of  the  particular  affairs,  which  fulMlled  their  pre- 
dictions. Moses,  in  a  long  and  most  interesting  detail  of  threats  and 
promises,  foretold  the  exact  manner  in  which  his  people  were  ordain- 
ed to  be  happy  or  miserable,  according  as  they  followed  or  disobeyed 
the  divine  laws.  At  a  subsequent  period,  when  Jerusalem  was  laid 
in  ruins,  and  the  Jews  were  groaning  under  the  sorrows  of  the  Baby- 
lonish captivity,  Isaiah  solemnly  addressed  Cyrus  by  his  name,  more 
than  a  hundred  years  before  his  birth,  as  the  deliverer  of  Israel,  and 
the  new  founder  of  the  Holy'City.*  When  Babylon  was  shining  in 
the  meridian  of  its  glory,  and  its  monarchs  ruled  over  all  the  nations 
of  the  east  with  the  most  despotic  sway,  the  same  prophet  predicted 
the  total  subversion  of  their  empire,  and  the  complete  desolation  of 
their  vast  metropolis.  That  all  these  and  numerous  other  predictions 
were  exactly  veritied  by  the  events,  are  truths  confirmed  by  the  evi- 
dence of  profane  as  well  as  sacred  history. 

4.  The  same  inspired  prophets  had  a  much  more  grand  and  im- 

?ortant  object  in  view,  than  to  declare  the  future  dispensations  of 
rovidence  to  one  nation  in  particular;  for  they  announced,  in  terms 
at  first  dark  and  mysterious,  but  progressively  more  clear  and  cir- 
cujnstantial,  the  future  birth  of  a  Messiah,  a  glorious  king,  a  divine 
legislator,  who  was  to  abolish  the  sacriiices  and  religious  institutions 
of  the  Jews,  and  to  proclaim  and  establish  a  general  law  for  the 
©bservance  and  happiness  of  all  mankind.  Here  the  evangelists  con- 
triljute  their  aid  to  illustrate  the  declarations  of  the  prophets,  and 
unite  the  history  of  the  Old  with  that  of  the  New  Testament,  in 
the  most  close  and  iixiissoluble  bonds  of  union, 

•  Isaiah,  B.  C.  737.   Cyrus,  B.  C.  S89,    Kett's  Interpreter  of  Prophecy, 
vol.i,  p.  130. 


MODERN  HISTORY.  237 

}.  The  historical  books  of  scripture,  considered  from  the  time  of 
giving  of  the  law  to  Moses  to  tlie  reformation  in  the  worsliip  ;ind 
,?ernment  by  Neheminh,  alter  the  Babylonish  captivity,  contain  a 
jmmary  account  of  tlie  Jewisli  affairs  for  a  period  of  eleven  centu- 
ries.* They  were  evidently  not  intended  to  give  a  complete  detail 
of  national  transactions,  as  their  writers  had  a  more  sublime  and  im- 
portant end  in  view.  To  illustrate  the  prophecies,  by  relating  cir- 
cumstances vvnich  existed  at  the  time  when  they  were  uttered,  and 
to  show  their  accomplishment ;  to  record  various  revelations  of  the 
divine  will,  and  to  describe  the  state  of  religion  among  the  Hebrews, 
and  the  various  dispensations  of  Providence,  in  public  as  well  as  in 
private  occurrences,  seem  to  have  been  their  chief  objects.  Hence 
it  is  that  the  chain  of  history  is  sometimes  broken  into  detached  parts, 
and  its  detail  is  interrupted  by  a  recital  of  private  transactions.  The 
books  of  scripture  occasionally  assume  the  form,  and  comprise  the 
beauties  of  a  very  interesting  kind  of  biography.  Of  this  nature  are 
the  several  accounts  of  Job,  Ruth,  and  P^sther ;  but  they  are  far  from 
being  unconnected  with  the  principal  design  of  the  sacred  writers ; 
inasmuch  as  they  show  that  the  same  divine  Providence  which  presid- 
ed over  the  nation  at  large,  extended  its  particular  care  to  individ- 
uals, and  that  the  examples  of  private  virtue  were  inseparable  from 
the  great  interests  of  public  welfare  and  happiness. 

6.  The  Israelites,  for  many  ages  separated  from  the  rest  of  man- 
kind by  their  peculiar  institutions,  were  little  acquainted  with  com- 
merce, and  made  small  advances  in  those  arts,  which,  with  a  refine- 
ment, and  a  diversity  hi'  employments,  introduce  luxury  and  corrup- 
tion of  manners.  l1iey  were  govermjd  by  equal  laws,  and  possessed 
nearly  equal  property.  They  admitted  no  hereditary  distinction  of 
rank,  except  in  favour  of  the  regal  tribe  of  Judah,  and  the  sacer- 
dotal iamily  of  Levi.  Their  occupations  Irom  the  earliest  times  were 
of  the  most  simple  kind,  and  consisted  in  pasturage  and  agriculturey 
To  guide  the  plough,  and  tend  the  flock,  were  employments  which, 
recommended  by  the  innocence  of  primeval  manners,  and  dignitied 
by  length  of  time,  w  ere  exercised  by  kings,  prophets,  and  generals. 
Moses  was  called  Irom  tieeding  his  flock,  to  conduct  the  Israelites  to 
the  promised  land ;  Eiisha  forsook  the  plough,  to  be  invested  with 
the  mantle  of  prophecy ;  and  Gideon  left  the  threshing-floor,  to  lead 
the  army  of  his  country  to  battle. 

7.  The  country  of  Judea  presented  a  scene  diversified  by  fruit- 
ful vallies,  barren  rocks,  and  lolty  mountains,  and  was  watered  by 
numerous  streams.  It  produced  tbe  palm-tree,  the  balsam,  the  \  ine, 
the  olive,  the  ti^,  and  all  the  fruits  which  abound  in  the  more  tem- 
perate regions  of  Asia.  From  the  labours  of  the  held,  and  from  cul- 
tivating the  vine,  the  attention  of  the  Israelites  was  regularly  Cfilled 
by  religious  worship,  which  was  intimately  blended  with  the  civil 
constitution  of  the  state.  The  splendour  of  their  public  services,  the 
pomp  e^nd  magnificence  of  their  rites  and  ceremonies,  the  stated  re- 
currence of  their  various  festivals  and  sacrifices,  the  sabbath,  the 
passover,  the  celebration  of  the  sabbatifcal  yea!',  and  the  jubilee  ;  and. 
more  than  all,  the  constant  experience  of  "divine  interposition,  filled 
their  minds  with  the  most  awful  and  grand  ideas,  and  gave  them  the 
deepest  impressions  of  the  majesty,  power,  goodness,  and  justice  ol 
God. 

•  Moses,  B.  C.  1,571.  Nehemiah,  B.  C.  546.  Gray^s  Key  to  the  Old 
Testament,  p.  124. 


238  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

8.  These  were  the  circumstances  whicli,  combining  to  form  their 
national  manners,  had  the  greatest  influence  upon  their  writings. 
The  tiistoi-ical  style  is  marked  by  the  purest  simplicity  of  ideas,  oc- 
casignally  raised  to  a  tone  of  elevation.  In  the  works  of  Moses  there 
is  a  majesty  of  thought,  which  is  most  strikingly  expressed  in  plain 
and  energetic  language.  In  the  prophetical  writings  the  greatest 
splendour  and  sublimity  of  composition  are  conspicuous.  They  are 
enriched  by  those  glowing  images,  and  raised  by  that  grandeur  ot 
diction,  which  charm  the  classical  reader  in  the  most  admired  pro- 
ductions of  Greece  and  Rome.  The  royal  psalmist  is  eloquent,  dig- 
nified, and  pathetic.  All  the  beauties  of  composition  unite  in  Isaiah, 
such  is  the  majesty  of  his  ideas,  the  propriety,  beauty,  and  fertility 
of  his  imagery,  and  the  elegance  of  his  language,  employed  upon  the 
noblest  subjects  which  could  possibly  engage  our  attention.  Jere- 
miah excels  in  those  expressions  of  tenderness,  which  excite,  with 
the  most  pleasing  enthusiasm,  the  feelings  of  compassion. 

9.  By  such  pecjl'-^r  beauties  of  composition  are  recommended 
the  most  interesting  details  of  events,  and  the  most  faithful  deline- 
ations of  characters.  The  great  Creator  calls  all  things  into  ex- 
istence with  his  omnipotent  word.  The  first  parents  of  mankind, 
innocent  and  happy,  are  blessed  with  his  immediate  converse,  and 
enjoy  the  blooming  groves  of  Paradise.  Joseph,  the  pious,  the 
chaste,  and  the  wise,  after  having  undergone  great  afflictions,  and 
rising  by  his  extraordinary  merit  to  an  office  of  the  highest  honour 
in  the  court  of  Pharaoh,  discovers  himself  iq,  a  manner  the  most 
pathetic  to  his  repentant  brethren,  and  is  restored  to  his  aged  and 
affectionate  father,  whom  he  Invites  into  Egypt  to  share  his  pros- 
perity. The  children  of  Israel,  guided  by  the  divine  Power,  which 
veils  its  glory  in  a  cloud,  pass  safely  through  the  Red  Sea,  in  which 
the  host  of  the  impious  Pharaoh  are  overwhelmed.  Upon  the  sum- 
mit of  Mount  Sinai  Moses  receives  the  two  tables  of  the  command 
ments,  amid  the  thunder,  lightning,  clouds,  and  darkness,  which 
obscure  the  great  Jehovah  from  his  eyes.  The  royal  psalmist  sings 
the  wonders  of  creation,  the  powers  of  his  God,  and  his  own  de- 
feats and  triumphs.  The  peaceful  and  prosperous  Solomon,  whose 
renown  was  extended  over  all  the  east,  rears  the  structure  of  the 
magnificent  temple  ;  and  amid  the  multitudes  of  his  adoring  sub- 
jects consecrates  it  to  the  service  of  the  one  true  God,  iq  a  prayer 
which  equally  attests  his  wisdom  and  his  piety.  In  the  visions  of 
futurity  Isaiah  beholds  the  deliverance  of  the  chosen  people ;  the 
complete  destruction  of  the  great  empire  of  Babylon,  by  which 
they  were  enslaved ;  and  the  promised  Messiah,  the  Saviour  oi 
mankind,  sometimes  depressed  by  want  and  sorrow,  and  sometimes 
arrayed  in  the  emblems  of  divine  majesty  and  power.  He  predicts 
the  final  recal  of  the  Jews  to  their  native  land,  and  the  wide  difiu- 
sion  of  the  christian  faith.  Jeremiah  sinks  a  weeping  mourner  over 
the  ruins  of  his  native  city,  deplores  its  calamities,  and  consoles  his 
countrymen  by  expressly  declaring,  that  they  should  never  cease 
to  be  a  nation  to  the  end  of  tlie  world.  Daniel  explains  to  Bel- 
shazzar  the  mystic  characters  inscribed  upon  the  walls  of  his  palace, 
and  views,  in  his  wide  prospect  of  future  times,  the  fates  of  the  four 
great  empires  of  the  world.  Cjrus,  long  before  announced  by 
Isaiah,  as  the  great  subverter  of  the  Babylonish  empire,  and  the 
restorer  of  the  glory  of  Jerusalem,  publishes  his  decree  for  the 
restoration  of  the  captive  Jews;  and  the  holy  city  and  temple 
rise  from  their  ruins  with  new  grandeur  and  magniiicence.    Ihe 


JEWISH  HISTORY.  235 

Jews  are  settled  and  reformed  by  the  pious  care  of  Nehemiah,  and 
the  canon  of  the  scriptures  is  closed  by  Malachi.  This  last  of  the 
prophets  enjoins  the  strict  observance  of  the  law  of  Moses,  till  the 
great  Precursor  should  appear,  in  the  spirit  of  Elias,  to  announce 
the  approach  of  the  Messiah,  who  was  to  establish  a  new  and  an 
everlasting  covenant.* 

10.  Such  are  a  few  8f  the  interesting  circumstances  contained  in 
the  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  which  engage  our  attention,  charm 
our  imagination,  and  gratify  our  curiosity,  while  they  confirm  our 
belief  in  the  great  evidences  of  revelation.  In  all  these  works 
we  may  remark  the  bright  truths  of  religious  instruction,  shining 
forth  amid  the  venerable  simplicity  of  the  most  ancient  history  ;  a 
history  unrivalled  for  the  grandeur  of  the  ideas  which  it  conveys, 
the  livehness  of  its  descriptions,  and  the  number  of  its  beautiful  and 
sublime  images. 

11.  In  these  books  of  sacred  history  there  is  an  impartiality  of 
narrative,  which  is  an  undoubted  characterii=tic  of  truth.  If  we 
read  the  Lives  of  Plutarch,  or  the  History  of  Livy,  we  soon  dis- 
cover that  these  writers  composed  their  works  under  the  influence 
of  many  prejudices  in  favour  of  their  respectives  countries.  A  veil 
is  thrown  over  the  defects  of  their  heroes,  but  their  virtues  are 
placed  in  a  strong  light,  and  painted  in  vivid  colours.  In  the  scrip- 
tures, on  the  contrary,  both  of  the  Old  and  the  New  Testament,  the 
strictest  iaipartiality  prevails.  The  vices  of  David,  Solomon,  and 
their  successors,  are  neither  concealed  nor  palliated.  There  is  no 
ostentation  of  vanity,  no  parade  of  panegyric ;  virtue  charms  with 
her  native  beauty,  and  vice  requires  no  disguise  to  conceal  her  de- 
formity. The  characters  of  persons  are  sketched,  and  the  effects  o. 
the  passions  are  represented  without  reserve  or  concealment ;  and 
the  moral  to  be  drawn  from  each  description  is  so  obvious,  as  to  ac- 
count for  the  frequent  omission  of  remarks  and  applications.  The 
abject  condition  of  the  Jews,  when  prohibited  the  use  of  weapons  o^ 
war  by  the  victorious  Philistines ;  their  relapses  into  idolatry,  their 
perverseness  of  disposition,  and  their  various  defeats  and  captivities, 
with  every  circumstance  of  private  as  well  as  public  disgrace,  are 
recorded  without  palliation  or  reserve.  Always  rising  superior  to 
the  motives  which  induce  other  authors  to  violate  the  purity  and  de- 
grade the  majesty  of  truth,  these  writers  keep  one  great  and  most 
important  end  constantly  in  view,  and  show  the  various  methods  by 
which  the  providence  of  God  effected  his  gracious  designs ;  how  he 
produced  good  from  evil,  and  employed  the  sins  and  follies  of  man- 
kind as  the  instruments  of  his  gracious  purposes 

12.  An  acquaintance  with  the  affairs  of  the  Jewish  nation  forms 
the  first  link  in  the  chain  of  ancient  records.  Thus  we  may  observe 
the  connexion  which  subsists  between  the  branches  of  sacred  and 
profane  history.  We  place  the  works  of  pagan  writers  in  their 
proper  situation,  and  give  them  additional  value,  by  making  them 
subservient  to  the  cause  of  religion,  and  instrumental  in  the  illustra- 
tion of  revealed  truth.  If  the  student  is  not  called  upon  by  profes- 
sional inducements  to  read  the  scriptures  in  their  original  languages, 
he  may  rest  contented  with  translations ;  and  it  seems  to  be  a  well- 

*  For  these  very  impressive  passages  of  the  Bible,  see  Gen.  i,  ii,  xliv 
xlv  ;  Exod.  xiv,  xx  ;  the  Fsalms  ;  1  Kings  viii ;  Isaiah  ii,  vi,  ix,  x,  xi,  xiT 
xxviii,  xxxii,  xl,  xliii,  Ix,  Ixi,  Ixiii,  Ixv,  and  more  particularly  liii ;  La    , 
meat,  i,  &;c.  ;  Daniel  v,  vii ;  Ezra  vii ;  Nehem.  xiii  ;  Malactu  iii,  tv- 


240  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

founded  opinion  among  the  learned,  that  lie  may  rely  with  confidence 
upon  the  general  iideiily  of  our  English  version. 

SECTION  V. 
OF  THE  ANTEDILUVIAN  WORLD. 

L  An  authentic  account  of  the  creation  of  tlie  world,  and  of  the 
primitive  state  of  mankind  is  to  be  found  only  in  the  bible.  There 
we  are  informed  by  Moses,  the  most  ancient  of  all  historians,  that  in 
the  beginning  God  created  the  earth,  the  celestial  bodies,  and  all 
things  both  aniinr.te  and  inanimate  ;  that  he  created  one  man  and  one 
woman,  named  Adam  and  Eve,  and  placed  them  in  a  garden  or  para- 
dise, situated  in  the  land  of  Eden.  According  to  the  best  chronolo- 
gers  the  creation  of  the  wor'd  was  accomplished  in  the  year  4,004 
A.  C.  Adam  and  Eve  soon  transgressed  the  commands  of  God,  and 
were  therefore  expelled  from  their  deUghtful  abode. 

2.  Adam  and  Eve  had  two  sons,  whose  names  were  Cain  and  Abel. 
Cain,  the  elder,  was  a  husbandman,  and  Abel  was  a  shepherd.  Cain 
was  of  a  vicious,  Abel  of  a  virtuous  disposition.  Hence  the  worship 
of  Abel  WHS  more  acceptable  to  the  Lord  than  that  of  Cain.  Insti- 
gated by  envy  and  malice,  Cain  killed  his  brother  when  they  were 
together  in  the  Held.  For  this  atrocious  crime  he  was  severely  punt 
ished  by  the  Lord,  and  became  "  a  fugitive  and  a  vagabond  upon  the 
earth." 

3.  After  the  murder  of  Abel,  another  son,  named  Seth,  was  born 
to  Adam.  From  this  time  the  descendants  of  Adam  multiplied  I'apid- 
ly,  and  at  length  spread  over  the  face  of  the  earth. 

4.  One  of  the  most  remarkable  circumstances  of  the  former  world 
is  the  longevity  of  the  people.  Adam  lived  930  years,  Seth  912 
years,  Jared  962  years,  Methuselah  969  years,  Noah  950  years. 

5.  In  process  of  tijne  mankind  became  so  wicked  that  the  Lord 
was  resolved  to  destroy  them  by  a  deluge.  Amid  the  general  cor- 
ruption and  depravity  of  the  human  race  one  virtuous  man  was  found. 
Noah,  the  son  of  Lamech,  zealous  for  the  reformation  of  men,. be- 
came a  preacher  of  righteousness  to  the  degenerate  and  vicious 
people  among  whom  he  lived,  and  employed  both  his  council  and  au- 
thority to  reclaim  them  ;  but  in  vain.  And  God  commanded  Noah  to 
build  a  great  ship,  called  an  ark.  and  to  put  in  it  his  wife,  his  three 
"sons  and  their  wives,  and  also  a  lew  males  and  females  of  every  spe- 
cies of  living  things,  that  they  might  be  saved  from  the  general  del- 
uge which  would  shortly  cvervvheim  the  whole  earth,  and  extirpate 
ail  creatures.  The  flood  continued  loU  days,  and  then  gradually  sub- 
sided. Noah  and  his  family,  and  all  the  animals,  went  out  of  the 
ark  (2,343  A.  C.) ;  and  in  process  of  time  they  multiplied  and  spread 
over  the  surface  of  the  earth,  as  we  now  see  them. 

6.  Of  the  literary  and  scienlitic  attainments  of  the  antediluvians 
we  know  very  httle.  From  the  Mosaic  account  they  do  not  appear 
to  have  been  great.  Moses  has  briefly  informed  us  what  was  the 
origin  of  various  customs  and  arts,  and  has  recorded  the  names  of 
their  inventoi-s.  Lamech  the  son  of  Cain  gave  the  first  example  of 
polygamy.  Cain  built  the  first  city,  and  introduced  the  use  of 
weights  and  measures.  One  of  Cain's  grandsons  "•  was  the  father  ol 
such  as  dwell  in  tents,  and  of  such  as  have  cattle."  Jubal  invented 
music ;  Tubal  Cain  the  arts  of  forging  iron,  and  of  casting  brass ; 
and  a  woman  called  Naamah  the  arts  of  spixuiins;  aud  weaving. 


JEWISH  HISTORY.  241 

Their  religious  rites  were  few  and  simple.    They  worshipped  God 
by  prayer,  and  sacrifices  of  certain  animals. 


SECTION  VI. 

FIRST  AGES  AFTER  TflE  DELUGE. 

1.  The  remembrance  of  the  three  sons  of  Noah,  the  first  foun- 
ders of  the  nations  of  the  earth  after  the  deluge,  has  been  preserved 
among  the  several  nations  descended  from  them.  Japhet  peopled 
the  greater  part  of  the  west,  and  continued  long  famous  under  the 
name  of  Japetus.  Ham  was  reverenced  as  a  deity  by  the  Egyptians, 
under  the  title  of  Jupiter  Hammon.  The  memory  of  Shem  has 
always  been  venerated  by  his  descendants,  the  Hebrews,  who  de- 
rived their  name  from  bis  son  Heber. 

2.  Except  the  building  of  the  tower  of  Babel  no  event  of  impor- 
tance occurs  in  the  history  of  Moses  during  the  space  of  nearly 
1,1UU  years  from  the  deluge  to  the  co//  of  Abraham.  About  100 
years  alter  the  delU'ge  the  descendants  of  Noah  were  become  nu- 
merous at  the  foot  of  Mount  Ararat,  and  in  the  plain  of  Shinaar,  ex- 
tending along  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates  and  the  Tigris.  They 
found  that  the  country  was  not  extensive  enough  to  contain  them 
much  longer,  and  therefore  that  they  must  separate.  They  agreed 
to  build  a  very  high  tower,  which  might  be  a  signal  of  union,  if  they 
should  ever  desire  to  return  to  their  native  country.  When  tney  had 
raised  the  tower  to  a  certain  height,  the  workmen  suddenly  perceiv- 
ed that  they  did  not  understand  the  words  of  one  another,  and  that 
all  spoke  different  languages.  Consequently  it  was  impossible  to 
continue  the  work,  and  the  people  dispersed  in  different  directions. 
Hence  the  origin  of  difierent  languages,  and  the  dispersion  of  the 
human  race  over  the  habitable  globe. 

3.  Soon  after  this  memorable  event,  Nimrod,  a  violent  and  impe- 
rious man,  built  the  city  of  Babel,  or  Babylon,  and  laid  the  founda- 
tion of  the  tirst  great  empire,  called  the  Babylonian,  which  was 
afterwards  so  famous  in  the  history  of  the  Jews. 


SECTION  VII. 
OF  THE  JEWS. 

1.  The  Jews  derived  tneir  origin  from  Abraham^  the  son  of  Terah, 
the  tenth  in  lineal  descent  from  Shem  the  son  of  Noah.  The  de- 
scendants of  Shem  spread  from  Armenia,  where  the  ark  is  supposed 
to  have  rested  after  the  deluge,  to  Mesopotamia,  and  thence  into 
Chaldea,  where  Abraham  was  born.  As  Abraham  was  appointed  to 
be  the  progenitor  of  a  great  and  distinguished  nation,  God  separated 
him  from  the  other  descendants  of  Shem,  by  causing  Terah  to  re- 
move from  Chaldea  into  the  country  of  Haram,  near  the  borders  of 
Mesopotamia,  where  he  died.  Abraham  intended  to  settle  in  Haram: 
but  m  obedience  to  the  will  of  God,  he  removed  into  the  land  of 
CanaaUj  which  was  appointed  to  be  the  inheritance  of  his  posterity. 
From  tnis  period  commences  a  long  series  of  events,  which  are  re- 
corded in  the  book  of  Genesis,  and  are  represented  as  immediately 
directed  by  the  Lord. 

2.  After  Abraham  arrived  in  Canaan,  his  first  care  was  to  erect  aa 

X  31 


242  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

altar  for  the  worship  of  God,  who  appeared  to  him,  and  confirmed 
the  promise  which  he  had  before  made  to  him,  to  give  the  country 
to  his  children.  When  he  had  hved  some  time  in  Canaan,  a  fam- 
ine compelled  him  to  remove  his  family  into  Egypt,  (1,916  A.  C), 
where  he  resided  till  the  famine  ceased,  and  men  returned.  His 
wife  Sarah,  when  she  was  advanced  in  years,  brought  him  a  son, 
who  was  called  Isaac.  When  Isaac  grew  to  man's  estate  he  married 
Rebecca,  who  was  afterward  the  mother  of  Jacob.  In  process  of 
time  Jacob  had  ten  sons,  who  were  the  fathers  often  tribes.  By  the 
command  of  the  Lord,  Jacob  took  the  name  of  Israel,  and  hence  his 
posterity  were  called  Israelites,  or  the  children  of  Israel. 

3.  Joseph,  the  ninth  son,  was  the  favourite  of  his  father,  which 
excited  the  jealousy  and  hatred  of  his  elder  brothers,  who  sold  him 
to  some  merchants,  and  told  Jacob  that  he  had  been  devoured  by 
wild  beasts.  The  merchants  carried  their  slave  into  Egypt,  and 
sold  him  to  Potiphar,  an  ofhcer  of  king  Pharaoh's  guard,  1,724  A. 
C.  Joseph  served  Potiphar  with  such  diligence  and  fidehly,  that  he 
soon  committed  to  him  the  care  of  his  domestic  affairs. 

The  wile  of  Potiphar  repeatedly  attempted  to  seduce  Joseph  into 
the  gratification  cf  her  amorous  piopensiiies  ;  bift  her  immodest  ad- 
vances being  rejected  with  disdain,  she  was  incensed,  and  malicious- 
ly accused  him  of  an  attempt  to  violate  her  cha.stity.  On  this  false 
accusation  he  was  immediately  thrown  into  prison,  but  was  soon 
liberated  by  the  king.  Such  is,  in  all  ages  and  in  all  countries,  the 
vindictive  disposition  of  a  lascivious  woman,  whose  allurements  have 
been  neglected  or  resisted.  The  disappointed  wanton  prosecutes, 
with  everlasting  enmity,  the  innocent  object  of  her  carnal  desires  ! 

4.  Joseph,  being  skilful  in  the  interpretation  of  dreams,  was  intro- 
duced to  Pharaoh  king  of  Egypt,  who  was  perplexed  by  two  dreams 
•vhich  he  could  not  explain.  Joseph  interpreted  his  dreams,  which 
/>redicted  abundant  products  of  the  earth  for  seven  years,  and  aiter- 
ward  a  dreadful  famine  for  seven  years.  He  was  released  from  pris- 
on, and  appointed  to  conduct  the  affaii-s  of  Egypt  under  Pharaoh. 

5.  In  consequence  of  the  famine  with  which  Canaan  was  afflicted 
(as  it  had  been  foretold),  Jacob  and  his  family  removed  into  Egypt, 
1,702  A.  C.  Joseph  assigned  them  a  residence  in  the  land  of  Goshen, 
a  fertile  country  fit  for  pasturage,  situated  between  the  Nile  and  the 
Red  Sea.  In  this  happy  country  the  descendants  of  Jacob  increased 
and  flourished,  and  became  so  numerous  and  prosperous  that  at 
length  the  envy  and  feai-s  of  the  Egyptians  began  to  be  excited 
against  them.  To  check  their  pros])erity  rigorous  measures  were 
pursued  by  the  rulers  of  Egypt.  Their  lives  were  imbittered  by 
Iiard  servite,  and  all  their  male  children  were  ordered  to  be  drowned 
at  their  birth. 

6.  Till  the  time  of  their  residence  in  the  land  o(  Goshen,  the  He- 
brews had  led  a  pastoral  life,  and  had  not  been  subject  to  any  regular 
form  of  government.  Children  were  obedient  to  their  parents,  and 
servants  to  their  masters.  Religion  appeared  in  its  most  simple  and 
amiable  form.  One  God,  the  Creator  and  Governor  of  the  world, 
was  worshipped  without  images,  and  without  an  estahhshed  priest- 
hood.    Equal  purity  in  faith  and  worship,  in  principle  and  practice. 

f)revailed  among  the  people.  But  in  proportion  as  wealth  ana 
uxury  increased,  the  reUgion  of  the  Hebrews  became  more  sensual. 
Like  all  eastern  nations  they  were  prone  to  the  worship  of  the  heav 
enly  bodies.  Priestcraft  employed  images,  and  the  delusive  artifices 
of  superstition  to  attract  the  devotion  of  the  people. 


JEWISH  HISTORY.  243 

7.  The  history  of  the  Hebrews,  during  the  patrirrchal  ages,  is 
related  in  the  first  book  of  Moses,  with  simplicily,  minuteness,  and  j 
apparent  fidelity.     There  we  read  a  description  of  ancient  customs  , 
and  manners  in  the  lives  of  the   patriarchs,  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  - 
Jacob.     The  story  of  Joseph   and  his  brethren  has  been  always 
admired  for  the  simplicity  of  the  language,  and  the  affecting  cir-  ' 
cumstances  which  it  exhibits.     As  the  numerous  facts  and  incidents  ; 
in  the  early  periods  of  the  history  of  the  Hebrews  are  familiar  to  ' 
every  reader,  and  are  besides  of  little  importance  in  the  political 
annals  of  the  nation,  it  seems  superfluous  to  enter  into  a  detail  of  j 
them.    We  shall  therefore  next  present  a  compendious  view  of  the  ^ 
history  of  the  Hebrews  from  the  period  of  their  departure  out  of  ; 
Egypt,  1,487  A.  C.  j 

8.  After  much  oppression  and  suffering,  God  raised  up  a  deliverer  i 
of  his  chosen  people,  who  rescued  them  from  a  state  ot  cruel  servi-  ; 
tude,  and  brought  them  out  of  the  land  of  bondage.     This  deliverer  i 
was  Moses,  the  most  distinguished  pei-sonage  of  ancient  times,  born 
1,567  A.  C.     In  consequence  of  Pharaoh''s  inhuman  decree,  Moses  i 
was  exposed  by  his  mother  on  the  banks  of  the  Tsile,  and  was  found 
by  the  king's  daughter,  who  compassionately  adopted  him,  and  thus 
saved  his  life.     Before  their  departure  from  Egypt,  and  in  their  long 
and  tedious  journey  of  forty  years  through  the  wilderness,  many 
extraordinary  and  supernatural  events  are  recorded  in  the  Bible,  and 
ascribed  to  the  mii-acuious  interposition  of  the  Lord  in  behalf  of  his 
people.    During  their  wanderings  in  the  desert,  they  received  from 
their  illustrious  guide,  with  many  other  signal  proofe  of  divine  favour, 
a  system  of  rehgion  and  laws,  under  the  sanction  of  God. 

9.  The  Mosaic  code,  though  the  most  ancient  that  has  been  trans 
mitted  to  posterity,  contains  the  best  maxims  of  legislative  wisdom. 
It  is  an  admirable  summary  of  our  various  duties  to  God  and  man  ; 
and  it  enforces  the  observance  of  those  duties  by  the  powerful  mo- 
tives of  gratitude,  hope,  and  fear.  It  directs  our  adoration  to  one 
God,  the  author  of  all  blessings  ;  commands  us  to  reverence  his  holy 
name ;  and  denounces  dreadlul  vengeance  against  those  who  shall 
transfer  to  idols,  or  to  the  creature,  that  worship  which  is  due  only 
to  the  Creator.  To  prevent  the  neglect  of  those  sacred  obligations, 
it  ordains  a  Sabbath  every  week,  to  be  set  apart  for  rest,  and  for  pious 
meditation  on  the  works  and  the  beneficence  of  God.  Four  of  the 
statutes  of  the  Mosaic  code  comprehend  the  principles  of  universal 
jurisprudence.  1.  Thou,  shult  not  kill.  2.  Tlwu  skalt  not  commit  udul- 
to-y.  3.  Thou  shalt  not  steal.  4.  Tlwu  shalt  not  hear  false  ■fitness. 
They  have  formed  the  basis  of  criminal  law  in  all  civilized  nations, 
And  are  essential  to  the  good  order  of  society.  They  conclude  with 
an  admonition  against  avarice,  the  incentive  to  the  commission  of  all 
ofiences. 

10.  While  Moses  lived  in  Egypt  he  must  have  remarked  the  bane- 
ful effects  of  the  abuse  of  unUmited  power  entrusted  to  priests.  He 
therefore  wisely  separated  the  sacerdotal  jurisdiction  from  the  civif. 
The  ministers  of  rehgion  were  not  allowed  to  interfere  in  secular 
affairs.  Their  duties  were  confined  to  the  worship  of  God ;  and 
their  civil  authority  extended  no  farther  than  to  take  cognizance  of 
such  offences  or  trespasses  as  were  immediately  connected  with  re- 
ligious worship.  The  care  and  direction  of  all  secular  concerns  were 
committed  to  the  elders  of  the  people,  who  administered  justice  un- 
der the  control  of  a.  supreme  magistrate,  emphatically  styled  a 
judge.    In  the  judge  was  vested  all  power  civil  and  military.    It  ap« 


244  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

pears  however  that  the  high  priest  at  length  invaded  the  military 
prerogative  ot"  the  juJge. 

11.  Sensible  of  the  ignorance  and  perverseness  of  the  people 
under  his  care,  Moses  omitted  no  precepts  nor  instructions  which 
he  tiiought  might  tend  to  inform  their  minds,  to  regulate  their  con- 
duct, to  correct  their  vicious  propensities,  and  to  promote  their  wel- 
fare and  security.  He  prescribed  rules  for  their  diet,  for  the  preser- 
vation of  their  health,  and  for  the  treatment  and  cure  ot  those 
diseases  to  which  they  were  most  liable.  Having  conducted  tiie 
Israelites  through  many  dangers  and  diiriculties  within  sight  of  the 
promised  laad,  and  appointed  Joshua  his  successor,  Moses  died  in 
1,447  A.  C. 


SECTION  VI 11. 

THE  HISTORY  OF  TIIE  HEBREWS  DURING  THE  GOVERNMENT 
OF  THE  JUDGf:S. 

1.  This  period  is  extremely  turbulent  and  sanguinary;  a  perio<l 
of  barbarism,  ignorance,  and  anarchy.  We  know  not  certainly  how 
the  judges  were  chosen,  nor  what  was  the  extent  of  their  power. 
Tliey  appear  to  have  been  military  chiefs,  for  they  commanded 
ainues,  and  some  of  them  acquired  fame  by  successful  expeditions 
against  the  ouernies  of  their  country. 

2.  Tiie  chiefs  or  rulers  of  the  Syrian  kingdoms,  principalities,  or 
townships.  Lad  chosen  no  common  leader,  or  generalissimo,  nor 
digested  any  regular  plan  of  defence  against  the  Hebrews,  who  had 
been  long  tiovering  on  tiie  frontiers  of  Syria,  and  betrayed  hostile 
hitentions ;  cons^-quentiy  many  of  these  petty  states  on  both  sides 
of  tiie  river  Jordatj  were  subdued,  and  the  inhabitants  massacred, 
before  any  league  was  formed  tor  tlieir  mutual  defence.  At  length 
they  became  apprehensive  of  utter  destruction  from  their  tierce 
and  cruel  iiivaders.  and  a  general  alliance  was  concerted  among  the 
remaiiiiiig  kings  and  chiefs  of  the  country  between  the  Jordan  and 
the  Mediterranean  sea.  Joshua  twice  attacked  (he  combined  army 
unexpectedly,  and  defe.ited  it  with  (jreat  slaughter.  Most  of  the  in- 
habiUnls,  except  those  who  resided  in  impregnable  cities  on  the  sea 
tOc\st,  were  put  to  the  sword,  or  compelled  to  flee  from  the  ven- 
geance of  their  enemy.  I'heir  possessions  were  divided  among 
the  tribes  of  Israel ;  and  thus  the  victorious  Hebrews  conquered 
and  occupied  the  southern  parts  of  Syria,  called  Judea  or  Canaan, 
and  still  known  by  t'le  name  of  Palestine.  Joshua  having  on  many 
occasions  received  miraculous  assistance  in  the  perilous  conquest  of 
(/anaan,  and  in  the  execution  of  the  arduous  and  importtrnt  ofnces  of 
a  government  of  incessant  activity  and  energy,  died  in  1,439  A.  C. 
leaving  the  Israelites  in  the  quiet  enjoyment  of  the  country  which 
the  Lord  had  formerly  pron.ised  to  Abraham  and  his  posterity. 

3.  After  the  conquest  of  Canaan  the  Hebrews  did  not  continue 
long  to  observe  and  obey  the  iaslitutions  of  Mosea,  They  fell  into 
aposiacy  and  confusion.  They  were  alternately  harassed  by  intestine 
commotions,  and  reduced  to  temporary  bondage  by  the  nations  which 
they  had  before  conquered.  Wnen  relieved  from  the  miseries  of  a 
foreign  yoke,  they  commonly  became  subject  to  the  more  grievous 
oppiessiuiis  of  domestic  tyranny.    But  in  the  various  changes  of  their 


JEWISH  HISTORY.  245 

manners  and  fortunes,  it  is  remarkable  tliat  some  of  their  gross- 
est idolatries,  and  severest  afflictions,  h;ipponed  when  the  civil  power 
and  the  authority  of  the  priesthood  were  exercised  by  the  same 
person. 

4.  After  the  death  of  Joshua  the  Israelites  were  governed  by  elders 
about  20  years.  Then  followed  an  anarchy  of  about  18  years,  during 
which  they  were  engaged  in  many  successful  and  unsuccesslul  vvai*s, 
and  were  often  reduced  to  servitude. 

After  the  government  of  the  Hebrews  had  continued  with  little 
interruption,  about  295  years,  under  twelve  successive  judges,  in  the 
ibrni  prescribed  by  Moses,  Eli,  the  high-priest  united  in  bis  person 
those  powers  and  functions  which,  bel'ore  his  accession  to  the 
supreme  magistracy,  had  been  kept  distinct.  Eli  appears  to  have 
been  equally  incapable  of  dischai'ging  the  civil,  the  miiilary,  and  the 
religious  duties  of  his  high  offices.  The  people  ieli  into  idolatry, 
and  were  subjugated  by  an  ancient  nation  called  the  Philistines,  la 
a  great  battle  with  the  Philisiines  the  army  of  the  Hebrews  was 
routed  with  dreadful  slaughter,  a.ud  the  two  profligate  sons  of  Eli 
wore  killed.  The  news  of  this  disaster  put  an  end  tu  the  life  ol'  Eii, 
after  he  had  governed  the  Israelites  forty  year-;. 

5.  The  next  ami  last  judge  of  tlie  Hebrews  was  Samuel  (he 
prophet,*!,!  12  A.  C.  He  brought  back  the  people  to  a  sense  of  their 
duly,  and  soon  restored  the  departeil  glory  of  Israel  by  a  great  vic- 
tory over  the  Philistines.  They  now  recovered  their  liberty,  and 
the  cities  which  had  been  taken  Ironi  them  in  former  wars.  Samuel 
was  indefatigable  in  the  administration  cf  jviSlice.  When  age  had 
rendered  him  incapable  of  execuliiig  his  laborious  diuics,  he  united 
his  two  sons  with  him  in  the  administration  of  the  government. 
But  their  evil  conduct  offended  the  people,  who  complained  to  Sam- 
uel that  his  sons  were  not  worthy  to  succeed  him  as  judges.  They 
demanded  a  king  to  govern  them.  Samuel  thtret'ore  assembled  the 
people,  and  explained  to  them  the  extreme  danger  of  changing  their 
ancient  form  of  government  to  that  of  a  monarchy  ,•  but  in  vain. 
Tliey  pei"sisted  in  their  resolution,  and  a  man  named  Saul  was  ap- 
pointed the  first  king  of  the  Hebrews,  after  the  government  by 
judges  had  subsisted,  with  some  intermission,  about  35o  years,  Jrom 
Joshua  to  Saul. 


SECTION  IX. 


RETROSPECT  OF  THE  GOVERxNMENT  OF  THE  HEBREWS. 

1.  The  advancement  of  Saul  to  the  regal  dignity  was  the  second 
change  made  in  the  constitution  given  by  Moses.  The  conmion- 
wealth  was  originally  a  theocracy;  and  the  people  acknowledged 
no  other  king  but  (lod.  They  paid  respect  to  the  priests,  as  the 
superintendents  of  his  worship  ;  and  they  obeyed  the  judges,  as 
the  interpreters  of  his  laws,  and  the  delegates  of  his  power.  The 
succession  to  the  priesthood  was  fixed,  being  made  hereditary  in 
the  family  of  Aaron.  The  office  of  ruler,  or  judge,  being  apparent- 
ly left  to  the  appointment  of  God,  and  determinable  neither  by  the 
choice  of  the  people,  nor  by  lineal  descent,  gave  access  to  disturbance, 
violence,  and  intrigue.  Moses  prevented  any  public  commoUon  by 
naming  and  consecrating  a  successor  to  himself. 
X2 


246  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

2.  After  the  death  of  Joshua  intestine  divisions,  or  rather  a  spirit 
of  licentiousness  and  rapine,  threw  the  nation  into  a  state  of  anarchy 
and  confusion.  As  this  disunion  and  civil  disorder  exposed  them  to 
the  invasions  of  the  adjacent  states,  military  talents  and  success  were 
regarded  as  infallible  proofs  of  divine  favour,  and  conferred  upon  any 
person  so  distinguished,  the  title  and  authority  of  judge.  Gideon 
obtained  many  signal  victories  over  the  Philistines,  the  inveterate 
enemies  of  the  Hebrews,  and  enriched  his  soldiers  with  plunder. 
Out  of  gratitude  for  his  services,  the  people  offered  to  make  him 
and  his  posterity  their  rulers.  Though  he  declined  the  name  of 
judge,  yet  he  retained  the  power,  and  appropriated  to  himself  the 
most  valuable  part  of  the  spoils  of  his  enemies.  His  natural  son 
Abimelech  succeeded  to  the  office  of  judge  by  force  and  violence. 
Sacred  history  does  not  inform  us  how  the  next  two  judges  obtained 
their  dignity.  After  them  the  supreme  power  was  committed  to  one 
of  Gilead's  illegitimate  issue,  on  account  of  his  valour  and  military 
talents.  Thus  the  office  of  judge  continued  to  fluctuate  till  it  was 
annexed  to  the  high  priesthood  in  the  person  of  Eli,  as  has  been  re 
lated.  The  death  of  his  two  vicious  sons  interrupted  the  succession 
in  his  line.  The  office  was  lastly  conferred  on  Samuel,  whose  un- 
just and  rapacious  sons  were  thought  unworthy  to  succeed  him.  The 
people  having  received  no  permanent  benefits  from  the  administra- 
tion either  of  judges  or  of  priests,  resolved  to  appoint  a  king  to  goverp 
I  hem.  This  political  innovation  was  the  result  of  levity  and  impa- 
tience rather  than  of  mature  deliberation.  It  neither  gave  stability  to 
the  new  government  nor  prevented  the  evils  of  the  old. 


SECTION  X. 
REGAL  GOVERNMENT  OF  THE  HEBREWS. 

1.  The  reign  of  Saul  began  about  1,091  A.  C.  He  was  a  shep- 
herd of  lofly  stature.  The  beginning  of  his  reign  was  auspicious, 
and  distinguished  by  a  complete  victory  gained  over  the  Ammonites, 
which  made  him  popular  among  his  subjects.  Btit  he  incurred  the 
displeasure  of  Samuel,  the  prophet,  and  his  whole  reign  of  40  years, 
was  a  continued  scene  of  foreign  or  domestic  troubles.  Being  de- 
feated in  a  battle  with  the  Philistines  in  1,061  A.-  C,  he  killed  him- 
self. 

2.  Two  candidates  preferred  their  claim  to  the  vacant  throne. 
Ish-bosheth,  Saufs  son,  founded  his  pretensions  on  the  right  of  im- 
.mediate  descent,  and  was  supported  by  many  of  the  tribes.  David, 
a  young  shepherd,  was  famous  for  killing,  with  a  stone  thrown  from 
a  sling,  a  Philistine  named  Goliath,  a  man  of  gigantic  size  and 
strengtn.  He  had  likewise  been  privately  anointed  by  Samuel 
before  the  death  of  Saul ;  and  his  title,  as  of  divine  appointment, 
was  therefore  acknowledged  by  the  powerful  tribe  of  Judah.  A 
civil  war  ensued,  which  lasted  above  seven  years,  and  was  terminat- 
ed by  the  assassination  of  Isii-bosheth.  All  the  tribes  now  submit- 
ted to  David,  and  the  kingdom  became  hereditary  in  his  family, 
though  the  right  of  succession  was  still  unsettled,  and  was  transfer- 
able from  one  branch  to  another  at  the  will  of  the  reigning  sover- 
eign. This  appears  from  Solomon's  succession  to  the  t&one  in 
preference  to  his  elder  brother. 

3.  The  reign  of  David  is  illustrious  aad  interesting.    He  enlarged 


JEWISH  HISTORY.  247 

the  bounds  of  Palestine  by  conquest,  took  Jerusalem,  which  he  made 
the  capital  of  his  dominions,  and  enriched  himself  and  his  subjects 
with  the  spoils  of  his  enemies.  He  revived  among  the  people  an 
attachment  to  religion  by  the  institution  of  solemn  ceremonies  ;  and 
he  introduced  a  taste  for  the  arts,  by  inviting  into  the  country  able 
mechanics  and  artists  for  the  completion  of  me  grand  edifices  which 
he  erected. 

4.  The  latter  part  of  David's  reign  was  unfortunate.  The  king- 
dom was  ravaged  by  pestilence,  famine,  and  disastrous  wars.  His 
mind  was  harassed  by  domestic  misfortunes.  Some  of  his  sons  were 
disobedient  and  wicked.  His  favourite  son  Absalom  raised  a  rebel- 
lion with  a  design  to  dethrone  his  father;  but  was  defeated  and  slain. 
David  caused  his  son  Solomon  to  be  crowned  in  1 ,01 1  A.  C,  and  died 
in  1,010  A.  C,  having  reigned  seven  years  and  a  half  over  Judah, 
and  33  years  over  all  Israel. 

5.  The  reign  of  Solomon  presents  a  splendid  view  of  the  kingdom 
of  Israel  in  the  height  of  its  prosperity,  felicity,  and  glory,  enjoying 
all  the  blessings  of  tranquillity  in  such  a  manner,  and  lor  such  a 
length  of  time,  as  it  never  experienced  in  any  former  or  subsequent 

Eeriod.  It  directed  the  councils  of  all  the  petty  states  between  the 
lUphrates  and  the  Mediterranean ;  and  held  the  balance  of  power 
between  the  two  great  monarchies  of  Egypt  and  Assyria.  Com- 
merce flourished  in  a  degree  which,  at  that  early  period  of  the  world, 
must  appear  extraordinary.  The  fleets  of  Israel,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  Tyrian  mariners,  traded  to  the  land  of  Ophir,  which  some 
suppose  to  be  a  district  in  Ethiopia,  on  the%astern  coast  of  Africa. 
To  this  country  they  probably  went  by  the  Red  Sea.  By  their  lu- 
crative voyages  they  augmented  the  wealth  of  the  nation,  which 
David  had  already  enriched  by  the  spoils  of  war.  But  this  agreea- 
ble and  prosperous  condition  did  not  continue  lon^.  Solomon,  elated 
by  uniform  prosperity,  set  no  bounds  to  his  magnihcence  and  luxury ; 
and  laid  heavy  taxes  on  the  people  to  enable  him  to  support  his  pro- 
fuse expenditure.  The&e  burdensome  imposts  created  disaft'ection 
in  the  minds  of  his  subjects,  and  toward  the  end  of  his  reign  gave 
rise  to  a  powerful  faction,  at  the  head  of  which  was  a  haughty  and 
impetuous  young  man  called  Jeroboam. 

6.  The  most  rema)'kable  event  in  the  reign  of  Solomon  is  the 
building  of  a  magnificent  temple  at  Jerusalem,  which  was  completed 
in  about  seven  years.  The  plan  had  been  formed  by  David,  and 
materials,  workmen,  and  money,  provided  for  its  execution.  This 
%vas  probably  the  most  superb  and  costly  fabric  that  has  been  erected 
in  ancient  times. 

The  wisdom  of  Solomon  is  proverbial.  The  books  of  Proverbs 
and  J'xclesiastes  are  ascribed  to  him,  either  as  the  author  or  col- 
lector; and  abound  with  precepts  and  maxims  that  are  apphcable  to 
every  condition  of  life.  But  notwithstanding  the  s«jperior  knowl- 
edge for  which  Solomon  was  so  justly  celebrated,  he  appears  to  have 
been  immersed  in  sensual  pleasures.  He  had  700  wives  of  dilferent 
countries  and  religions,  beside  300  concubines  !  The  allurements  of 
those  voluptuous  women  led  him  into  effeminacy,  and  the  excess 
ive  indulgence  of  the  animal  passions,  and  into  the  neglect  of  his 
important  duties  to  God  and  his  people  ;  and  their  influence  and  su- 
perstitions at  length  drew  him  into  idolatry.  This  illustrious  and 
renowned  monarch  reigned  40  years,  and  died  in  971  A.  C,  without 
leaving  any  memorial  of  his  power. 

7.  With  Solomon  expired  the  grandeur  and  the  tranquillity  o(  the 


248  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

Hebrews.  Upon  the  accession  of  his  son  Rehoboam  to  the  throne 
the  faction  of  .Jeroboam  broke  out  into  open  rebellion,  and  terminat- 
ed in  the  revolt  of  the  ten  tribes  from  their  allegiance  to  the  house 
of  David.  The  tribes  of  Judah  and  Benjamin  continued  loyal  to 
their  lawful  sovereign.  The  revolted  tribes  elected  Jeroboam  for 
their  king,  and  the  monarchy  was  split  into  the  two  separate  king- 
doms of  Israel  and  Judah,  971  A.  C. 

8.  The  policy  of  .leroljoam  produced  a  religious  as  well  as  a  po- 
litical separation.  While  the,  kings  of  Judah  held  the  temple  where 
the  sacritices  were  ofl'ered,  and  \vliither  all  the  people  were  obliged 
to  resort  at  stated  times,  they  would  always  have  an  ascertJancy 
over  the  kingdom  of  Israel.  /erot)oam  therefore  thought  it  neces- 
sary to  adopt  some  measures  to  prevent  the  frequent  visits  of  his 
subjects  to  Jerusalem,  the  metropolis  of  the  kingdom  of  Jiuiah. 
The  priests,  the  Leviles,  and  all  who  were  concerned  in  the  ministry 
of  religion,  were  timily  attached  to  the  house  of  David;  and  Jero- 
boam supposed  that  they  would  naturally  exert  the  intluence  which 
religion  give  them  over  tiie  minds  of  the  people,  to  alienate  their 
aiTection  from  his  governments  and  to  bring  them  back  to  their  alle- 
giance to  their  lawful  sovereign.  To  prevent  the  obvious  conse- 
quences of  the  continuance  of  his  sui)jects  in  religious  communion 
with  the  house  of  David  and  kingdom  of  Judah,  Jeroboam  sacriticed 
the  interest  of  reli.;^ion  to  his  political  motives.  He  built  a  new 
temple,  and  instituted  a  new  priesthood ;  and  thus  produced  a  new 
schism  among  the  ioHov^rs  of  the  Mosuical  laws,  which  was  never 
extinguished.  Soon  aflwr  this  separation,  the  religion  of  the  ten 
tribes  under  Jeroboam,  deviating  more  and  more  from  the  original 
institutions  of  Moses,  became  a  mixture  of  J  udaism  and  Pagan  idol- 
atry. 

9.  After  this  memorable  epoch  in  the  history  of  the  Israelites  we 
find  little  more  in  their  annals  than  such  transactions  and  events  as 
constitute  the  ordinary  subjects  of  political  records.  The  kingdom 
of  Judah  adhered  with  inllexible  attachment  to  princes  of  the  house 
of  David  ;  but  usurpations  in  the  kingdom  of  Israel  were  common. 
The  history  of  the  kingdoms  of  Israel  and  Judah  during  a  period  of 
almost  400  years,  till  tiie  burning  of  Jerusalem  by  Nebuchadnez- 
zar, may,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  intervals,  be  called  the  an- 
nals of  disunion,  vice,  wars,  massacres,  servitude,  famine,  and  pesti- 
lence, in  this  long  period  of  general  wickedness  and  misery,  one 
of  the  most  remarkable  events  is  a  ^reat  battle  fought  between 
Jeroboam  and  Abijam  the  successor  of  Rehoboam.  The  anny  of 
the  former  consisted  of  eight  hundred  thousand  men,  that  of  the 
latter  of  four  hundred  thousand.  Jeroboam  was  defeated,  and  tive 
hundred  thousand  of  his  men  were  killed  in  the  battle.* 

10.  At  last  the  kingdom  of  the  ten  tribes  was  extinguished.  The 
people  were  transported  into  Assyria,  and  dispersed  into  different 
parts  of  the  country,  whence  they  never  returned.  The  common 
people  who  were  left  in  Canaan  were  intermixed  ^vith  strangere  ; 
and  from  that  mixture  of  different  nations  sprung  the  motley  race, 
which  were  afterward  known  by  the  name  of  Samaritans.  The 
sad  catastrophe  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel  is  described  by  the  proph- 
ets in  very  pathetic  terms.  The  infants  and  pregnant  women  were 
murdered  with  horrid  barbarity.  The  men,  who  had  not  been  slain 
in  battle,  nor  had  not  escaped  by  flight,  were  dragged  into  bondage. 

*  The  limits  of  this  work  do  not  admit  a  particular  history  of  the  geae- 
raHy  unintoresting  reigns  from  this  period  to  the  Babylonish  captivity. 


JEWISH  HISTORY.  249 

and  their  country  was  divided  among  the  colonies  of  the  conqueroi-s. 
This  event  happened  about  720  A.  C,  alter  the  kingdom  had  sub- 
sisted about  254  years. 

1 1 .  The  tottering  kingdom  of  Judah  still  continued  to  enjoy  a 
precarious  existence  ;  invaded  at  different  times  by  the  Babylonians, 
rendered  tributary,  and  tinaliy  subjugated;  its  meti'opoiis and  temple 
razed  to  their  foundations  by  that  mighty  conqueror  Nebuchadnez- 
zar, 584  A.  C. ;  and  all  the  principal  persons,  and  the  must  skilful 
artists  of  every  kind,  removed  to  13abylon.  Thus  ends  the  kingdom 
of  Judea,  after  it  had  subsisted  468  years  from  the  beginning  of  the 
reign  of  David,  and  388  years  from  the  separation  ot  Judah  and  the 
ten  tribes. 


SECTION  XI. 

RESTORATION     OF    THE    JEWS    TO     THEIR     LIBERTY    AND 
COUNTRY. 

1 .  The  privation  of  liberty,  and  the  miseries  of  bondage  seem  to 
have  brought  the  people  of  Israel  and  Judah  to  a  sense  of  their  past 
transgressions.  Unable  to  resist  the  power  of  man,  they  now  j>laced 
their  sole  confidence  in  the  goodness  and  mercy  of  God.  Neither 
promises  nor  threats  could  induce  them  to  abandon  their  duty,  and 
worship  the  idols  of  the  heathens. 

'  2.  After  they  had  been  in  captivity  70  years,  Cyrus,  king  of  Persia, 
having  conquered  Babylon,  set  them  at  liberty,  and  issued  a  decree, 
by  which  they  were  permitted  to  return  to  their  own  country,  and 
to  rebuild  Jerusalem  and  the  temple,  643  A.  C.  He  restored  to 
them  all  the  sacred  utensils  which  Nebuchadnezzar  had  taken  away 
trom  the  temple.  He  laid  down  a  plan  of  the  new  temple,  and 
ordered  that  the  expense  of  erecting  it  should  be  paid  out  of  the 
royal  treasury.  All  who  desired  it  were  allowed  to  remain  in  their 
present  places  of  residence,  and  to  contribute  as  much  as  they  pleas- 
ed to  the  holy  editice. 

It  may  be  proper  to  observe  in  this  place,  that  the  Israelites  who 
returned  from  the  captivity  of  Babylon  were  then  and  ever  after- 
ward called  JetM,  because  the  tribe  of  Judah  was  the  most  power- 
ful of  all  the  tribes  of  Israel,  and  indeed  almost  the  only  one  which 
was  considerable  after  their  i-estoration  to  their  liberty  and  country. 

3.  Many  of  the  Israelites  chose  to  remain  at  Babylon.  Those 
who  returned  to  Palestine  began  the  work  of  the  temple  with  alac- 
rity and  vigour.  Its  progress  suffered  a  temporary  obstruction 
through  the  intrigues  of  their  enemies,  and  the  caprice  of  Cyrus's 
immediate  successors.  But  in  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Darius 
the  decree  of  Cyrus  in  favour  of  the  Jews  was  ratified,  and  many 
new  clauses  were  added  for  their  effectual  assistance  and  securilv 
A  particular  charge  was  given  to  the  governors  of  Syria  and  Sam., 
ria,  not  only  to  prevent  any  further  obstruction  of  the  work,  but  also 
to  furnish  supplies  out  of  tbe  tribute  of  those  provinces  tor  carrying 
it  on  with  greater  expedition  ;  and  it  was  declared  that  all  persons 
who  should  act  contrary  to  these  instructions  would  be  punished  with 
death. 

-  4.  Darius  continued  to  manifest  bis  favour  for  the  Jews,  during 
the  remainder  of  his  long  reign.  Their  privileges  were  contirmed 
to  them  by  his  son  Xerxes,    Their  interest  was  still  greater  with 

3^ 


250  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

Artaxerxes,  the  Ahasuerus  of  scripture,  through  the  influence  of  his 
queen  Esther,  a  Jewess,  and  also  through  the  services  of  her  uncle 
Mordecai,  who  had  discovered  and  frustrated  a  conspiracy  against  the 
king's  life.  Fronri  Artaxerxes,  Ezra  obtained  very  liberal  donations, 
to  be  applied  to  the  senice  of  the  temple  ;  and  full  powers  to  gov- 
ern the  Jews  as  the  divine  will  should  direct.  The  like  commission 
was  also  granted  to  Nehemiah,  who  rebuilt  the  walls  of  Jerusalem, 
and  reformed  many  abuses  both  civil  and  religious. 

After  these  two  we  find  no  more  governors  of  Judea,  which  prol)- 
ably  became  s'jbject  to  the  governor  of  Syria,  from  w  hom  the  high- 
priests  might  immediately  derive  their  authority.  In  this  prosperous 
state  were  the  Jews  about  420  years  before  the  christian  era. 

5.  From  this  time  we  may  ascribe  most  of  the  misfortunes  which 
befel  the  Jewish  nation  to  men  who  aspired  at  the  sacerdotal  dignity 
tbrough  ambition  and  avarice  more  than  zeal  for  religion.  For 
whole  centuries  the  office  of  high-priest  was  the  chief  object  of  men's 
ambidoii.  The  candidates  purchased  the  office  from  the  Syrian  gov- 
ernors, ;ind  retained  it  by  means  of  money.  Hence  they  oppressed 
the  people  with  taxes  that  they  might  fulfil  their  pecuniary  engage- 
ments. There  was  no  energy  among  this  degraded  people,  no  dig- 
nity among  the  great,  no  foresight,  no  thought  of  pursuing  proper 
measures  against  foreign  invasion. 

6.  About  328  A.  C.  Alexander  the  great  besieged  Tyre,  and  was 
incensed  against  the  Jews,  because  they  had  refused  to  supply  his 
army  with  provisions  during  the  siege.  After  the  capture  of  Tyre 
he  marched  to  Jerusalem  with  the  intention  of  punishing  the  Jews 
for  their  disobedience  of  his  orders,  iaddua  the  high-priest  was 
ordered  in  a  dream  to  meet'the  threatening  conqueror  in  his  pontifi- 
cai  robes,  at  the  head  of  all  the  priests  in  their  proper  haliits,  and 
attended  by  the  rest  of  the  people  dressed  in  white  garments. 
Alexander  was  struck  with  tiiis  religious  pomp,  and  approaching 
the  high-priest  with  awful  respect,  embraced  him  with  a  religious 
kind  of  veuenition.  He  told  his  attendants,  who  expressed  surprise  at 
his  submissive  behaviour,  that  he  did  not  pay  this  profound  respect  to 
the  higii-priest,  but  to  the  God  whose  minister  he  was.  Alexander 
then  went  to  Jerusalem,  and  offered  sacrifice  in  the  temple  to  the 
God  of  the  Jews.  Upon  his  departure  he  granted  to  the  Jews  the 
freedom  of  their  country,  laws,  and  religion,  and  exempted  them 
from  paying  tribute  every  seventh  year.  During  his  whole  reign 
they  enjoyed  great  tranquillity  ;  but  with  him  expired  the  prosperous 
state  of  their  countiT-  Judea  was  successively  invaded  and  subduec^ 
by  the  Syrians  and  Egyptians,  and  the  people  were  reduced  to  bon- 
dage. 

7.  The  Jews  kept  their  sabbath  so  rigidly  that  they  would  not 
fight  on  that  day,  nor  even  defend  themselves  although  attacked  by 
an  enemy.  Ptolemy  king  of  Egypt,  having  invaded  Judea,  took  ad- 
vantage of  this  religious  impediment.  He  entered  Jerusalem  on  the 
sabbath-day  without  resistance,  and  carried  away  to  Egypt  a  hundred 
thousand  captives,  316  A.  C. 

After  thfs  time  the  Jews  became  the  victims  of  foreign  and  domes- 
tic wars,  and  of  horrid  massacres. 

8.  About  198  A.  C.  Antiochus  the  great,  king  of  Syria,  took 
Jerusalem,  plundered  the  temple,  sold  40,000  Jews  to  the  neigh- 
bouring nations,  and  estabUshed  paganism  throughout  J  udea.  1  he 
sacrifices  ceased,  and  there  scarcely  existed  any  external  signs  of 
religion. 


JEWISH  HISTORY.  251 

Thi3  persecution  roused  the  resentment  and  provoked  the  resist- 
ance of  a  priest  named  Muttathias,  and  las  five  sons  surnumed  Mac- 
cabeus. They  all  retired  into  the  wilderness,  and  were  soon  joined 
by  a  great  number  of  Jews  who  wished  lo  avoid  idolatry  and  religious 
persecution.  An  army  was  raised,  of  which  the  command  was  given 
to  the  eldest  son  of  Mattathias,  named  Judas  Maccabeus. 

The  deliverance  of  the  Jews  from  the  tyranny  and  oppression  of 
the  Greeks,  by  tlie  uncommon  talents,  bravery,  and  patriotism  of 
Jud;is  Maccabeus,  is  an  achievement  as  glorious  perhaps  as  any  per- 
formed by  the  most  illustrious  heroes  of  Greece  and  Rome.  Having 
gained  many  signal  victories,  and  delivered  his  country  from  bondage 
and  idolatry,  he  was  at  last  slain  in  battle,  157  A.  C. 

9.  The  brothers  of  Judas,  pui-sning  their  advantages  with  perse- 
verance and  exertion,  established  the  independence  of  their  country, 
and  changed  its  republican  government  to  a  vigorous  and  flourishing 
monarchy. 

10.  John  Hyrcanus,  son  of  Simon  Maccabeus,  uniting  in  bis  person 
the  oilices  of  high-priest  and  generalissimo  of  the  army,  and  possess- 
ing all  the  talents  requisite  for  the  pontifical,  the  military,  and  the 
regal  offices,  vanquished  the  enemies  of  his  country,  and  firmly  estab- 
lished his  govenunent.  His  sons  assumed  the  title  as  well  as  (he 
power  of  Idngs ;  and  the  high-priesthood  remained  in  his  family 
though  not  in  the  person  of  the  monarch.  The  descendants  of  Hyr- 
canus  are  distinguished,  in  the  history  of  the  Jewish  nation,  by  the 
appellation  of  the  Asinonean  dynasty^  which  continued  about  126 
years. 

11.  The  unlucky  dissensions  of  this  family  terminated  ultimately 
in  the  conquest  of  Judea  and  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  by  Pompey 
the  great,  and  the  subjection  of  the  Jewish  nation  to  the  Romans, 
69  A.  C. 

12.  After  this  event  the  Jewish  monarchy  was  re-established  by 
the  favour  and  under  the  protection  of  the  Romans,  who  placed 
Herod  the  great,  the  son  of  Antipater,  on  the  throne  of  David. 
This  prince  demolished  the  old  temple  of  Jerusalem,  and  rebuilt 
it  in  a  very  magnificent  manner.  He  reigned  with  great  splendour, 
but  wkh  singular  despotism  and  tyranny.  He  possessed  great  abili- 
ties, but  was  cruel  and  unjust  both  in  his  public  and  private  transac- 
tions. His  public  life  exhibits  a  continued  scene  of  battles,  massa- 
cres, and  violence.  He  died  in  the  fii^t  year  of  the  birth  of  Christ, 
or  the  fourth  of  the  vulgar  era. 

The  reign  of  Herod  was  distinguished  by  a  memorable  event, 
which  has  proved  more  important  in  its  consequences  than  any  that 
has  occurred  since  the  creation  of  the  world,  ili.e  birth  of  Jesus  Christy 
the  author  of  the  christian  religion. 

13.  Soon  after  the  death  of  Herod,  Judea  was  in  reality  reduced 
to  a  Roman  province,  and  the  governors  were  appointed  by  the 
emperors  of  Rome.  In  this  condition  it  remained  till  the  final  ex- 
tinction of  the  Jewish  nation  in  the  year  of  Christ  75,  or  of  the  vul- 
gar era  72. 

The  rapine  and  cruelty  of  Florus,  governor  of  Judea,  caused  a 
rebellion  of  the  Jews,  in  which  150,000  persons  are  said  to  have 
perisiied,  69  of  Christ,  or  A.  D.  60. 

The  violent  and  sanguinary  factions  among  the  Jews  destroyed  in- 
credible numbers  of  people  of  all  ranks. 

14.  At  length  the  Jewish  nation  was  extinguished  by  the  Romans, 
and  Us  metropolis  reduced  to  ashes  by  Titus  the  Roman  general. 


252  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

The  last  siege  of  Jerusalem  was  attended  with  scenes  of  carnage, 
famine,  disease,  and  desperation,  far  more  horrible  than  any  to  be 
found  in  the  annals  of  human  wickedness  and  misery.  During  the 
calamitous  progress  of  the  siege,  Titii?  displayed  many  instancies  of 
humanity  toward  the  sufferings  of  the  besioged,  and  of  his  soli-citude 
for  the  preservation  of  the  city  and  temple;  but  in  vain.  Their 
doom  was  predestinated  by  the  irrevocable  degree  of  the  Almighty. 
The  magnificent  temple  of  the  Jews  perished  in  the  general  wreck 
of  the  nation,  and  not  one  stone  was  left  upon  another,  75  of  Christ, 
or  A.  D.  72. 

According  to  a  moderate  calculation  the  number  of  persons  who 
perished  by  violent  deaths  during  the  last  war  in  Judea  amounted  to 
more  than  one  million  four  hundred  thousand,  besides  many  who  died 
of  grief  and  famine. 

Since  that  time  the  descendants  of  those  who  survived  the  dissolu- 
tion of  the  Jewish  nation  have  been  wandering  about  the  world, 
the  objects  of  hatred  and  contempt  rather  than  of  kindness  and  com- 
miseration. In  all  countries  where  they  have  been  permitted  to 
reside,  they  have  been  excluded  from  the  participation  of  certain 
political  privileges  which  the  people  of  those  countries  enjoy. 

SECTION  XII. 

THE   STATE   OF    LEARNING    AND    COMMERCE  AMONG   TPffi 

JEWS. 

1.  Of  all  the  interesting  prospects  which  history  opens  to  our 
view,  the  progressive  advancement  of  the  human  mind,  in  the  im- 
provement of  its  faculties,  is  the  most  agreeable,  and  the  most 
worthy  of  our  attention  and  regard.  The  brilliant  and  destructive; 
exploits  of  conquerors  may  dazzle  for  a  while;  but  the  silent  laboujs 
of  the  student  and  the  artist,  of  the  architect  and  the  husbandman, 
which  embellish  the  earth  and  convert  it  into  a  paradise,  confer  per- 
manent benefits  on  mankind,  and  promote  their  prosperity  and  h;i}j- 
puiess.  The  arts  and  sciences  distinguish  the  civilized  man  from  the 
savage  ;  and  the  investigatioa  of  ti)eir  origin  and  progress  would 
constitute  the  noblest  attribute  of  history.  How  unfortunate  it  is, 
that  the  ancient  historians  have  almost  neglected  so  interesting  and 
pleasing  a  subject.  All  the  knowledge  which  we  can  obtain  concern- 
ing the  origin  and  progress  of  learning  must  be  gleaned  from  uncon- 
nected fragments  and  scattered  notices,  laboriously  collected  from 
a  multifarious  and  confused  mass  of  tiivial  particulai-s. 

2.  The  period  of  the  scriptural  history  includes  the  whole  space 
of  time  from  the  creation  of  the  world  to  the  subversion  of  the 
Babylonian  monarchy,  or  about  3,457  years.  During  this  long  suc- 
cession of  ages  a  great  variety  of  political,  civil,  and  religious  in- 
stitutions had  been  invented ;  the  human  mind  had  been  much  im- 
proved in  some  countries ;  agriculture  had  been  skilfully  practised ; 
the  surface  of  the  earth  had  been  adorned  with  large  cities  and 
stately  edifices.  Of  these  interesting  subjects,  lew  particulars  have 
been  faithfully  transmitted  to  posterity,  except  such  as  relate  to  Jew- 
ish laws  and  institutions,  some  scattered  lunts  respecting  ancient 
commerce,  and  some  excellent  specimens  of  writing  in  the  Prophets 
and  Psalms.  In  those  venerable  monuments  of  antiquity,  the  sacred 
writings,  we  trace  the  Israelites  from  the  patriarchal  ages,  through 
the  turbulent  times  of  barbaric  ignorance,  to  a  considerable  degrte 


JEWISH  HISTORY.  253 

of  civilization  and  refinement.  Of  their  civil  and  religious  institu- 
tions we  have  a  clear  and  explicit  account ;  of  their  knowledge  of 
the  arts  and  sciences  we  possess  little  information.  Ttie  Jews  do  not 
seem  to  have  been  a  scientific  or  philosophica!  nation  in  any  period 
of  their  history.  They  appear  to  have  been  sufiicientiy  skilful  in 
the  arts  of  necessity  and  conveniency ;  but  not  to  have  made  much 
proficiency  in  those  of  liixurj^  and  ornament.  Some  admirable  speci- 
mens of  literature  are  presented  in  the  scriptures,  especially  in  the 
writings  of  the  Prophets,  and  in  the  Psalms.  In  the  historical  books 
we  observe  plainness  ot  style  and  conciseness  of  narrative,  and  un- 
common pei-spicuity  in  the  didactical  pieces.  The  writings  of  the 
prophets  are  chiefly  poetical,  very  different,  and  all  originals.  Most 
of  them  display  sublime  sentiments,  expressed  with  energy  of  diction, 
and  decorated  with  oriental  imagery. 

3,  In  the  patriarchal  ages  commerce  vv.is  so  far  known  and  exer- 
cised that  gold  and  silver  were  used  as  the  medium  by  which  it  was 
regulated.  In  the  tumultuous  times  which  succeeded  the  patriarchal 
we  obtain  very  little  information  concerning  the  state  of  con.merce. 
We  have  no  reason  to  think  that  commerce  was  ever  in  a  llouiishing 
state  among  the  Jews.  In  times  of  remote  antiquity  the  mechanic 
arts  and  various  kinds  of  manufactures  had  made  con;<iderable  prog 
ress  in  some  countries.  This  is  manifest  from  the  curious  and  rich 
materials  of  the  tabernacle  and  of  the  high-priest's  garment*.  The 
Israelites,  no  doubt,  brought  trom  Egypt  much  of  their  knowledge 
of  arts,  sciences,  and  literature ;  for  the  Egyptians  had,  from  time 
immemorial,  been  gradually  advancing  in  learning  and  civilization ; 
and,  during  the  greater  part  of  the  period  now  under  contemplation, 
were  famous  for  the  excellence  of  their  civil  policy,  the  extent  and 
population  of  their  cities,  the  magnilicence  of  tneir  public  edi- 
hces,  and  the  flourishing  stiue  of  agriculture.  In  all  these  respects 
the  Egyptians  were  distinguished  above  all  the  contempoi-ary  nations 
of  antiquity. 

CONCLUSION. 

1.  In  taking  a  retrospective  view  of  the  various  nations  which 
have  successively  appeared  and  flourished  upon  the  grand  theatre 
of  this  world,  and  have  at  length  vanished  and  sunk  into  oblivion, 
their  rise,  progress,  and  decline,  arrest  our  attention,  and  excite  our 
curiosity  and  compassion.  The  ignorance,  avarice,  wickedness,  and 
ambition  of  mankind  may  be  assigned  as  the  general  causes  of  the 
dissolution  of  nations.  Many  of  those  kingdoms  and  states  once  so 
great  and  flourishing  have  not  only  disappeared,  but  even  their  names 
and  all  remembrance  of  them  must  have  perished,  if  they  had  not 
been  preserved  and  perpetuated  in  the  historical  records  of  scrip- 
ture. In  them,  however,  we  behold  the  transitory  and  fading  splen- 
Jour  of  all  human  glory,  and  a  diminutive  picture  of  every  thing 
which  the  world  calls  great ;  as  eminence  of  genius  and  learning, 
military  honour  and  fame,  extent  of  power  and  dom.inion,  political 
tt'isdom,  the  faculty  of  eloquence.  Finally,  we  draw  this  sad  conclu- 
ion,  that  history  is  little  more  than  a  dismal  record  of  the  crimes 
and  the  calamities  of  the  human  race  !* 

*  For  a  very  copious  and  useful  chronological  table  of  the  history  of 
'he  Bible  see  Calmet's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  vol.  II.     This  table  is  an 
ipitome  of  the  history  of  the  Jews,  and  will  be  particularly  useful  to 
theoloorical  students. 
Y 


ELEMENTS 


or 


'    GENERAL    HISTORY, 


ANCIENT  AND  MODERN; 


BEING  A  CONTINUATION, 


TSRMIKATIIfa  AT  TVS 


DEMISE  OF  HIS  MAJESTY  KING  GEORGE  lU.,  1,820. 


BY  THE  REV.  EDWARD  NARES,  D.  D. 
Reg^uR  Professor  of  Modern  History  in  the  UiUTtrsity  of  OdbnL 


CO/fCORD,  A".  jB; 

rniNTED  BY  MANAHAN,  HOAQ  Sf  GO. 

1827, 


ADVERTISEMENT. 


As  the  learned  author  of  the  Elements  of  General  History,  pro- 
fesor-;  Tvtler,  (by  courtesy  lord  Woodhouselee,)  lived  until  the  year 
1,813,  it  is  much' to  be  regretted  that  he  did  not  bring  his  history 
down  to  a  later  period. 

ill  the  present  volume  nothing  further  has  been  attempted  than  to 
conlinne  the  history  from  the  point  at  which  the  professor  left  it,  in 
the  ;inic  concise  style,  and  with  as  much  attention  to  the  original 
method  and  des^n,  as  could  be  rendered  consistent  with  the  extraor 
dinary  nature  oi  the  facts  and  incidents  to  be  recorded. 

To  this  e«d  it  has  been  found  necessary  to  carry  on  the  history  of 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland  from  the  period  of  the  death  of  queen 
Anne ; 

That  of  the  Southern  Continental  States  of  Europe,  from  the  end 
of  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV ; 

And  that  of  the  Northern  States  from  the  death  of  Charles  XII. 
of  Sweden,  and  Peter  the  First  of  Rassia. 


PART  THIRD. 
MODERN  HISTORY. 

SECTION  I. 

FRANCE  FROM  THE  DEATH  OF  LEWIS  XIV.  1,715,  TO  THi 
PEACE  OF  VIENNA,  1,738. 

1.  The  last  years  of  the  very  long  and  splendid  reign  of  Lewis 
XIV.  were  clouded  by  many  severe  domestic  misfortunes,  and  a 
great  change  in  the  sentiments  and  manners  of  the  sovereign  and  his 
court.  A  mystical  religion  became  the  vogue,  accompanied  with  a 
gravity  of  demeanour  approaching  to  prudery.  The  amiable  Fene 
Ion  tell  into  these  errors,  which  were  countenanced  by  madame  de 
Maintenon,  who  had  been  privately  married  to  the  king,  and  seems 
to  have  possessed  his  confidence  in  a  high  degree. 

2.  Oq  the  king's  demise  (see  Sect.  LXIV.)  the  crown  descended 
to  his  grandson,  Lewis  XV.,  an  infant,  only  five  years  old.  In  a 
very  short  space  of  time,  losses  had  occurred  in  the  royal  family,  so 
strange  and  unexpected,  as  to  afford  ground  for  suspicion,  greatly 
to  the  prejudice  of  the  duke  of  Orleans,  nephew  of  Lewis  XIv, 
Three  neirs  to  the  crown,  the  Dauphin,  his  son  the  duke  of  Bur 
gundy,  and  his  grandson  the  duke  of^  Bretagne,  had  all  died  within 
the  short  space  of  eleven  months,  during  the  years  1,711,  1,712, 
leaving,  to  intercept  the  claims  and  pretensions  of  the  duke  of  Op- 
leans,  only  the  duke  of  Berry  and  one  infant,  apparently  of  a  feeble 
and  delicate  constitution,  and  whose  own  life  had  also  been  in  dan- 
ger. The  king  of  Spain  had  been  previously  compelled,  according 
to  the  spirit  of  the  celebrated  treaty  of  the  Pyrenees,  formally  to 
renounce  his  claims  to  the  succession,  notwithstanding  his  near  rela- 
tionship to  the  crown  of  France.  Lastly,  the  duke  of  Berry  died, 
May  1,714,  at  the  early  age  of  18. 

3.  Fortunately  for  the  reputation  of  the  duke  of  Orleans,  (who, 
though  of  loose  morals,  seems  to  have  possessed  too  generous  a 
heart  .*jr  such  base  deeds),  the  infant  dauphin  not  only  lived  to  be- 
come king,  but  to  survive  the  duke  himself,  many  years.  Nor  were 
the  suspicions  which  had  been  raised  by  the  sudden  deaths  of  so 
many  heirs  to  the  crown,  strong  enough  to  prevent  the  nation  repos- 
ing the  highest  confidence  in  the  duke,  by  suffering  the  kingly  power 
to  pass  into  his  hands,  as  sole  regent,  during  the  minority ;  though 
contrary  to  the  express  appointment  of  the  late  king,,  who  is  said 
to  have  wisely  observed,  when  for  form'^^ake  he  executed  his  will, 
^hat  it  would  have  but  little  weigh!  with  the  people,  or  the  parlia- 
ment, as  soon  as  his  eyes  were  closed.    The  nation  willingly  acceded 

Y2  33 


258  MODERN  HISTORY. 

to  the  disposition  of  the  parliament,  in  setting  aside  the  claims  of  the 
Hlegitimate  princes,  whom  the  will  of  Lewis  XlV.  favoured ;  and 
the  duke  of  Orleans  was  careful  to  fix  that  body  in  his  interest,  by 
promising  to  restore  to  it  its  full  power  of  remonstrance,  which  had 
been  greatly  restrained  during  the  preceding  reign. 

4.  Lewis  XIV.  had  left  his  kingdom  so  incumbered  with  debt,  and 
so  surrounded  by  mortified,  jealous,  and  exasperated  neighbours, 
eager  to  recover  what  had  been  taken  from  them  during  the  trium- 
phant wars  of  that  monarch,  that  it  became  an  object  ot  the  highest 
importance  to  the  regent,  for  the  nation's  sake,  as  well  as  his  own,  to 
maintain  peace  as  far  as  he  could  with  foreign  states.  To  this  end, 
though  contrary  to  any  former  course  of  things,  he  prudently  endea- 
voured to  form  alliances  with  the  courts  of  St.  Jameses  and  Vienna. 
In  the  former  case  the  advantages  were  similar  and  mutual.  By  the 
treaty  of  Utrecht,  England  .-tood  engaged  to  secure  the  French 
croivn  to  the  regent,  in  case  Lewis  XV.  should  die  without  issue ; 
and  to  keep  her  steady  to  this  engagement,  it  was  easy  lor  the  duke 
to  comply  with  the  wishes  of  the  whig  government  of  England,  in 
withholding  all  encouragement  from  the  pretender. 

5.  However  pacific  the  views  of  the  regent  might  be,  Spain 
seemed  to  present  an  obstacle  to  the  repose  and  tranquillity  of  Eu- 
rope. There  a  minister  of  a  very  different  disposition  had  obtained 
the  chief  management  of  affairs,  who  appeared  bent  upon  disturl'ing 
both  the  French  and  English  governments,  in  order  to  recover  wliat 
had  been  taken  from  Spain  by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht,  especially  in 
Italy  ;  to  deprive  the  duke  oi  Orleans  of  the  regency,  in  favour  of 
the  king  his  master,  and  to  seat  the  pretender  on  the  throne  of  Great 
Britain,  with  the  aid  of  Russia  and  Sweden.  Such  were  the  plans  "^f 
the  celebrated  Jllberoni ;  originally  the  son  of  a  gardener;  afterwardX 
in  the  lowest  stations  in  the  church  of  Piacentia,  but  who  had  rai?-  ;f^ 
himself,  by  an  extraordinary  display  of  genius  and  talent,  to  the  high- 
est degree  of  credit  and  influence  at  the  court  of  Philip  V.,  with  the 
exalted  rank  of  cardinal. 

6.  These  movements  indeed  on  the  part  of  Spain,  were  not  in 
themselves  altogether  unfavourable  to  the  views  of  the  regent ;  in 
better  securing  to  him  the  good  will  of  England  and  Austria,  always 
prepared  to  be  jealous  of  too  close  an  intimacy  between  the  courts 
of  Paris  and  Madrid.  Some  historians  have  even  gone  so  far  as  to 
suppose  it  to  have  been  a  settled  contrivance  to  impose  on  the  former 
two  courts,  but  certainly  without  sulficient  grounds. 

7.  It  seems  to  have  been  a  great  oversiglit  in  the  negotiations  at 
Utrecht,  not  to  have  endeavoured  more  effectually  to  reconcile  the 
courts  of  Austria  and  Spain.  The  former,  after  the  treaty,  remained 
jealous  of  the  occupation  of  the  Spanish  throne  by  Philip;  while 
the  latter  could  not  tail  to  be  aggrieved  and  offended  at  being  made 
to  contribute  to  the  indemnification  of  Charles  VI.,  by  a  very  consid- 
erable dismemberment  of  its  dominions,  without  any  suitable  or 
adequate  remuneration. 

8.  To  counteract  the  projects  of  Alberoni,  the  regent  entered  into 
M\  alliance  with  England  and  the  United  States ;  entirely  sacrificing 
to  the  former  the  interests  of  the  pretender,  who  was  to  be  sent  out 
ft(  France.  Birt  the  Spanish  minister  was  not  to  be  deterred  by  this 
triple  alliance  and  confederacy  against  him.  Having  watched  his  op- 
portunity of  a  war  betwe<»  th^  emperor  of  Germany  and  the  Porte, 
he  suddenly  commenced  nostiUjties ;  and,  with  no  small  degree  of 
freachery,  iji  the  course  of  the^ears  1  Tl?  and  1  718  succeeded  in 


MODERN  HISTORY.  25& 

wresting  from  Austria  the  island  of  Sardinia,  and  from  the  duke  of 
Savoy  that  of  Sicily,  thus  violating,  in  the  most  direct  and  glaring 
manner,  the  solemn  treaty  of  Rastadt,  so  lately  concluded.  In  con- 
sequence of  these  proceedings,  and  in  order  to  remedy,  as  it  would 
seem,  the  defects  and  omissions  of  the  original  convention,  Austria 
was  admitted  a  party  to  the  alliance  between  France,  England,  and 
Holland,  with  a  view  to  bring  about  a  reconciliation  between  the 
emperor  and  Spain,  upon  the  basis  of  the  following  arrangement  : 
that  the  former  should  renounce  all  claims  to  the  Spanish  throne  in 
favour  of  Philip,  while  the  latter  should  surrender  to  the  emperor  the 
Netherlands,  the  duchy  of  Milan,  and  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  as- 
signed to  him  by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht  and  the  quadruple  alliance. 
Tliat  the  duke  of  Savoy  should  yield  Sicily  to  Austria,  receiving  in 
exchange  the  island  of  Sardinia  from  Spain  ;  and  that  the  eldest  son 
of  Philip  by  his  second  marriage,  don  Carlos,  should  be  secured  in 
the  reversion  of  the  duchies  oi  Parma  and  Placentia,  and  the  grand 
duchy  of  Florence,  to  be  holden  as  male  tiels  under  the  emperor, 
and  on  no  occasion  whatever  to  be  united  to  the  crown  ot  Spain. 

9.  There  never  was  a  period  perhaps  in  which  it  would  have 
been  more  difficult  to  unravel  the  policy  of  these  several  courts.  It 
was  certainly,  a  strange  thing  for  the  emperor  to  agree,  in  any  man- 
ner, to  admit  the  Spaniards  into  Italy,  of  which  he  had  so  much  reason 
to  be  distrustful ;  much  more  to  assist  in  doing  so.  While  those  very 
terms,  which  were  undoubtedly  introduced  to  gratify  the  Spanish 
minister,  in  this  particular  respect,  so  far  trom  seeming  the  ready 
consent  of  the  court  of  Madrid,  only  induced  it  to  make  fresh  efforts. 
The  predominance  of  France  and  England,  however,  soon  became 
so  conspicuous,  as  to  compel  Philip  to  subscribe  to  the  articles  of  the 
alliance,  and  even  to  dismiss  his  favourite  minister,  the  cause  of  all 
tiie  grievances  of  which  the  allied  powei's  had  to  complain.  In 
1,720  Austria  took  possession  of  Sicily,  and  Victor  Amadeus  11.  trans- 
ferred the  seat  of  his  government  to  the  island  of  Sardinia. 

10.  In  the  month  of  Deceml3er,  1,723,  in  the  50th  year  of  his  age, 
the  regent  duke  of  Orleans  died  very  suddenly  in  a  lit  of  apoplexy. 
He  was  a  prince  of  shining  talents,  and  of  great  taste  and  spirit ;  but 
dissolute  in  his  habits  of  life  to  a  most  disgraceful  pitch  of  extrava- 
gance. He  did  not  indeed  suffer  his  pleasures  and  licentious  connex- 
ions to  interfere  greatly  with  the  discharge  of  his  public  duties,  but 
they  tarnished  his  fame,  and  in  all  likelihood  shortened  his  iile.  He 
had  the  misfortune  in  his  youth  to  be  put  into  the  hands  of  a  most 
unprincipled  tutor,  the  Abbe  Dubois,  who  continued  with  him  to 
the  last  year  of  his  life,  dying  only  four  months  before  him,  a  cardi- 
nal of  Rome,  and  prime  minister  of  France  !  The  elevation  of  this 
profligate  man  to  such  high  stations  in  the  church  and  state,  did 
more  mischief  to  the  cause  of  religion  and  morality,  than  the  person- 
al vices  of  the  regent,  who,  amidst  a  thousand  foibles,  had  some  great 
and  brilliant  qualities. 

Neither  Austria  nor  Spain  were  satisfied  with  what  had  been  done 
for  them,  and  strong  remonstrances  were  prepared  on  the  part  of  the 
dukes  of  Parma  and  Placentia,  the  grand  duke  of  Tuscany,  and  the 
pope,  against  the  grants  in  reversion  to  the  Infant  of  Spain.  At 
tempts  were  made  to  reconcile  the  two  courts  more  effectually  by  a 
congress,  summoned  to  meet  at  Cambray,  in  the  year  1,724,  under 
the  joint  mediation  of  France  and  England,  but  ineffectually  :  in 
1,729  another,  but  more  private  attempt,  had  better  success ;  it  wai 
undertaken  by  a  very  singular  and  ecoentric  character,  the  baron,  or 


£eO  MODERN  HISTORY. 

duke,  de  Ripperda,  Dutch  minister  at  the  court  of  Madrid,  who  suc- 
ceeded so  far,  through  his  own  intrigues,  and  the  venaDty  of  the  im 
perial  court,  as  to  give  umbrage  to  the  governments  of  France  and 
England  ;  the  latter  soon  saw  the  necessity  of  guarding,  by  a  coun- 
ter-treaty, framed  at  Hanover,  against  the  effects  of  Ripperda's  in 
terposition. 

1 1.  Secret  articles  were  said  to  be  signed  and  executed,  to  recov- 
er for  Spain  the  fortress  of  Gibraltar  and  the  island  of  Minorca,  to 
seat  the  pretender  on  the  throne  of  Great  Britain,  to  forward  the 
emperor's  views  with  regard  to  the  Ostend  East  India  Company, 
and  to  cement  the  alliance  by  marriages  which  would  have  laid  a 
foundation  for  the  reunion  of  the  Austrian  and  Spanish  dominions 
under  one  sovereign.  Ripperda  himself  is  s.-.id  to  have  communicat- 
ed these  secret  articles  to  the  English  government :  he  was  made  to 
pay  de^a  for  his  treachery. 

As  the  empress  of  Russia  had  acceded  to  the  treaty  of  Vienna^ 
concluded  by  Ripperda,  and  France  and  England  had  taken  steps  to 
secure  Holland  and  Prussia  on  their  side,  Europe  seemed  to  be 
thre-ritened  with  another  general  war,  but  the  timely  death  of  the 
em^^-ress,  in  1,727,  and  the  defection  of  Prussia,  gave  a  turn  to  affairs, 
and  left  room  for  the  renewal  of  the  congress  of  Cambray,  transferred 
in  the  year  1,728,  to  Soissons,  where  fresh  endeavours  were  made 
to  establish  a  solid  and  permanent  peace.  As  the  emperor,  however, 
insisted  on  the  accession  of  all  the  contracting  powers,  to  the  Prag- 
matic Sanction,  which  was  to  secure  to  his  heirs  general  the  undi- 
vided succession  to  all  his  territories  and  dominions,  the  other  courts 
withdrew;  and  in  November,  1,729,  concluded  at  Seville  in  Spain  a 
separate  treaty,  in  which  it  was  agreed,  between  France,  England, 
and  Spain,  to  support  the  pretensions  of  the  Infant  to  the  duchies  of 
Parma,  Placentia,  and  Tuscany.  To  this  treaty  Holland  was  soon 
after  brought  to  accede,  on  the  condition  that  her  rights  should  be 
protected  against  the  new  East  India  Company,  established  by  the 
emperor  at  Ostend,  which  was  considered  as  contrary  to  the  treaty 
of  Westphalia,  and  manifestly  injurious  both  to  England  and  the 
United  States.  The  treaty  of  Seville  was  settled  so  totally  without 
the  concurrence  of  the  emperor,  that  his  name  was  not  even  men- 
tioned in  it;  which,  as  might  be  reasonably  expected,  gave  great 
offence.  In  the  year  1,731,  however,  England,  and  in  1,732  Holland, 
acceded  to  the  wishes  of  the  emperor,  in  I'egard  to  the  Pragmatic 
Sanction,  on  condition  that  the  archduchess,  who  should  succeed  to 
the  empire,  should  not  marry  any  Bourbon,  or  other  prince  or  po- 
tentate, capable  of  disturbing  the  peace  of  Europe.  The  Ostend 
Company  was  given  up;  the  Infant  don  Carlos  took  possession  of  the 
duchies  of  Parma  and  Placentia  on  the  death  of  the  last  of  the  Far- 
nese  family,  and  the  grand  duke  of  Tuscany  acknowledged  him  as 
his  heir.  A  treaty  between  England,  Holland,  and  the  empire,  call- 
ed the  second  treaty  of  Vienna,  was  signed  and  executed  at  the  latter 
place,  which  may  be  said  to  have  terminated  all  the  differences  aris- 
ing out  of  the  Spanish  succession,  by  which  the  greater  part  of  Eu- 
rope had  been  Kept  in  a  state  of  agitation  for  the  space  of  thirty 
years. 

While  these  things  were  in  agitation,  Victor  Amadeus,  embarrass- 
ed, as  it  is  said,  with  the  counter  engagements  he  had  entered  into 
with  Austria  and  Spain,  thought  fit  to  resign  his  crown  to  his  son, 
Charles  Emmanuel,  but  soon  repenting  of  what  he  had  done,  pre- 
pared to  reasceDd  his  abdicated  tbrone ;  this  rash  and  injudicious  step 


MODERN  HISTORY.  261 

was  the  cause  of  his  imprisonment,  and  probably  of  his  de^th,  which 
happened  in  November,  1,732. 

12.  In  1,733,  France  became  involved  again  in  a  war,  both  the 
origin  and  end  of  which  had  something  remarkable  in  them.  The 
throne  of  the.  elective  kingdom  of  Poland  becoming  vacant  by  the 
demise  of  Augustus  of  Saxony,  two  competitors  appeared  on  the 
stage  ;  the  son  of  the  deceased  king,  and  Stanislaus  Lescinsky,  who 
nad  with  great  credit  previously  occupied  it  through  the  interposi- 
tion of  Charles  Xll.  of  Sweden,  (see  Sect.  LXVl.)  and  whose  daugh- 
ter was  married  to  Lewis  Xv.  The  emperor  of  Germany,  the 
Czarina,  and  the  king  of  Prussia,  espoused  the  cause  of  the  former, 
France  supported  the  latter,  and  commenced  hostilities  against  the 
emperor,  by  detaching  the  king  of  Sardinia  from  his  interests,  and 
occupying  Lorrain,  whose  duke  was  engaged  Xo  marry  the  emperor's 
daughter.  But  the  principal  seat  of  war  was  in  Italy,  where  the 
French,  Spanish,  an  i  Sardinian  combined  troops  obtained  many  ad- 
vantages, and  ultimately  succeeded  in  seating  don  Carlos,  duke  of 
Parma,  &,c.,  on  the  throne  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  to  which  he  had  been 
particularly  invited  by  the  Neapolitans.  The  Austrian  court  had 
been  very  supine,  in  not  guarding  better  against  the  manifest  de- 
signs of  the  queen  of  Spain,  mother  of  don  Carlos.  He  was  crown- 
ed king  by  the  title  of  Charles  the  third,  July  3,  1,735.  Naples 
was  suMued  in  1 ,734,  and  Sicily  in  the  year  following.  During  this 
contest,  the  celebrated  prince  Eugene,  though  then  past  seventy 
years  of  age,  had  the  command  of  the  imperial  army  on  the  Rhine  ; 
but  he  had  great  cause  to  be  offended  with  the  situation  in  which  he 
was  placed ;  the  French  being  stronger ;  England  not  to  be  roused 
to  assist  him,  through  the  pacific  views  of  the  minister  Walpole  ;  and 
having,  both  at  court  and  in  the  army,  many  rivals  and  secret  ene- 
mies. His  only  consolation  was,  the  extreme  and  enthusiastic  at- 
tachment of  the  soldiers,  the  very  remembrance  of  which,  as  he 
feelingly  acknowledges  in  his  own  memoirs,  often  afterwards  drew 
tears  Irom  his  eyes. 

13.  Matters  were  brought  to  an  accommodation,  through  the  medi- 
ation of  the  maritime  powers,  (who,  undoubtedly,  appear  in  this 
case  to  have  been  guilty  of  misleading  the  emperor,)  by  a  conven- 
tion signed  at  Vienna,  in  November,  1,738.  By  tnis  treaty  some 
very  extraordinary  appointments  took  place.  Stanislaus,  the  depos- 
ed king  of  Poland,  iather-in-law  to  the  king  of  France,  obtained, 
keeping  his  kingly  title,  the  duchies  of  Lorrain  and  Bar,  to  revert  to 
France  after  his  death,  which  did  not  take  place  till  the  year  1 ,766. 
In  exchange  for  what  was  thus  bestowed  upon  Stanislaus,  the  duke 
of  Lorrain  obtained  the  grand  duchy  of  Tuscany,  the  reversion  of 
which  had  been  guaranteed  to  the  Infant  don  Carlos,  but  who  was, 
by  the  same  treaty,  acknowledged  king  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  surren- 
dering in  his  turn  to  the  emperor,  his  two  duchies  of  Parma  and  Pla- 
centia ;  Vigevano  and  Novaro  were  given  to  the  king  of  Sardinia  ; 
and  to  the  emperor,  the  Milanese,  the  Mantuan,  and  Parma. 

On  the  conclusion  of  the  peace,  France  acceded  to  the  Pragmatic 
Sanction.  The  kings  of  Spain  and  Sardinia  showed  some  reluctance 
to  agree  to  the  terras  of  the  treaty,  but  were  induced  to  sign  it  in  the 
course  of  the  year  1,729.  It  is  certainly  very  remarkable,  that,  in 
consequence  of  a  dispute  about  the  crown  of  Poland,  not  only  the 
emperor  should  have  lost  almost  all  his  possessions  in  Italy,  but 
France  should  have  been  able  to  recover  a  province  of  which  she 
had  been  deprived  for  the  space  of  nearly  a  thousand  years,  and  so 


262  MODERN  HISTORY. 

situated  as  to  render  it  one  of  the  most  splendid  and  gratifying  acqui- 
sitions she  could  possibly  have  contemplated. 


SECTION  II. 

ENGLAND  FROM  THE  ACCESSION   OF  THE   HOUSE    OF  HAN- 
OVER, 1,714,  TO  THE  END  OF  THE  REIGN  OF  GEORGE  THE 

FIRST,  1,727. 

1.  Queen  Anne  was  no  sooner  dead,  [Part  II.  Sect.  LXIV.  §  20.] 
than  steps  were  taken  for  the  immediate  acknowledgment  of  her  suc- 
cessor, George  Lewis,  elector  of  Brunswick  Luneburg,  pursuant  to 
the  several  acl^  of  parliament,  for  securing  the  protestant  succession, 
in  exclusion  of  the  pretender,  the  house  of  Savoy,  and,  in  fact,  every 
catholic  branch  of  the  royal  family  of  England  ;  many  of  whom 
were  more  directly  in  the  line  of  inheritance  than  the  protestant 
descendants  of  James  the  tirst,  in  whom  the  crown  was  now  vested  ; 
not,  however,  without  due  regard  to  that  hereditary  line  which  may 
be  said  to  have  occupied  the  throne  from  the  time  of  Egbert.  The 
late  union  with  Scotland,  1,706,  [see  as  above]  was  calculated  to  sup- 
press any  general  desire,  on  the  part  of  the  people  there,  to  place 
themselves  again  under  a  distinct  sovereign. 

2.  The  accession  of  George  1.,  to  judge  from  the  addresses  of  the 
two  houses  of  parliament,  and  the  general  tranquillity  manifested  in 
all  parts  of  the  three  kingdoms,  at  the  time  of  his  proclamation, 
would  seem  to  have  been  acceptable  to  the  nation  at  large.  Nor 
was  the  French  king  long  before  he  openly  acknowledged  his  right 
and  title  to  the  crown  of  Great  Britain,  though  the  sincerity  of  his 
declarations  in  favour  of  a  protestant  succession,  and  the  exclusioH 
of  the  house  of  Stuart,  was  not  too  confidently  relied  upon.  The 
states  of  Holland  were,  probably,  entirely  cordial,  both  in  their  ex- 
pressions of  congratulation,  and  promises  of  support,  according  to 
existing  engagements  to  that  effect,  as  guarantees  of  the  Hanoverian 
succession.  From  the  king  of  Prussia,  and  various  other  princes  and 
states  of  Germany,  his  majesty  also  received  the  strongest  assuran- 
ces of  support;  yet  so  little  are  these  courtesies  to  be  trusted,  that 
it  is  more  than  probable,  from  circumstances  since  come  to  light, 
that  at  this  very  moment,  with  regard  to  the  continental  states  in 
general,  he  had  more  enemies  than  friends. 

3.  His  entrance  into  his  new  dominions,  however,  September 
1,714,  was  hailed  in  a  manner  that  could  not  fail  to  be  extremely 
gratifying  to  the  king,  though  it  soon  became  manifest,  and  could  not 
well  have  been  otherwise,  that  there  were  many  secret  heail-bum- 
ings  and  disappointed  hopes,  to  prevent  that  perfect  unanimity  which 
was  most  desirable  on  an  occasion  so  important.  The  tones,  some 
of  whom  had  evidently  been  tampering  with  the  pretender,  during 
the  last  years  of  the  queen's  reign,  were  greatly  discomfited,  ana 
in  a  very  marked  manner  discountenanced  by  the  king  himself.  The 
whigs  enjoyed  a  triumph.  The  pretender's  friends  in  general  stood 
confounded,  not  only  by  the  low  estate  of  his  cause,  but  by  the  per- 
plexity of  their  own  feelings,  with  regard  to  his  more  direct  heredi 
tary  claims  to  the  crown.  In  this  dilemma,  it  is  not  to  be  wondered 
that  several  should  refuse  to  take  the  oaths  of  allegiance  and  abju- 
ration.   Scotland  also,  in  part  at  least,  bewailed  its  lost  indepeudeocy 


MODERN  HISTORY.  262 

bj  the  act  of  union,  which  some  were  fonvard  to  have  dissolved 
again;  and  the  papists,  being  very  numerous  in  Ireland,  rendered 
the  peace  of  that  kingdom  constantly  precarious. 

4.  The  person,  manners,  and  deportment  of  the  new  sovereign, 
were  not  such  as  immediately  to  conciliate  his  British  subjects  ;  but 
he  was  by  no  means  destitute  of  kingly  virtues  and  accomplishments 
of  a  more  solid  and  important  description.  Having  delivered  the 
ministerial  government  of  the  realm  into  the  hands  of  the  whigs,  it  was 
not  long  before  serious  proceedings  were  entered  into,  by  the  new 
administration,  against  the  authors  and  advisers  of  the  late  peace  anc 
treaty  of  Utrecht ;  and  articles  of  impeachment  for  high  treason  ex 
hibited  against  the  earl  of  Oxford,  viscount  Bolingbroke,  the  duke  oi 
Ormond,  earl  of  Strafford,  and  others.  The  duke  of  Ormond,  and 
lord  Bolingbroke,  absconded  ;  the  earl  of  Oxford,  with  greater  mag- 
nanimity, stood  upon  his  defence,  and  though  imprisoned  for  a  con- 
siderable time,  was  finally  acquitted.  Under  a  pretence  of  the 
church  being  in  danger,  which  seems  to  have  been  adopted  as  a  sort 
of  watch-word  by  the  torv  party  and  Jacobites,  (for  so  the  adherents 
of  the  pretender  were  called,)  riots  and  tumults  took  place  in  many 
parts  of  the  kingdom  ;  in  consequence  of  which,  the  king  was  em 
powered  by  parliament  (1,715.)  to  raise  fresh  forces,  and  the  habeas 
corpus  act  was  suspended,  for  tne  more  speedy  apprehension  and  de- 
tention of  suspected  persons. 

5.  In  Scotland,  however,  notwithstanding  great  precautions  to  the 
contrary,  a  rebellion  actually  broke  out  in  the  month  of  August, 
1.715,  headed  by  the  earl  of  Mar,  late  secretary  of  state  for  that 
kingdom ;  and  in  September,  the  pretender's  standard  was  erected 
at  a  place  called  Brae  Mar,  though  the  pretender  himself  did  not  ar- 
rive in  Scotland  till  the  December  following  ;  before  which  time  a 
severe  action  had  taken  place  at  Dunblain,  between  the  contending 
armies,  commanded  on  the  side  of  the  English  by  the  duke  of 
Argyle;  and  on  the  side  of  the  Sc?tch  by  the  earl  of  Mar.  The 
pretender,  on  reaching  the  shores  of  Scotland,  was  received  with 
regal  honours,  and  addresses  were  presented  to  him  from  many  cor- 
porate bodies;  even  his  coronation  was  fixed  to  take  place  on  the 
23d  day  of  January.  But  during  the  course  of  these  transactions, 
the  chief  officers  of  his  army,  as  soon  after  appeared,  were  but  too 
well  convinced  of  their  perfect  inability  to  terminate  the  contest 
successfully,  many  things  having  fallen  out  to  the  disappointment  of 
their  hopes ;  particularly  the  death  of  Lewis  XIV.,  who,  notwith- 
standing his  protestations  in  favour  of  the  house  of  Hanover,  had 
secretly  favoured  their  cause.  The  English  army,  besides,  since  the 
battle  of  Duiibiain,  had  been  considerably  reinforced,  by  Dutch  as 
well  as  English  troops.  This  being  the  case,  as  we  learn  from  an  ac- 
count given  by  the  earl  of  Mar  himself,  they  felt  compelled  to  abandon 
their  enterprise  for  the  present;  and  in  order  to  check  the  pursuit 
of  the  enemy,  eager  to  seize  the  person  of  the  pretender,  they  per- 
■suaded  the  latter  to  leave  the  kingdom  again,  and  return  to  France  ; 
the  earl  of  Mar  himself  accompanying  him.  They  were  followed, 
afterwards,  by  many  leaders  of^  the  rebels,  who,  in  a  most  extraordi- 
nary manner,  escaped  the  English  vessels  stationed  to  intercept  their 
passage  ;  but  some  of  those,  who  had  previously  fallen  into  the 
hands  of  the  EngUsh,  as  the  earl  of  Derwentwater,  and  others,  were 
impeached,  and  pleading  guilty,  executed.  Many  escaped  by  an  act 
of  grace.  Thus  was  the  rebellion,  in  a  great  measure,  subdued  ; 
<&OBgratulatory  addresses  poured  ia  upon  the  sovereign,  and  a  day  of 


2G4  MODERN  HISTORY. 

public  thanksgiving  was  appointed  to  be  obserred  tluToughout  the 
kingdom. 

6.  The  whigs,  however,  apprehending  that  their  opponents,  in  a 
new  parliament,  might  regain  their  cscendancy,  and  he  able  to  carry 
into  execution  their  projects  pL;ainst  the  existing  government,  brought 
in  a  bill,  (since  called  the  septennial  bill,)  for  enlarging  the  continu- 
ance of  parliament,  whereby  the  term  was  extended  from  three  to 
seven  years,  unless  sooner  dissolved  by  the  king,  and  to  begin  with 
the  parliament  then  chosen  and  assembled  ;  a  most  important  meas- 
ure, and  accidentally  originating  with  a  party  more  friendly  in  repute 
to  the  rights  and  liberty  of  the  people  than  the  step  itself  would 
seem  to  imply.  Abstracted  from  all  temporary  or  party  considera- 
tions, it  may  justly  be  regarded  as  a  very  delicate  and  important 
point  in  politics,  to  determine  either  a  maxitnum  or  miniinuvi.,  with 
regard  to  the  duration  of  such  elective  assemblies  as  the  English 
house  of  commons.  Frequent  elections  being  essentially  necessary 
to  preserve  the  people  from  any  gross  neglect  of  their  interests  by 
their  representatives,  or  any  unconstitutional  encroachment  on  their 
liberty,  as  well  as  to  remedy  abuses  ;  but  too  frequent  elections,  hav- 
ing evidently  the  ill  effect  of  keeping  up  party  divisions,  feuds,  and 
animosities,  interrupting  business,  and  lessening  the  confidence  of 
foreign  states  in  the  measures  of  government.  Too  frequent  elec- 
tions, besides,  by  bringing  independent  candidates  so  much  the 
oftener  into  a  contest  with  the  treasury,  (for  government  must  have, 
and  will  always  endeavour  to  exert,  a  powerful  influence,)  may  in 
time  deter  such  persoas  from  a  conflict  so  disadvantageous ;  unless, 
in  short,  government  influence  in  elections  should  be  entirely  done 
away,  the  more  frequently  they  recur,  the  more  they  will  harass 
and  weaken  private  independence.  (See  Burke's  works.)  It  was 
undoubtedly  a  bold  step  for  any  parliament,  chosen  under  tne  popu- 
lar triennial  act  of  king  William,  to  enlarge  its  own  continuance  ;  nor 
was  it  ill  urged  by  a  member  of  the  house  of  peers,  as  an  argument 
against  the  bill,  that,  "  if  the  existing  house  of  commons  continued 
themselves  beyond  the  time  for  which  they  were  chosen,  they  were 
no  more  the  representatives  of  the  people,  but  a  house  of  their  own 
making."  The  whigs,  however,  had  this  excuse,  that  the  proposed 
measure  was  calculated  to  suppress  a  rebellion,  or  prevent  the  re- 
newal of  one  ;  not  raised,  like  other  rebellions,  under  a  pretence  of 
liberty,  but,  in  their  eyes,  clearly  tending  towards  slavery,  in  the 
establishment  of  a  catholic  prince,  and  the  destruction  of  the  prot- 
estant  interests,  both  in  church  and  state.  It  was  well  that  they  as- 
signed any  limit  to  their  continuance,  since  a  mere  repeal  of  the 
triennial  act  would  have  left  the  term  undefined.  The  bill  was  final- 
ly passed,  after  much  opposition  in  the  lower  house,  and  a  strong 
protest  on  the  part  of  many  lords  in  the  upper,  by  a  majority  in  the 
commons  of  264  to  121  ;  and  it  has  continued  the  law  oi  parliament 
ever  since. 

7.  In  the  year  1,717,  an  unpleasant  dispute  occurred,  affecting  the 
churchj  and  which  seems  to  have  terminated  the  sittings  of  convo- 
cation. Dr.  Hoadley,  bishop  of  Bangor,  gave  occasion  to  it,  by  a 
sermon  preached  before  the  king,  March  31,  on  "The  Nature  of 
the  Kingdom  of  Christ,"  and  by  a  publication  entitled,  "  a  Preserva- 
tive against  the  Principles  and  the  Practices  of  the  Non-jurors." 
The  bishop  had  been  a  warm  friend  to  the  revolution,  and  many  of 
the  principles  he  asserted  were  undoubtedly  directed  rather  against 
pepery  than  our  own  establishment ;  while,  in  opposition  to  the  jurt 


MODERN  HISTORY.  265 

divine  pretence  of  the  tories,  he  declaimed  violently  against  every 
abuse  of  authority,  at  the  hazard  of  impairing  al!  churcn  discipline, 
derogating  from  the  regal  supremacy  in  "causes  ecclesiastical,"  ana 
annulling  the  force  of  all  civil  sanctions  whatsoever  in  matters  of 
religion ;  on  these  grounds  the  convocation  took  the  matter  up,  but 
without  much  effect.  It  was  dissolved  in  the  midst  of  the  controver- 
sy, and  has  never  sat  to  do  business  since.  Those  who  chiefly  at- 
tacked the  bishop  in  print,  were  Dr.  Snape  of  Eton,  dean  Sherlock, 
Dr.  Cannon,  (who  undertook  to  vindicate  the  proceedings  of  convo- 
cation,) Dr.  Potter,  afterwards  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  Mr. 
William  Law.  Perhaps  no  antagonist  entered  the  lists,  with  more 
decorum  of  manners,  or  integrity  of  disposition,  than  the  latter,  who, 
in  several  letters  addressed  to  the  bishop,  plainly  proved  that,  how- 
ever innocent  his  intentions  might  be,  his  arguments  and  expre?-ione 
plainly  tended  to  the  subversion  of  all  church  authority,  and  the  en- 
couragement of  a  most  fatal  indifference  to  every  particular  form  of 
worship  and  belief.  Which,  considering  the  high  situation  he  held 
in  the  church,  and  the  duties  attached  to  that  station,  could  not  but 
appear  in  the  light  of  an  abandonment  of  those  principles,  which 
alone  could  have  placed  him  there.  Such,  however,  was  the  state 
of  parties  at  the  time,  that  the  bishop  was  advanced  to  a  higher  post 
in  tlve  church,  and  some  of  the  most  forward  of  his  opponents  dis- 
missed from  their  employments  about  the  court. 

8.  In  1,718  George  the  tirst  became  a  party  to  the  celebrated 
quadruple  alliance,  formed  to  counteract  the  plans  and  projects  of  the 
Spanisti  minister  Alberoni,  (Sect.  I.  §  8.)  who,  while  his  views  were 
ciiieily  directed  towards  his  native  country,  Italy,  managed  to  involve 
almost  the  whole  of  Europe  in  contests  and  jealousies,  exceedingly 
nerplexing,  and  inimical  to  the  peace  and  tranquillity  oi*many  states. 
Distant  as  Sweden  was,  geographically,  from  the  seat  and  object  of 
his  manoeuvres,  yet,  in  order  to  prevent  any  interruption  from  Eng- 
land, he  had  nearly  instigated  the  celebrated  Charles  XII.  to  in\  nde 
the  latter  country,  tor  the  purpose  of  restoring  the  pretender  to  the 
throne  of  his  ancestors.  His  agents  and  accomplices,  however, 
were  fortunately  detected  in  time  to  pi'event  the  rupture  Detween 
the  two  courts.  George  I.  was  no  favourite,  either  with  the  Swedish 
monarch,  or  his  celebrated  competitor,  the  czar  of  Muscovy. 

9.  The  chief  object  of  the  quadruple  alliance,  as  has  been  before 
hinted,  was  to  reconcile  and  adjust  the  rival  claims  and  pretensions 
of  the  courts  of  Vienna  and  Madrid.  Alberoni  had  endeavoured, 
duiiag  the  war  between  the  emperor  and  the  Turks,  to  get  posses- 
sion of  Sardinia,  Sicily,  and  other  places,  for  the  sons  of  the  queen 
of  Spain,  a  princess  of  Parma,  his  native  country.  He  had  proposed, 
in  short,  to  recover  for  Spain  all  that  had  been  conceded  and  surren- 
dered by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht.  (Part  II.  Sect.  LXIV.)  The  inter- 
ference of  England,  in  sending  a  fleet  to  the  Mediterranean,  to  sup- 
port the  rights  of  the  emperor,  according  to  treaty,  at  the  very  mo- 
ment when  the  Spanish  forces  were  prepared  to  invade  Sicily  and 
the  kingdom  of  Naples,  exceedingly  exasperated  the  cardinal  min- 
ister, and  induced  him  to  heap  reproaches  on  the  British  govern- 
ment for  their  precipitate  proceedings,  pretending  that  the  Spaniards 
had  in  every  instance  manifested  a  favourable  disposition  towards 
England ;  though  nothing  was  more  notorious  than  that  her  mer- 
chants had  been  scandalously  ill-treated  by  them,  and  her  minister 
at  Madrid  overwhelmed  with  complaints  to  that  effect.  The  latter, 
indeed,  stated  afterwards  in  the  house  of  commons,  that  he  had%re- 

Z  34 


266  MODER]\  HISTORY. 

sented,  at  the  least,  five-and-twenty  memorials  tt)  the  court  of  Spain 
iq)on  the  subject,  without  redress ;  and  notwithstanding  all  these  in- 
dignities, and  to  evince  the  desire  oihis  government  not  too  precipi- 
tately to  commence  hostilities,  had  communicated  to  the  Spanish  min- 
ister the  numbers  and  force  of  the  English  fleet  before  it  sailed,  in 
order  to  convince  him  of  its  superiority,  and  deter  him  from  the 
measures  he  had  in  view.  The  defeat  of  the  Spanish  fleet,  off  Sicily, 
by  admiral  Byng,  August  1,718,  ruined  all  the  projects  of  Alberoni ; 
he  soon  after  tell  into  disgrace,  and  was  precipitated  from  the  exaited 
station  he  had  attained  to  by  the  strength  of  his  genius;  which,  what- 
ever his  enemies  might  allege,  certainly  bespoke  a  keen  and  vigi- 
lant statesman,  and  an  able  mmister,  as  far  as  regarded  the  interests 
of  the  country  he  served,  both  foreign  and  domestic. 

10.  Though  so  severe  an  action  had  taken  place  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean, between  the  English  and  Spanish  fleets  in  the  month  of 
August,  war  was  not  formally  declared  at  London  till  the  close  of 
the  year  1,718,  (Dec.  29^  between  which  period  and  the  final  dis- 
grace and  retirement  of  the  Spanish  minister,  he  had  attempted 
two  measures  of  deep  revenge,  one  on  the  power  and  pei-son  of  the 
duke  of  Orleans,  regent  of  France,  and  the  other  on  the  govern- 
ment of  George  I.  of  England,  by  an  invasion  of  his  dominions  in 
fevourof  the  pretender,  and  under  the  direction  of  the  expatriated 
duke  of  Ormond.  It  is  remarkable  that  these  projects  were  severally 
detected  by  the  French  regent  and  British  monarch,  :n  time  to  admit 
of  their  warning  each  other  of  the  danger  in  which  they  were  re- 
spectively placed,  and  of  offering  the  assistance  which  the  cases  re- 
quired. 

11.  The  war  so  suddenly  and  unexpectedly  excited  between 
Great  Britirin  and  Spain,  was  in  no  long  course  of  time  brought  to 
an  issue  very  honourable  and  glorious  to  the  former ;  admiral  Byng, 
with  his  fleet  in  the  Mediterranean,  having  so  managed  matters  as 
fully  to  accomplish  all  the  purposes  of  his  mission,  putting  the  em- 
peror into  possession  of  Sicily,  and  the  duke  of  Savoy  of  Sardinia, 
under  circumstances  of  peculiar  difl^..ulty  and  embarrassment,  owing 
to  the  obstinacy,  hacked  by  the  bravery  of  the  Spaniards,  the  hin- 
drances arising  from  a  succession  of  governors  at  Naples,  and  the 
loss  of  time  in  the  necessary  communications  with  his  own  court 
and  that  of  Vienna.  No  man,  perhaps,  ever  discharged  so  delicate 
and  arduous  a  commission,  with  more  applause  on  the  part  of  his 
own  country  and  her  allies,  or  with  fewer  complaints  and  less  obloquy 
on  the  part  of  his  opponents.  The  latter  indeed,  in  this  case,  rather 
ioined  in  the  commendations  so  liberally  bestowed  on  him  by  his  em- 
ployers, at  the  termination  of  the  short  but  vigorous  contest.  When 
he  waited  on  the  king  at  Hanover,  his  majesty  is  said,  very  jusfly,  to 
have  observed  to  him,  that  he  had  found  out  the  secret  of  obliging 
his  enemies  as  well  as  his  friends ;  alluding  to  the  very  honourable 
terms  in  which  the  Spaniards  had  expressed  themselves  concerning 
him,  both  as  gin  olficer  and  negotiator.  He  was  most  deservedly  ad- 
vanced to  the  peerage,  by  the  title  of  viscount  Torrington,  and  had 
other  appropriate  honours  bestowed  upon  him.  Towards  the  close 
of  the  year  1,719,  the  king  of  Spain  acceded  to  the  terms  of  the 
quadruple  alliance ;  his  minister,  on  the  urgent  and  joint  demands 
of  the  king  of  England,  the  emperor,  and  regent  of  France,  having 
been  previously  dismissed,  and  banished  the  kingdom  of  Spain. 

12.  In  the  cour-se  of  the  year  1,719,  a  bill  was  brought  into  par- 
tiaaieftt  by  the  ministry,  for  limiting  the  number  of  the  peers.    It 


MODERN  HISTORY.  267 

originated  with  Lord  Sunderland,  who  is  said  to  have  had  in  view  to 
restrain  the  power  of  the  prince  of  Wales,  whom  he  had  oflended, 
when  he  should  succeed  to  the  throne.  After  nnuch  debate,  and  it  i3 
supposed  almost  entirely  through  the  influence  of  Sir  Robert  Wal- 
pole,  it  was  rejected  by  a  large  majority,  269  to  177. 

13.  in  1,720  the  king  was  much  occupied  in  afli'ording  protection 
and  support  to  the  protectant  interests  abroad,  and  in  endeavouring 
to  restore  peace  and  tranquillity  amongst  the  northern  states.  Swe- 
den, Denmark,  Prussia,  and  Poland,  reaped  the  fruits  of  his  media- 
tion ;  but  the  czar  resisted  his  proposals,  and,  for  some  time,  contin- 
ued to  act  against  Sweden,  in  defiance  of  the  combhied  operations  of 
that  country  and  England.  He  at  last,  however,  consented  to  accept 
the  metliation  of  France,  and  peace  was  established  between  Russia 
and  S\v<^deu,  by  the  treaty  of  Nystadt,  1,721. 

1 4.  Nothing  occurred  in  this  reign  more  disastrous  in  its  conse- 
quences,or  more  str^inge  and  extravagant  in  its  origin  and  progress, 
than  the  celebrated  Snath  Sea  scheme,  whereby,  though  immense  for- 
tunes were  rapidly  made  by  some,  ni<iny  individuals  were  ruined, 
and  public  credit  alanuingly  shaken.  The  details  of  this  curioui 
speculation  and  bubble  (as  it  litis  been  but  too  justly  denominated,) 
it  would  l>e  exceedingly  uninteresting  to  enter  into,  in  a  work  like 
the  present,  and  they  are  ea.sily  to  be  found  elsewhere  ;  but  such  an 
instance  of  public  infatuation,  illusion,  and  credulity,  was  only  to  be 
matched  by  the  Mississippi  scheme,  projected  by  Law,  during  the 
regency  in  France,  which  had  a  similar  efiect,  and  which  was  most 
probably  the  model  from  which  Sir  John  Blunt,  the  projector  of  the 
South  Sea  scheme,  took  the  hint.  The  French  system  has  been  sup- 
posed to  have  had  something  more  substantial  in  it,  with  respect  to  ' 
the  exclusive  trade  to  Louisiana.  But  the  South  Sea  scheme  had 
certainly  commercial  advar.  ages  attached  to  it.  The  two  schemes, 
it  must  be  admitted,  supply  the  most  useful  lesson  to  all  wise  states, 
not  to  tamper  with  the  public  credit,  or  countenance  such  suspicious 
projects ;  tor  though  both  these  adventures  set  out  with  very  plau- 
sible pretences  of  public  benetit,  and  a  certainty  of  relieving,  rather 
than  distressing,  the  credit  of  the  nation,  their  course  and  progress 
soon  became  such  as  to  excite  the  most  lively  apprehensions  in  all 
considerate  minds,  of  the  consequences  which  actually  ensued ;  es- 
pecially in  England. 

15.  The  politics  of  Europe  were  in  a  very  perplexed  state,  to- 
wards the  close  of  the  reign  of  George  L,  owing  to  two  treaties, 
of  which  some  account  has  been  given  in  another  place,  but  which 
were  very  important  to  the  English  nation.  These  were  the  trea- 
ties of  Vienna  and  Hanover,  the  former  of  which  took  place  in 
April,  and  the  latter  in  September,  1  725.  By  the  former,  the  em- 
peror and  Spain  were  supposed  secrfedy  to  have  hound  themselves 
to  procure  the  restitution  of  Gibraltar  and  Port  Mahon,  to  the  latter 
power ;  to  aid  the  pretender,  and  to  further  the  interests  of  the  Os- 
tend  East  India  Company,  which  had  given  umbrage  to  England, 
Holland,  and  France.  By  the  latter  treaty,  England  was  able  to 
secure  on  her  side,  aga..ist  the  projects  of  Austria  and  Spain,  the 
kings  of  Prussia  and  Sweden,  and  the  states  of  Holland ;  but  as  this 
aid  was  very  slowly  and  reluctantly  promised,  and,  in  one  instance, 
soon  abandoned,  the  state  of  aSairs  would  have  been  very  alarming, 
but  for  the. encouragement  given  by  parliament,  which  was  so  effec- 
tual, that  though  considerable  preparations  for  war  took  place  on  the 
part  of  almost  ^  the  nation?  concerned,  articles  of  peace,  through 


268  MODERN  HISTORV. 

the  mediation  of  France,  were  agreed  upon  in  May,  1,727,  and  ac- 
cepted by  tlie  imperial  court  and  Spain ;  by  these  the  charter  of  the 
Ostend  company  was  suspended  lor  a  certain  period,  and  the  siege 
of  Gibraltar,  which  had  actually  commenced,  and  been  carried  on 
for  four  months,  raised  and  abandoned. 

16.  George  1.  died  at  Osnaburgh,  on  his  way  to  his  electoral  do- 
minions, J  une  11,1 ,727,  with  the  reputation  of  an  honest  and  generous 
prince.  He  was  brave  in  the  field,  and  wise  in  council;  having  had 
many  arduous  negotiations  on  his  hands,  which  he  commonly  con- 
ducted to  a  favourable  issue  ;  not  often,  however,  without  large  sub- 
sidies. His  own  measures  were  generally  defi3nsive  and  preventa- 
tive. He  was  fortunate  in  the  state  of  things,  at  the  period  of  Queen 
Anne's  death,  and  in  the  removal  of  Lewis  XIV.,  and  Charles  XII.  of 
Sweden,  both  of  whom  were  personally  uuliiendiy  to  him,  and  cer- 
tainly had  projects  on  foot  lor  the  restoration  of  the  Stuart  family. 
King  George  constantly  manifested  a  disposition  to  govern  according 
to  the  laws  and  constitution  of  the  kingdom..  And  it  lias  been  observ- 
ed'to  his  credit,  that  the  nation  not  only  improved  in  wealth  and 
credit  during  his  reign,  but  enjoyed  a  greater  degree  of  tranquillity 


at  home,  and  a  longer  duration  of  peace  abroad,  than  during  any 
period  since  the  time  of  Queen  Elizabeth.  At  (he  time  of  his  death 
he  was  in  the  sixty-eighth  year  of  his  age. 


SECTION  III. 

AUSTRIA  (AND  GERMANY)  FROM  THE  PEACE  OF  RASTADT, 

1,714,  TO  THE  PEACE  OF  AIX-LA-CIIAPELLE,  1,748. 

I.The  afuiirs  of  Austria,  as  incidentally  connected  with  those  of 
France,  Spain,  England,  Italy,  and  Prussia,  i'rom  the  year  1,713  to 
1,738,  have  been  already  treated  of  in  the  preceding  sections.  It 
may  be  necessary,  however,  to  take  a  brief  view  of  matters,  from  the 
commencement  of  the  reign  of  Charles  VI.,  to  the  death  of  that  mon- 
arch ;  which  event,  cis  we  shall  have  to  show,  greatly  disturbed  the 
whole  of  Europe,  and  occasioned  the  war  which  was  terminated  by 
llie  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  in  1,748. 

2.  Charles  VI.,  who  had  borne  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  succession 
war,  as  a  competitor  for  the  Spanish  throne,  (Part  11.  Sect.  LXIV.) 
became  emperor  in  the  year  1,711,  on  the'demise  of  his  elder 
brother,  Joseph  I.  Though  he  had  declined  becoming  a  party  to 
the  treaty  of  Utrecht,  in  1,713,  it  was  not  long  before  he  perceived 
his  error,  being  left  alone  to  support  an  expensive  war.  In  the  fol- 
lowing year,  therefore,  he  received  the  proposals  made  to  him  by 
the  court  of  Versailles,  consented  to  the  opening  of  conferences,  in 
the  month  of  November,  1,713,  and,  in  the  March  following,  1,714, 
signed  the  treaty  of  Rastadt,  by  which  he  obtained  possession  of  the 
Spanish  Netherlands,  (except  the  barrier  towns  ceded  to  Holland,) 
Naples,  Sardinia,  Milan,  Frieburg,  and  Kehl. 

3.  But  he  was  very  soon  disturbed  in  a  part  of  these  acquisitions, 
by  the  restlessness  and  jealousy  of  Spain,  already  noticed.  Great  de- 
signs were  formed  against  his  Italian  territories ;  Sardinia  actually 
taken  from  him,  in  1,717  ;  Sicily,  in  1,718,  and  further  encroachments 
projected,  but  for  the  timely  interposition  of  the  English,  under 
suimiral  Byng,  in  the  Mediterranean,  (Sect.  II.  §  9,  11.)  who  sooq 


MODERN  HISTORY.  269 

brought  matters  to  a  favourable  issue  for  Austria,  with  infinite  credit 
to  himself,  both  as  an  officer  and  a  negotiator. 

4.  Spain  had  eagerly  caught  at  the  opportunity  which  presented 
itself  of  making  these  attacks  upon  Austria,  while  the  latter  power 
was  engaged  in  war  with  Turkey,  in  aid  ol'  llie  Venetians.  Tlie 
Turks,  (instigated,  it  has  been  said,  by  the  Spanish  minister,  to 
engage  the  attention  of  Austria,)  in  violation  of  the  treaty  of  Car- 
lowitz,  had  taken  the  Morea  from  the  Venetians,  before  Austria 
came  to  their  aid,  in  the  year  1,716;  nor,  though  from  that  time 
so  powerfully  assisted,  were  they  able  to  recover  that  peninsula. 
Charles  VI.,  however,  was  not  long  at  variance  witii  the  Porte  upon 
ihi-;  occasion.  As  early  as  the  year  1,718,  through  the  extraordinary 
skill  and  valour  of  prince  Eugene,  the  Austrian  commander,  things 
were  brought  to  an  issue,  and  a  peace  concluded,  through  the  me- 
diation of  England  and  Holland,  at  Passarowitz,  by  which  the  Turks 
were  allowed  to  retain  the  Morea,  on  ceding  to  the  Venetians  some 
lioiitier  towns  in  Albania  and  Dalmatia,  while  Austria  obtained  Bel- 
grade, the  Bannat  of  Temeswar  and  Wallachia,  as  I'ar  as  the  Aluta  : 
she  was  also  able  to  establish  a  free  commerce  in  all  the  harbours  of 
the  Black  Sea,t.nd  of  the  Danube,  :is  well  as  with  the  Persians.  The 
early  termination  of  this  war,  together  with  the  successes  of  the 
English  on  the  shores  of  Sicily,  checked  the  operations  of  the  Span- 
iards, and  disposed  them  to  agree  to  the  terms  of  the  quadruple  al- 
liance. ■  Spain  and  Austria,  however,  were  not  effectually  reconciled 
till  the  year  1,725,  at  which  period  the  emperor  was  induced  to  re- 
nounce his  pretensions  upon  Spain  and  the  Indies. 

5.  Charles  VI.  was  for  a  long  time  deeply  occupied  in  endeavour- 
ing to  preserve  his  own  dominions  from  such  difficulties  as  Spain  had 
been  involved  in,  at  the  beginning  of  this  century,  owing  to  the  dis- 
puted succession  to  the  Spanish  throne,  on  the  demise  of  Charles  II., 
and  in  which  he  had  himself  been  so  greatly  concerned.  He  propos- 
ed, for  tills  end,  by  a  "  Pragmatic  Sanction,"  to  make  it  a  law,  that 
ii"  he  should,  at  the  time  oi  his  death,  have  either  sons  or  daugh- 
ters, the  hereditary  dominions  and  crowns  belonging  to  the  house  oi 
Austria,  should  remain  united.    In  failure  of  such  issue,  male  or  fe- 

^niale,  the  daughters  ol'  his  deceased  brother,  Joseph,  were  to  succeed  ; 
"and  if  they  died  without  heirs,  tiie  inheritance  was  to  pass  to  his  sis- 
ters, and  their  descendants.  When  this  act  was  proposed,  at  the 
diet  of  Ratisbon,  it  was  violently  resisted  by  the  electors  of  Saxony 
and  Bavaria,  as  well  as  the  elector  Palatine,  but  by  the  treaty  of  Vien 
nn,  1,731,  as  well  as  by  previous  negotiations  at  the  different  courts  of 
Europe,  almost  every  power,  except  France,  was  brought  to  consent 
to  the  proposed  regulations ;  England  and  Holland,  in  particular, 
having  been  gained  over  by  the  emperor''s  agreement  to  suppress  the 
new  East  India  Company  which  lie  had  endeavoured  to  establish 
at  Ostend.  The  guarantee  of  France  was  not  obtained  till  six  years 
after,  in  recompense  of  the  transfer  of  the  duchies  of  Lorraine  and 
Bar  to  the  latter  power,  on  the  demise  of  Stanislaus,  king  of  Poland, 
who  obtained  the  government  of  those  countries  by  the  treaty  ol 
1,738. 

6.  Charles  VI.  had  scarcely  succeeded  in  his  great  object  of  the 

5ragmatic  sanction,  before  he  was  engaged  in  a  fresh  war  with  the 
"■urks,  in  virtue  of  a  treaty  concluded  with  Russia,  who  had  com- 
menced hostilities  against  the  Porte,  in  1,736.  The  war  on  the 
f)art  of  Austria,  however,  was  of  very  short  duration.  She  had 
est  the  support  of  her  iamous  general,  prince  Eugene ;  and  her 
Z2 


270  MODERN  HISTORY. 

armies,  on  the  present  occasion,  appear  to  have  been  ill  conducted. 
Jealousies  and  disagreements  amongst  the  superior  officers,  and  a 
great  want  of  resources,  baffled  all  their  operations.  In  1,739,  the 
emperor  was  compelled  to  submit  to  the  terms  of  the  treaty  of 
Belgrade,  which  was  highly  advantageous  to  Turkey.  Austria 
surrendered  Servia,  with  the  fortresses  of  Belgrade  and  Szabatch ; 
and  Austrian  Wallachia,  with  the  fortress  of  Orsova.  By  the  treaty 
of  Belgrade,  the  Porte  also  obtained  advantages  over  Russia ;  but  it 
is  now  Known,  that  this  convention  was  very  artfully  conducted  by 
Hn  agent  of  the  French  court,  who  was  instructed  not  only  to  prevent 
the  dismemberment  of  Turkey,  by  the  combined  forces  of  Austria 
and  Russia,  but  to  resist  the  aggrandizement  of  the  former,  and 
separate  her,  if  possible,  from  her  northern  ally. 

7.  In  the  year  immediately  following  that  in  which  the  treaty  of 
Belgrade  had  restored  harmony  between  the  two  courts  of  Vienna 
and  Constantinople,  so  much  to  the  advantage  of  the  latter,  Charles 
VI.  died,  the  last  heir-male  of  the  Austrian  line  of  princes.  Notwith- 
standing all  the  care  he  had  taken  to  secure  to  his  daughter  the 
entire  hereditary  dominions  of  his  family ;  and  though  almost  the 
whole  of  Eurojje  had  guaranteed  the  indivisibility  of  his  dominions, 
according  to  his  wishes,  he  was  no  sooner  dead  than  numerous 
claims  were  set  up,  and  a  war  kindled,  which  may  be  said  to  have, 
in  its  progress,  involved  every  European  state.  The  archduchess, 
Maria  Theresa,  consort  of  Francis,  duke  of  Tuscany,  according  to 
the  terms  of  the  Pragmatic  Sanction,  (which,  however,  had  been  ill 
drawn  up,)  succeeded,  on  the  death  of  her  father,  to  the  following 
kingdoms,  states,  and  territories :  Hungary  and  Bohemia,  Silesia 
and  Austrian  Suabia,  Upper  and  Lower  Austria,  Styria,  Carinthia, 
Carniola,  Burgau,  Brisgau,  the  Low-Countries,  Friuli,  Tyrol,  the 
MantuaUj  and  the  Duchies  of  Milan,  Parma,  and  Placenti^ 

8.  Unfortunately  for  the  archduchess,  Charles  VI.  had  left  his 
army  in  a  bad  condition,  his  finances  embarrassed,  and,  at  the  time 
cif  his  death,  a  scarcity  almost  approaching  to  famine,  prevailed  in 
many  parts  of  his  dominions.  All  these  circumstances  cotnbined, 
were  calculated  to  raise  up  competitors  for  different  portions  of  his 
estates.  Nor  were  they  at  all  tardy  in  advancing  their  claims.  The 
elector  of  Bavaria  pretended  to  be  the  proper  heir  to  the  kingdom' 
of  Bohemia.  Augustus  II.,  elector  of  Saxony  and  king  of  Poland, 
having  married  the  eldest  daughter  of  Joseph  I.,  elder  brother  of 
Charles  VI.,  claimed  the  whole  Austrian  succession.  The  king  of 
Spain  did  the  same,  though  upon  a  more  remote  title,  and  entirely 
through  females.  The  king  of  Sardinia  made  pretensions  to  the 
duchy  of  Milan,  and  Frederic  II.,  of  Prussia,  to  the  province  of  Sile- 
sia. 

9.  Many  of  these  several  claimants  had  formally  agreed  to  the 
terms  of  the  pragmatic  sanction,  and  even  at  first  professed  the  most 
favourable  dispositions  towards  the  archduchess,  who  had  taken  quiet 
possession  of  all  that  had  descended  to  her ;  but  the  times,  and  the 
peculiar  circumstances  of  the  empire,  encouraged  them  to  break 
through  their  engagements ;  not,  however,  altogether  without  some 
pretence  of  honour  and  justice ;  as  was  the  case  with  France.  The 
king  of  France  had,  as  well  as  the  kings  of  Poland  and  Spain,  pre- 
tended to  have  derived  a  right  from  two  princesses,  married  to  Lew- 
is XIIl.  and  XIV.,  to  the  whole  succession  ;  but  choosing,  rather  thao 
to  depend  upon  these  titles,  to  take  thfe  part  of  the  elector  of  Bava- 
ria, he  insisted  that,  in  his  guarantee  of  the  Pragmatic  Sanction,  by  the 


MODERN  HISTORY.  271 

claase  "  sine  prc^udicio  tertii,''''  he  was  fairly  left  at  liberty  to  espouse 
any  claims  that  should  appear  to  him  more  just  than  those  of  the 
archduchess,  queen  of  Hungary.  This  clause  had,  indeed,  been  in- 
troduced into  some  of  the  acts  of  guarantee,  though  not  into  all. 

10.  The  most  forward  and  active  of  the  queen's  opponents  was  a 
prince  little  known  till  then,  Frederic  king  of  Prussia,  at  that  time 
about  twenty-eight  years  of  age.  He  had  succeeded,  through  the 
prudence  of  his  father,  to  an  army  and  a  treasury  of  no  inconsidei^ 
able  importance ;  both  of  which  he  had  himself  also  found  time  to 
improve.  His  movements  were  suilden,  and  quite  unexpected  bv 
the  court  of  Vienna ;  and  he  soon  made  known  what  his  demands 
were,  proposing  that  if  they  should  be  granted,  he  would  support 
Austria  against  other  enemies,  and  assist  the  queen  in  placing  her 
husband  on  the  imperial  throne.  He  pretended,  indeed,  at  first,  to 
be  only  desirous  of^  occupying  Silesia,  as  a  friend  to  the  queen  ;  but 
the  mask  was  soon  laid  aside,  and  his  lixed  determination  to  become 
master  of  Lower  Silesia  rendered  visible  to  all  the  world. 

11.  The  queen  would  consent  to  the  surrender  of  no  part  of  her 
inheritance,  though  possibly  bar  refusal  in  this  instance,  occasioned 
the  alliance  soon  afterwards  formed  between  the  court  of  Versailles 
and  Frederic,  from  which  she  suffered  so  much.  England,  it  is  said, 
counselled  submission  in  the  point  of  Silesia,  foreseeing  the  conse- 
quences;  but  worse  consequences,  perhaps,  were  to  be  apprehend- 
ed, had  she  complied.  It  would,  in  all  likelihood,  have  disposed 
others  to  urge  their  claims  with  greater  importunity. 

12.  Aided  by  France  and  Saxony,  the  elector  of  Bavaria,  towards 
the  middle  of  the  year  1,741,  acquired  possession  of  the  kingdom  of 
Bohemia,  and  was  proclaimed  king,  and  inaugurated  with  great 
solemnity;  and,  on  the  12th  of  February,  1,742,  he  had  the  imperial 
dignity  conferred  on  him  by  the  diet  of  Frankfort,  under  the  title  of 
Charles  VII.,  having  been  chosen,  however,  when  some  of  the  elec- 
tors were  disqualified  from  voting. 

13.  Never  was  there  a  greater  prospect  of  a  total  dismemberment 
of  the  Austrian  dominions  than  at  this  time.  Different  parts  were 
regularly  assigned  to  the  several  claimants,  and  nothing  left  for  the 
daughter  of  Charles  VI.  but  the  kingdom  of  Hungary,  the  province 
ef  Lower  Austria,  the  Belgian  states,  and  the  duchies  of  Cfarinthia, 
Styria,  and  Carniola.  Precautions  had  even  been  taken  to  prevent 
her  deriving  any  aid  from  Russia,  by  exciting  Sweden  to  declare  wai 
against  the  latter  power.  But  the  spirit  of  this  surprising  woman 
was  not  to  be  broken  by  the  powerful  combination  against  her.  She 
had,  at  the  very  commence me^of  her  reign,  in  a  singular  and  ex 
traordinary  manner,  and  with  consummate  wisdom,  particularly  by 
taking  the  ancient  oath  of  king  Andrew  II.,  attached  to  her  interests 
the  brave  Hungarians.  Repairing  to  them  with  her  inftmt  son,  she 
threw  herself  entirely  upon  their  protection,  and,  in  the  most  puidic 
manner,  addressing  them  in  the  Latin  language,  at  a  special  assembly 
of  the  states,  presented  her  ctiild  to  them  in  terms  the  most  pathetic. 
Supported  by  their  valour,  and  with  the  help  of  English  and  Dutch 
money,  she  baffled  all  her  enemies,  and  finally  dissipated  the  storm 
that  so  rudely  threatened  her.  It  was  not,  indeed,  until  Walpole  was 
removed  from  the  English  ministry  that  the  queen  receiveci  any  ac- 
tive assistance  from  the  king  of  England ;  but  afterwards,  both  in 
Flanders  and  Italy,  he  was  a  powerful  ally.  She  also  derived  some 
succours  from  the  king  of  Sardinia,  not,  however,  very  creditably 
purchased  with  regard  to  Genoa. 


272  MODERN  HISTORY. 

1 4.  Had  the  numerous  powers  first  aimed  against  Maria  Theresa, 
or  intimidated  into  a  state  of"  neutrality,  agreed  amongst  themselves, 
it  would  have  been  impossible  for  the  queen  to  have  withstood  their 
attacks ;  but,  fortunately  for  her,  many  stood  so  directly  in  a  state  of 
rivalship  towards  each  other,  and  France  was  such  an  object  of  sus 
picion  and  alarm  to  almost  all  the  other  confederates,  that  (heir  very 
first  movements  produced  jealousies  and  divisions  amongst  them ; 
and,  what  is  very  remarkable,  the  earliest  who  showed  a  disposition 
to  treat  with  the  queen  was  (he  king  of  Prussia,  in  consequence  of 
(he  successes  of  the  elector  of  Jiavaria  in  Bohemia. 

16.  The  interference  of  Eiigland,  in  behalf  of  the  queen,  did  at 
first,  indeed,  only  exasperate  France,  and  the  other  allies  of  Charles 
VII..  and  excite  them  to  a  more  vigorous  opposition.  But  the  death 
of  tqe  emperor,  in  the  year  1,745,  who  had  derived  no  happiness, 
but,  indeed,  a  great  deal  of  misery,  from  his  short  exaltation,  and  his 
son's  prudent  and  wise  abandonment  of  such  high  dignities,  in  order 
to  secure  his  quiet  possession  of  his  paternal-  dominions,  left  the 
queen  at  liberty  to  procure  for  her  husband,  Francis,  grand  duke  of 
Tuscany,  the  imperial  crown  ;  his  election  to  which  took  place  in 
the  month  of  September  of  the  same  year;  the  queen  agreeing  to 
admit  the  young  elector  of  Bavaria  to  the  full  possession  of  his  he- 
reditary dominions,  and  to  acknowledge  his  father,  Charles  VII.,  to 
have  been  duly  invested  with  the  imperial  dignity.  After  some 
sigtial  successes,  the  queen's  great  adversary,  the  king  of  Prussia, 
also  came  into  her  terms,  having  agreed,  in  a  treaty  concluded  at 
Dresden,  to  acknowledge  the  validity  of  Francis's  election,  on  being 
put  in  possession  of  Silesia  and  the  county  of  Glatz,  the  chief  object 
for  which  he  had  been  contending.  The  elector  Palatine  was  like- 
wise included  in  this  treaty. 

16.  The  French  continued  the  war  in  the  Netherlands,  as  well 
as  in  Italy,  and  with  considerable  success ;  but  the  queen  being  a 
guod  deal  disembarrassed  by  the  peace  she  had  been  able  to  con- 
clude with  Prussia,  had  it  soon  in  her  power  to  recover  all  that 
the  French  and  Spaniards  had  acquired  in  Italy,  while  the  French 
conquests  in  Flandei-s  and  Holland  led  to  the  re-establishment  ol 
the  stadtholdership,  and  thereby  baffled  all  their  hopes  of  future 
a:lvantages  in  those  parts.  The  interference  of  the  empress  of 
Russia,  subsidized  by  England,  and,  above  all,  (he  pecuUar  situation 
of  the  king  of  France,  whose  finances  were  almost  exhausted,  and 
w!io  had  suffered  severe  losses  by  sea,  tended  to  bring  matters  to  an 
issue.  A  congress  was  opened  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  which,  though 
rather  slow  in  its  operations,  at  last^rminated  in  a  peace,  concluded 
October  7,  1,748,  exactly  a  hundred  years  after  the  famous  treaty 
of  Westphalia,  which  served  for  a  basis  of  the  negotiations  entered  into 
upon  this  occasion.  By  this  convention,  as  in  most  other  instances  of 
the  same  nature,  there  was  so  general  a  restitution  of  conquests,  as 
plainly  to  mark  the  folly  and  injustice  of  having  continued  the  war 
so  long.  During  this  contest,  in  the  year  1,743,  died  the  cardinal  de 
Fleury,  first  minister  of  France,  at  the  very  advanced  age  of  ninety. 
He  did  not  assume  the  reins  of  government  till  he  was  seventy- 
three.  He  had  many  virtues,  but  was  much  more  admired  by  his 
countrymen  for  his  integrity  and  difeinterestedness,  than  for  energy 
of  character,  or  public  spirit. 

17.  The  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  bringing  us,  as  nearly  as  can  be, 
to  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century,  it  may  be  well  to  take  a 


MODERN  HISTORY.  273 

view  of  Europe  at  this  particular  period,  and  as  connected  with 
this  celebrated  treaty  ;  but  this  must  be  reserved  for  a  future  section. 


SECTION  IV. 

ENGLAND    FROM    THE   ACCESSION    OF  GEORGE  II.  TO  THE 

THRONE,  1,727,  TO  HIS  DEATH,  1,760. 

1.  The  accession  of  George  II.,  who  came  to  the  throne  1,727,  in 
the  44lh  year  of  liis  age,  and  in  a  time  of  profound  peace,  was  not  at- 
tended with  such  changes  as  many  had  expected.  Even  the  minis- 
ter himself,  sir  Roljert  VValpole,  is  said  to  have  been  surprised  at  the 
reception  he  met  wiih  from  his  majesty,  on  the  demise  of  the  late 
king,  and  at  the  continuance  of  the  power  in  his  hands.  But  this  is 
now  known  to  have  been  owing  to  tlie  wise  and  prudent  care  of 
queen  Caroline,  who,  at  this  moment,  was  lound  to  possess  an  influ 
ence  over  her  royal  consort,  which  had  been  by  many  little  suspect 
ed,  but  which  her  extreme  good  sense,  and  discreet  conduct,  seemed 
fully  to  justify.  The  wbigs  might  justly  be  considered  as  the  truest 
tViends  of  the  house  of  Hanover  and  the  protestant  church  ;  and 
their  continuance  in  power  at  the  commencement  of  a  new  reign, 
though  very  grating  to  the  adverse  party,  seemed  to  be  extremely 
favoural)le  to  tiie  quiet  of  the  nation. 

2.  The  good-wiiJ  which  had  sprung  up,  and  been  encouraged  dur- 
ing the  regency,  between  the  rival  courts  of  Versailles  and  London, 
was  not  materially  disturbed  during  the  whole  administration  oi 
VValpole,  and  his  pacific  contemporary,  cardinal  Fleury  ;  the  queen 
being  also  friendly  to  peace.  But  as  it  is  not  easy  for  any  peaceable 
government  long  to  escape  the  encroachments  of  other  states,  Spain, 
apparently  presuming  on  the  forbearance  or  apathy  of  the  British 
ministry,  committed  great  depredations,  for  a  series  of  years,  upon 
the  trade  of  England  with  America  and  the  West-Indies,  committing 
many  acts  of  most  atrocious  cruelty,  in  addition  to  their  other  deecU 
of  insult  and  plunder.  Some  steps  were  at  length  taken  to  remetly 
these  evils,  but  the  conduct  of  Spain  was  so  generally  resented  by 
the  nation,  as  to  render  even  the  convention,  by  which  the  disputes 
were  referred  to  arbitration,  extremely  unpopular.  It  being  thought, 
by  many  of  all  descriptions,  not  only  that  the  grievances  complainetl 
of  had  been  too  long  submitted  to  and  endured,  and  the  measures 
hitherto  taken  to  redress  them  been  too  tame  and  submissive,  but 
that  nothing  less  than  a  war  could  restore  the  lost  consequence  of 
the  state,  or  bring  such  offenders  to  reason. 

3.  The  Spaniards,  indeed,  had  defended  their  conduct  in  many 
memorials,  pretending  that  the  English  were  the  aggressors,  in  car- 
rying on  a  contraband  and  unlawful  trade  with  their  colonies  ;  but 
had  this  been  capable  of  proof  to  the  extent  the  Spaniards  pretend- 
ed, which  was  certainly  not  the  case,  there  is  no  doubt  but  that  they 
sunered  themselves  to  be  hurried  into  most  unjustifiable  excesses  in 
their  measures  of  reprisal,  and  exceedingly  ill-treated  both  the  mer- 
chants and  sailors  of  England.  They  insisted  upon  a  general  right 
of  search,  on  the  open  seas,  and  condemned  the  ships  and  cargoes, 
upon  such  frivolous  pretences  as  could  not  fail  to  be  extremely  in- 
jurious and  oppressive,  and  quite  contrary  to  existirtg  treaties.  In 
one  instance,  a  whole  fleet  of  English  merchant-ships,  at  the  island  of 

35 


274  MODERN  HISTORY. 

Tortugas,  was  attacked  by  Spaniards,  as  if  the  two  nations  had  been 
at  open  war. 

4.  It  would  be  scarcely  possible,  perhaps,  to  justify  entirely  the 
extraordinary  forbearance  of  the  British  government,  for  nearly 
twenty  years,  during  which  not  only  these  indignities  had  been  con- 
tinually repeated,  but  express  engagements,  and  promises  to  redress 
and  abstain  from  such  aggressions  in  future,  notoriously  violated. 
This  had  been  remarkably  the  case  with  respect  to  the  stipulations 
of  the  treaty  of  Seville,  concluded  in  the  year  1,729.  There  were 
very  warm  debates  in  parliament  on  the  subject,  and  the  ministry 
were  hard  pressed  to  defend  themselves  from  the  charge  of  supine- 
ness,  gross  indifference  to  the  sufferings  of  the  merchants,  and  the 
honour  of  the  crown,  and,  in  some  instances,  even  of  criminal  conniv- 
ance. And,  indeed,  their  opponents  obtained,  at  length,  this  triumph 
over  them,  that  the  very  convention  which  was  to  be  the  prelimina- 
ry of  a  perfect  adjustment  of  differences,  and  a  surety  tor  the  indem- 
niiicafion  of  the  merchants  for  all  their  losses,  was,  like  every  pre- 
ce<iing  treaty  and  compact,  disregarded  by  S}iain,  and  war  obliged 
to  be  declared  before  the  year  was  out,  to  compel  her  to  more 
just  and  equitable  measures.  The  war,  however,  was  not  so  success- 
ful as  to  render  it  clear  that  the  pacific  and  wary  proceedings  of  the 
British  minister  were  otherwise  than  most  prudent  and  wise,  consid- 
ering the  general  circumstances  of  Europe.  "  Omnia  prius  expe- 
riri  verbis  quam  armis  sapientem  decet,  is  a  maxim  which  has 
been  applied  to  the  conduct  of  sir  Robert  Walpole,  by  an  author, 
not  backward  to  admit  that,  on  some  points,  in  regard  to  continental 
politics,  the  pacific  system  was  carried  too  far.  The  period  during 
which  it  prevailed  will,  certainly,  tor  ever  be  a  remarkable  era  in 
Ep.glish  history,  especially  as  the  reigning  sovereign  was  notorious- 
ly a  soldier,  and  by  no  means  personally  disposed  to  adopt  so  inactive 
a  line  of  conduct. 

5.  Though  the  people  had  been  clamorous  for  the  war  with. 
Spain,  they  were  soon  dissatisfied  with  the  conduct  of  it,  and  that  to 
so  great  a  degree,  as  to  compel  the  minister,  sir  Robert  Walpole, 
though  with  considerable  reluctance,  to  resign  his  appointments  ; 
wliicli  took  place  in  February,  1,742;  the  approbation  of  his  sove- 
reign being  manifested  in  his  elevation  to  the  peerage,  by  the  title  of 
earl  of  Oxford,  hie  was  succeeded  by  lord  Carteret.  Sir  Robert 
Walpole  had  been  an  able,  intelligent,  and  prudent  minister;  a  con- 
stant lover  of  peace,  in  the  way  of  defence  and  prevention ;  and 
upon  this  he  prided  himself:  he  was  of  the  whig  party,  which  ex- 
posed him  much  to  the  rancour,  not  only  of  those  whose  political 
jopiiiions  were  different,  but  of  many  disappointed  persons  who 
thought  with  him.  By  these  he  was  stigmatized  as  having  reduced 
corruption  to  a  system  ;  but  by  others,  this  charge  was  as  confidently 
repelled ;  nor  would  it  be  difhcult  to  prove  that,  though  he  often  spoke 
as  if  he  knew  every  man's  price,  he  governed,  not  by  corruption, 
but  by  party  attachments,  as  his  friends  and  admirers  have  alleged. 
Upon  two  great  occasions  his  plans  were  thwarted  by  some  who 
lived  to  see  and  correct  their  errors,  as  was  the  case,  particularly, 
with  Mr.  Pitt,  in  regard  to  the  excise  bill,  first  proposed  to  the  house 
of  commons  in  the  year  1,732.  There  was  never,  perliaps,  a  case 
in  which  party,  faction,  and  ignorance  prevailed  more  over  truth, 
and  justice,  and  prudence.  The  bill  was  calculated  to  check  and 
control  the  most  gross  and  pernicious  frauds  upon  the  revenues  ;  to 
favour  and  encourage,  in  every  possible  manner,  the  fair  dealer, 


MODERN  HISTORY.  211) 

fand  through  him  the  public  in  general,)  and  by  the  savings  pro- 
auced  in  the  treasui'y,  materially  to  lighten  the  public  buithciis :  yet 
such  a  ciamour  was  raised  against  the  measure,  from  its  tirst  sugges- 
tion, as  to  oblige  the  minister  to  abandon  it. 

6.  The  other  measure,  which  brought  great  odium"on  this  able 
minister  oi"  finance,  was  his  trespass  on  the  sinking  fund,  tirst  estab- 
lished in  1,727,  and  wliich  he  made  no  scruple  to  alienate  tor  public 
purposes,  as  occasion  seemed  to  require.  The  very  name  of  this 
lund  is  not  equally  applicable  to  ail  times.  At  first  it  arose  entirely 
from  savings,  and  its  perpetual  or  uninterrupted  operation  under  such 
circumstances,  would  appear  to  have  been  an  indispensable  part  of 
its  character.  It  had  been  calculated  aS  proceeding  upon  the  basis 
of  compound  interest;  while  new  loans  and  debts,  contracted  for 
pressing  emergencies,  were  held  to  burthen  the  public  in  the  way 
of  simple  interest  only.  But  in  these  days,  the  whole  state  of  the 
question  is  changed.  The  modern  siiilcing  fund  is  not  a  shiking  fund 
of  surpluses  or  savings,  but  in  itself  a  borroaxd  fund  ;  of  great  power 
and  great  uliiity,  occasionally,  but  plainly  at  the  command  of  the 

{jub^,  whenever  the  current  expenses  cannot  be  provided  for  at  a 
e^post ;  and,  indeed,  often  beneiitially  to  be  applied  to  such  pur- 
Eoses,  in  greater  or  less  proportions,  to  the  avoidance  of  many 
eavy  charges  of  management,  high  premiums,  and  new  taxes.  The 
alienation  of  the  original  sinking  fund,  by  sir  Robert  Walpole,  how- 
ever, has  been  very  ably  defended  since,  though  opposed  and  resist- 
ed, al  the  time,  widi  a  virulence  and  animosity  exceedingly  distress- 
ing to  that  minister. 

7.  The  new  administration,  which  came  into  power  on  the  resig- 
nation of  Walpole,  so  iiltie  answered  the  expectations  of  their 
fiiends,  deviated  so  soon  from  the  principles  they  had  avowed,  while 
in  opposition,  and  seemed  so  much  more  disposed  to  espouse  the 
cause  of  Hanover,  at  the  expense,  and  to  the  loss,  of  England,  in 
useless  subsidies  and  foreign  wars,  than  to  attend  to  the  domestic 
difliculties  under  which  she  was  supposed  to  be  labouring,  that  tl.ey 
became,  in  a  very  short  time,  quite  as  unpopular  as  their  predeces- 
sors, and  in  1,745,  the  very  year  in  which  Walpole  died,  the  rebel- 
lion broke  out  in  Scotland. 

8.  This  attempt  against  the  house  of  Hanover,  undertaken  by  the 
heir  of  tlie  Stuart  family,  in  person,  was,  undoubtedly,  an  ill-con- 
ducted, as  it  was  ultimately  an  unsuccessful,  enterprise  ;  though  to 
call  it  altogether  a  weak  one,  would  be  contrary  to  historical  truth. 
Its  commencement,  indeed,  had  all  the  appearance  of  the  most  ro- 
mantic inliituation,  but  in  its  progress  it  became  so  formidable,  as 
even  to  threaten  the  capital  of  England,  and  the  protestant  succes- 
sion ;  nor  was  it  subdued  without  great  efforts  and  exertions  on  the 
part  of  the  king's  forces,  so  unavailing  and  disheartening  at  tirst,  as 
to  render  the  issue  of  the  contest  extremely  problematical.  It  was, 
in  tact,  at  the  beginning,  despised  and  neglected,  by  the  lords  of  the 
regency,  in  the  absence  of  the  king,  whio  was  then  at  Hanover,  so 
that  time  was  given  for  such  an  accession  of  friends  and  adherents  to 
the  cause  of  the  pretender,  while  the  English  army  was  left  without 
any  adequate  reinforcements,  that  the  rebels  not  only  got  possession 
of  Edinburgh,  after  a  very  severe  but  most  successful  action  with 
the  English,  at  Preston  Pans,  but  were  able  to  march,  unmolested^ 
far  into  England,  and  even  to  retreat,  in  the  face  of  a  powerful  army, 
under  circumstances  peculiarly  creditable  to  the  prowess,  humanity, 

.,d  military  skill  of  the  Scottish  commander. 


276  MODERN  HISTORY. 

9.  Had  the  young  prince  met  with  the  encouragement  he  expect- 
ed  on  his  march  to  the  south,  he  might  ha  ^e  possessed  himsehof  the 
EngHsh,  as  he  had  done  of  the  Scotch,  capital ;  but  his  hopes  ot  aid 
were,  considering  all  tilings,  strangely  and  cruelly  disappointed. 
Not  a  soul  joined  him,  oi"  any  importance,  though  he  had  advanced 
nearly  to  the  very  centre  of  the  kingdom  ;  while  (he  French  tailed 
to  tultil  their  engagement  of  invading  tlie  southern  parts  of  the 
island,  in  order  to  divide  and  occupy  the  English  army,  so  that  his 
retreat  became  a  point  of  prudence  perfcctiy  inevitable,  however 
mortifying  and  grating  to  the  gallant  spirit  of  Charles,  who  un- 
doubtedly manifested  a  strong  disposition  to  proceed  against  all  obsta- 
cles. 

10.  The  conflict  between  the  two  nations,  on  this  occasion,  was 
greatly  affected  by  the  religious  tenets  and  principles  of  the  oppos- 
ing parties.  Had  Scotland  been  entirely  catholic,  the  hopes  of  tlie 
Stuart  family  would  have  been  extremely  reasonable ;  but  it  was, 
at  this  perioil,  divided  between  the  presbyterians  and  the  catholics ; 
the  Lowianders  being  of  the  former  sect,  and  the  Highlanders,  gen- 
erally speaking,  of  the  latter.  I'he  presbyterians,  ulio  h:<d  saiiied 
great  advantages,  in  the  way  of  toleration,  by  the  revolution,  nSkng 
become  wings  in  principle,  naturally  adhered  to  the  house  of  Han- 
over, while  the  catholic  Highlanders  were  quite  as  fully  and  as  nat- 
urally inclined  to  support  their  native  prince.  Nothing  could  be 
wisef,  perhaps,  under  these  circumstances,  than  the  sending  a  prince 
of  tf<e  blood  to  command  the  British  forces,  and,  as  it  happened,  no 
officer  of  the  British  army  could  be  more  popular  than  Ihe  I'uke  of 
Cumberland,  at  this  very  period.  His  royal  highness  joined  the 
arm  f  at  Edinburgh,  not  long  after  the  battle  of  Falkirk,  in  which 
the  Lnglish,  under  general  Hawley,  had  recently  sustained  a  check. 
Th'i  duke,  indeed,  had  been  exi)rcssly  recalled  from  Flanders,  to 
supjress  the  rebellion,  \vhich  was,  in  no  small  degree,  detrimental 
and  injurious  to  the  cause  of  the  allies. 

IJ  The  conduct  of  the  son  of  the  pretender  was  certainly  that 
of  a  brave  but  inconsiderate  young  man.  Sanguine  in  his  expfcta- 
tior-Sj  beyond  what  any  circumstances  of  the  case  would  completely 
justily,  he,  in  more  instances  than  one,  committed  himself  too  far,  and 
at  liie  very  last  exposed  himself  to  a  defeat,  which  might,  at  least, 
have  been  suspended  or  mitigated,  if  not  totally  avoided.  He  made 
a  stand  against  the  king's  foices  at  Culioden,  while  his  troops  were 
in  u  bad  condition  tor  tighling,  and  when  it  would  obviously  have 
been  better  policy  to  have  acted  on  the  defensive ;  to  have  retired 
before  his  adversaiy,  till  he  had  led  him  into  the  more  impractica- 
ble parts  of  the  higldands,  where  all  his  military  means  would 
have  been  crippled,  and  a  retreat,  perhaps,  at  least,  have  been 
rendered  indispensably  necessary  ;  but  by  risking  the  battle  of"  Culio- 
den, (April  l<6^  1,746)  he  lost  every  thing.  The  duke  of  Cumber- 
land gained  a  most  decisive  victory  ;  and  so  completely  subdued  the 
hopes  and  spirits  of  his  young  opponent,  that  he  never  afterwards 
joined  his  friends,  though  solicited,  and  indeed  engaged,  so  to  do  ;  but 
wandering  about  thje  country  for  a  considerable  time,  with  a  price  of 
£30,U00  set  on  his  head,  after  enduring  incredible  hardships  and 
difficulties,  embarked  for  France ;  and  thus  terminated  for  ever  the 
struggles  of  that  exiled  and  deposed  family  to  recover  its  ancient 
dominions.  The  very  remarkable  instances  of  attachment,  fidelity,- 
and  pure  hospitality,  by  which,  after  the  battle  of  Culioden,  the 
unfortunate  fugitive  was  preserved  from  the  hands  of  his  pursuers, 


MODERN  HISTORY.  .  277 

surpass  any  thing  of  the  kind  recorded  in  history,  and  reflect  indehble 
credit  oh  the  high  and  disinterested  feelings  and  principles  of  those 
who  assisted  him  in  his  escape. 

12.  The  most  melancholy  circumstance  attending  this  rash  un- 
dertaking, was  the  necessity  that  arose  for  making  examples  of  those 
who  had  abetted  it,  in  order  more  securely  to  hx  on  the  throne  of 
Great  Britain  the  reigning  family;  who,  having  acquired  that  right 
in  the  most  constitutional  manner,  could  not  b<?  dispossessed  of  it,  but 
by  an  unpardonable  violation  of  the  law.  Of  the  excesses  committed 
by  the  English  troops  after  the  battle  of  Culkden,  it  is  to  be  hoped, 
as  indeed  it  has  been  asserted,  that  the  accounts  are  exaggerated- 
but  in  the  common  course  of  justice,  many  persons,  and  some  of  the 
liighest  rank,  underwent  the  sentence  of  death  for  high  treason, 
whose  crime,  through  a  melancholy  infatuation,  must  in  their  own 
eyes  have  appeared  the  very  reverse,  and  whose  loyalty  and  attach- 


made  their  escape  beyond  sea,  and  arrived  safely  at  the  different 
ports  of  the  continent.  No  attempts  have  since  been  made  by  any  oi 
the  catholic  descendants  of  the  royal  family  of  Great  Britain  to  dis- 
turb the  protestant  succession  in  the  house  of  Brunswick. 

13.  This  illustrious  house  sustained  a  very  unexpected  and  mel- 
ancholy loss,  in  the  year  1,750,  by  the  death  of  his  royal  highnese 
the  prince  of  Wales,  father  of  his  late  majesty  ;  who,  in  consequence 
of  a  cold  caught  in  his  gardens  at  Kew,  died  of  a  pleuritic  disorder, 
on  the  twentieth  day  of  March,  in  the  ibrty-tifth  year  of  his  age. 
He  was  a  prince  endowed  with  many  amiable  qualities  ;  a  munilicent 
patron  of  the  arts,  a  friend  to  merit,  and  sincerely  attached  to  the  in- 
terests of  Great  Britain. 

14.  In  the  coui'se  of  the  year  1,751,  a  remarkable  act  was  passed 
in  parliament,  for  correcting  the  calendar,  according  to  the  Gregori- 
an computation.  It  was  enacted,  that  the  new  year  should  begin 
on  the  hrst  of  January,  and  that,  eleven  days  between  the  second  and 
fourteenth  days  of  September,  1,752,  should  for  that  time  be  omitted, 
so  that  the  day  succeeding  the  second,  should  be  called  the  fourteenth 
of  that  month.  This  change  was  on  many  accounts  exceedingly  im- 
portant, but  to  persons  wholly  unacquainted  with  astronomy,  it  ap- 
peared a  strangely  arbitrary  iateriierence  with  the  currency  and  set- 
tled distinctions  of  time. 

15.  Though  the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapel!e,  in  1,748,  maybe  said 
to  have  restored  peace  to  Europe,  the  English  and  French  came  to 
no  good  understanding  with  regard  to  tlieir  remote  settlements. 
The  war  in  those  parts  involved  the  interests  of  the  natives  or  set- 
tlers, as  well  as  of  the  two  courts,  and  scarcely  seems  to  have  faUen 
under  the  consideration  of  the  negotiating  ministers.  In  the  east  and 
in  the  west  many  disputes  and  jealousies  were  raised,  which  though 
referred  to  special  commissioners  to  adjust,  in  no  long  course  of  time 
involved  both  countries  hi  a  fresh  war,  the  particulars  of  which  will 
be  found  elsewhere  :  a  war  which  extended  to  all  parts  of  the  globe, 
and  continued  beyond  the  reign  of  George  II.,  who  died  BucWenly 
at  Kensington,  in  1,760,  in  the  77th  year  of  his  age,  and  34th  of  hiy 
reign, 

16.  George  II.  was  a  prince  of  high  integrity,  honour,  and  ver^ 
city^  but  of  a  warm  and  irritable  temper,  oi'  a  warlike  di^poaiuou, 
and  tfeLOUgh  for  a  long  time  restrained  by  his  pacilic  ininititer,  sir 

Aa 


278  MODERN  HISTORF 

Robert  Walpolp,  from  taking  any  active  part  in  the  disputes  of  the 
continent,  yet  constantly  inclined  to  do  so,  irom  an  attachment,  very 
natural,  thmigh  unpopular  amongst  his  British  subjects,  to  his  Ger- 
man dominions.  He  was  greatly  under  the  influence  of  his  queen 
while  she  lived,  "whose  mild,  prudent,  and  conciliating  manners,*' 
to  use  the  words  of  a  very  impartial  and  judicious  biographer, 
I' were  more  congenial  to  the  character  of  the  English  nation.'' 
Queen  Caroline  had  indeed  many  great  and  splendid  virtues ;  though 
ot  most  amiable  and  domestic  habits,  she  was  well  versed  in  the 
politics  of  Europe,  and  had  considerable  literary  athiinments,  which 
disposed  hee  to  be  a  friend  to  learned  persons,  jwrticiilarly  to  many 
members  of  the  church,  of  which  several  striking  and  remarkable 
instances  have  been  recorded.  It  is  suthcient  to  n  eniion  the  namt"< 
of  Herring,  Clarke,  Hoadley,  Butler,  Sherlock,  Hare,  Seeker,  and 
Pearce.  She  was  the  daughter  of  John  Frederick,  margrave  of 
Brandenburgh  Anspach,  and  was  born  in  the  year  1 ,683.  She  was 
married  to  his  majesty  in  1,705,  and  had  issue  two  sons  and  tive 
daughters.  Her  death,  which  occassioned  great  grief  to  her  royal 
consort  and  tamily,  took  place  on  itie  20th  of  iVovember,  1,733, 
when  she  was  in  the  55th  year  of  her  age. 


SECTION  V. 

STATE   OF    EUROPE  AT   THE    CONCLUSION   OF   THE   PEACE 
OF  AIX-LA-CHAPELLE,  1,748. 

1.  By  the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  the  house  of  Hanover  vrns 
effectually  established  on  the  throne  of  Great  Britain,  to  the  entire 
exclusion  of  the  Stuart  family.  Though  the  peace  was  not  popular 
in  England,  and  she  was  supposed  by  many  to  have  made  too  great, 
and  in  some  instances  ignominious  concessions,  yet  it  was  certainly 
fortunate  for  her  that  the  continental  powers  confined  their  views  to  a 
balance  which  did  not  extend  to  the  sea ;  and  thereby  left  in  her 
hands  a  force,  beyond  calculation  superior  to  that  of  the  other 
countries  of  Europe,  and  amounting  almost  to  a  monopoly  of  com- 
merce, credit,  and  wealth,  so  as  to  render  her,  as  it  were,  the  chief 
agent  or  principal,  in  all  political  movements,  for  the  time  to  come. 
Her  prosperity,  indeed,  had  been  on  the  increase,  in  no  common  de- 
gree, from  the  accession  of  the  Brunswick  family. 

2.  Austria  lost,  by  the  treaty  of  1,748,  Silesia  and  Glatz,  the 
duchies  of  Parma,  Placentia,  and  Guastalla,  and  some  places  in 
the  Milanese :  but  she  succeeded,  and  chiedy  at  the  expense  of  her 
allies,  in  the  article  of  the  succession.  All  former  treaties  were 
formally  recognised,  which  involved  indeed  other  losses  to  the  em- 
pire, if  compared  with  the  time  of  Charles  V.;  but  the  dominions 
of  the  latter  were  certainly  too  extensive,  and  too  detached,  to  form 
a  great  and  stable  empire.  This,  indeed,  may  be  said  to  have  been 
the  case  with  regard  even  to  the  reduced  domains  of  Charles  VI. ; 
but  his  high-spirited  daughter,  Maria  I'heresa,  was  to  the  last  indig- 
nant at  the  losses  she  had  sustained.  She  corrected  the  error  into 
which  she  had  fallen  with  regard  to  Genoa,  and  which  occasioned 
great  commotions  there,  by  consenting  to  let  the  marquisate  of  Final 
revert  to  that  republic,  which  had  been  very  arbitrarily  given,  in 
the  course  of  the  war,  as  a  bribe  to  the  king  of  Sardinia,  and  made 
a  iree  port^  to  the  eTident  disadvantage  of  the  Genoese,  who  bad 


MODERN  JIISTORY.  ^  279    ' 

originally  purchased  it  for  a  valuable  consideration,  under  the  ^guar     ' 
antee  of  Great  Britain.  ^    '  f 

3.  Prussia  gained,  by  the  ti;eaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  Silesia,  and    ] 
the  county  of  Glatz,  which  were  guaranteed  to  her  by  all  the  con- 
tracting powers;  and  by  this  accession  or*territory  she  was  raised 
into  the  condition  of  a  power  capable  of  eiiteriBg  into  the  field  ol 
action,  as  a  rival  of  Austria  ;  wiuch  might  have  been  foreseen,  when    ! 
Leopold  erected  it  into  a  kingdom,  for  the  express  purpose  of  coua-    ij 
lerbalanci[)g  the  power  of  France.     As  it  was,  tlie  unity  of  the  em- 
pire seemed  to  be  dissolved,  and  a  door  set  open  to  future  revolutions 
in  tlie  Germanic  body.     The  character  and  subsequent  achievements 
of  Frederick  II.  contributed  greatly  to  the  aggrandizement  of  his  do-  j 
minions.  '  He  was  jiclive,  bold,  fond  of  glory,  and  indefatigable.    He  ^ 
was  brave  in  the  field,  and  wise  in  the  cabinet.    Desirous  of  shining    ' 
in  all  that  he  undertook,  -jie  Vas  indefatigable  in  keeping  his  army 
constantly  ready  for  all  emergencies,  and  in  repairing  the  damages  to    tj 
which  his  dominions  had  beeiusubjecled  by  his  ambition.    He  drew    j 
to  him  many  eminent  persons  of  all  countries,  of  whose  society  he    ,' 
pretended  to  be  fond ;  but  he  oftentimes  showed  himself  to  be  a   > 
most  mercile&j  tyrant,  a  blunderer  in  political  economy,  and,  if  not  _ ' 
quite  an  atheist,  very  lax  in  his  piinciples  of  religion. 

4.  Holland  lost  much  by  the  peace,  and  gained  nothing.     Some,    | 
indeed,  doubted  whether  she  did  not  greatly  endanger  her  indepen-  J 
dence,  by  consenting  to  iii«'i%c  me  stadtholuership  hereditary  In  the  1 
house  of  Urange,  and  that  in  favour  of  the  female  as  well  as  male 
heirs  of  the  family  :  but  others  conceived  that  this  approach  to  mo-    ^ 
narchical  government  greatly  strengthened  the  republic ;  and  Sf^Would 
indeed  seem  that  it  had  declined  much  in  power  and  consequence, 
from  the  very  period  when  that  othce  was  abolished,  in  the  preced-    ' 
iug  century.     One  precaution  was  adopted  with  regard  Jo  the  female 
heirs  to  the  Stadtlioldership :  they  were  precluded  from  marrying  any   ^ 
king,  or  elector  of  the  empire  ;  a  precaution  which  tliere  were,  in 
the  history  of  Europe,  suthcient  reasons  to  justify. 

5.  Spain  obtained,  for  two  branches  of  her  royal  family,  the  king-    \ 
dora  of  Naples,  and  the  duchies  of  Parma,  Piacentia,  and  Guastalla  • 
the  latter  to  revert  to  Austria,  that  is,  Parma  atid  Guastalla,  frnd  Pla-    i 
centia  to  Sardinia, should  the  new  duke,  don  Philip,  die  without  issue,    ; 
or  succeetl  to  either  of  the  kingdoms  of  Spain  or  Naples.     But  the    ' 
power  of  Spain  was  not  mucii  increased,  either  by  land  or  sea.     On 
the  latter,  indeed,  the  English  had  an  overwhelming  superiority;    < 
and,  on  land,  though  her  arukies  were  brave,  they  were  generally  ill    : 
conducted,  and  her  government  too  bad  to  render  her  respectable    ' 
in   the  eyes  of  Europe.     Ferdinand  VI.,  indeed,  the  successor  of 
Philip,  who  came  to  the  throne  just  before  the  conclusion  of  the    : 
treaty,  applied  himself,  with  no  small  degree  of  credit,  to  retrieve    j 
the  character  of  the  nation. 

6.  Austria,  by  seeking  an  alliance  with  Russm,  had  introduced  the  ' 
latter  power  into  the  southern  states  of  Europe,  and  given  her  consid-  ' 
erable  weight  and  consequence,  as  a  counterbalance  to  her  great  ; 
rival,  France.  Scarcely  known  at  the  commencement  of  the  century,  , 
the  movement  impressed  uuon  this  mighty  empire  by  the  extraot-  i 
dinary  genius  and  vigour  of  Peter  the  first,  had  carried  her  forward,  i 
with  a  rapid  progression ;  so  that,  by  the  middle  of  the  century,  she  1 
might  justly  be  regarded  as  amongst  the  most  considerable  powers  ol 
Europe.  Her  armies  were,  perhaps,  more  than  semi-barbarous;  but 
they  were  brave,  indefatigable,  hurdy,  and  supported  by  the  reii      i 


S80  MODERN  HISTORr. 

gious  jprinciple  of  predestination;  the  foundation  of  a  desperate 
kind  of  hardihood,  seldom  to  be  resisted.  Her  internal  resources 
were  not  ai  all  considerable,  but  they  were  daily  improving.  When 
Peter  the  tirst  came  to  the  crown,  her  revenues  amounted  to  six 
millions  of  roubles;  in  1,748  they  vvei-e  nearly  quadrupled.  Thus 
rapidly  advancing,  wilh  one  arm  reaching  to  the  Baltic,  and  the 
other  to  the  Black  sen,  it  was  very  obvious  to  discern  that  when,  by 
good  management,  her  gigantic  body  should  be  duly  invigorated, 
she  had  tvery  chance  of  becoming  a  most  formidable  power. 
Already  had  she  shown  herself  such,  to  a  great  degree,  in  the  influ- 
ence she  had  acquired  in  Sweden,  Denmark,  and  Poland ;  in  her 
commercial  treaties  with  England,  her  alliance  with  Austria,  and  her 
wars  with  the  Turks.  Her  resources  and  means  of  improvement 
were  gieai ;  rivers  not  only  navigable  during  the  summer,  but  during 
the  winter  nUo,  affording,  by  means  of  sledges,  every  opportunity 
of  a  quick  and  easy  transport  of  all  sorts  of  commercial  goods ;  the 
greater  part  of  her  southern  provinces  fertile,  and  requiring  little 
culture  ;  mines  of  gold,  iron,  and  copper;  great  quantities  of  timber, 
pitch,  tar,  and  iieinp.  She  had  not  y^t  learned  to  manutacture  her 
own  productioi'.s,  or  to  export  them  in  her  own  ships,  and  conse- 
quently to  make  the  most  of  them :  but  she  was  in  the  way  to  learn 
si:ch  arts,  and  when  once  attained,  she  had  the  fairest  prospects  of 
acquiring  a  decided  superiority,  not  only  in  the  Baltic,  and  White 
Jitii.  but  oa  «h^  Mi"ch  °f?  ^"d  (^abiiiLin. 

7.  Turkey,  at  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  centory,  w«g  ccmpar- 
atively  a  gainer  by  the  wars  in  which  she  had  .been  engaged.  She 
had  tyj^en  the  Morea  from  the  Venetians,  recovered  from  Austria 
Belgrade,  Servia,  and  some  provinces  of  Transylvania  and  Wallachia, 
and  had  hitherto  baffled  the  attcmpls  of  Russia,  to  get  absolute  pos- 
•ession  of  the  Crimea,  and  of  the  mouths  of  the  Danube. 

8.  France  obtained  little  in  point  of  extent  by  the  treaty  of  Aix- 
la-Chapello,  but  that  little  was  of  extreme  importance.  The  posses- 
sion of  Lorraine,  ui  addition  to  Alsace,  and  several  strong  torts  on  the 
Rhine,  strengthened  and  comj.leted,  in  the  most  perfect  manner,  hef 
eastern  frontier,  and  placed  her  in  a  most  commanding  attitude  with 
regard*  to  the  (Terman  states.  During  the  administration  of  cardinal 
Fleury,  which  lasted  till  the  year  1,743,  her  marine  had  been  de- 
plorably neglected,  w  bile  the  English  had  been  able  to  enrich  them- 
selves at  the  expense  of  tlie  French,  particularly  by  intercepting 
many  valuable  convoys,  and  capturing  many  ships  of  her  reduced  navy. 

9.  An  author  of  reputation  has  proposed  to  throw  the  different 
European  states,  at  the  conclusion  of  the  peace  of  1,748,  into  the 
four  toUowing  classes  : — 

1.  Those  that  having  armies,  fleets,  money,  and  territorial  resour- 
ces, could  make  war  without  foreign  alliances.  Such  were  England 
and  France. 

2.  Those  that  with  considerable  and  powerful  armies,  were  de- 
pendent on  foreign  resources.     Austria,  Prussia,  and  Russia. 

3.  Those  that  could  not  engage  in  war,  but  in  league  with  other 
states,  subtiidized  by  them,  and  always  regarded  in  the  light  of  sec- 
ondary powers  by  the  large  ones.  Portugal,  Sardinia,  Sweden, 
Denmark. 

4.  Such  as  were  interested  in  maintaining  themselves  in  the  same 
condition,  and  free  from  the  encroachment  of  others.  Switzerland, 
Genoa,  Venice,  and  the  German  states. 

Holland,  Spain,  and  Naples,  being  omitted  in  the  aboye  account 


MODERN  HISTORY.  2ll 

might  reasonably  be  thrown  into  a  fifth  class,  as  countries  generally 
80  connected  Avitn  England,  France,  and  Austria,  as  to  be  constantly 
involved  in  every  war  affecting  either  of  those  countries. 


SECTION  VI. 

4 

OF  THE  SEVEN  YEARS'  WAR,  1,775—1,762.  j 

1.  Though  for  some  short  time  after  the  conclusion  of  the  peace 
of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  in   1,748,  England  and  France  seemed  to  enjoy, 

in  no  common  degree,  the  blessings  of  peace,  and  to  be  upon  a  foot-  '. 
ing  of  perfect  amity  with  each  other,  yet  it  would  appear  that  the  j 
seeds  of  a  future  vvar  were  sown  in  the  very  circumstances  of  that  ; 
convention.  England  was  left  in  possession  of  such  a  preponderating  ' 
force  at  sea,  while  the  French  marine,  through  the  parsimony  or  in- 
attention of  cardinal  Fleury,  had  fallen  into  so  low  a  state  of  depres-  \ 
sion,  that  it  is  not  to  be  wondered  that  all  v>lio  were  interested  about  ; 
the  latter,  should  have  their  minds  filled  with  jealousy  and  resentment.  ; 
This  was  soon  manifested,  not  only  by  the  vigorous  attempts  made  at  j 
this  time  to  restore  the  marine  of  France,  but  in  the  projects  formed 
for  dispossessing  the  English  of  (Iteir  principal  settlements  in  the  East  : 
.Indies  and  America  ;  a  blow  which  might  have  been  far  more  fatal  to  j 
the  English  nation,  than  any  leagues  or  confederacies  in  favour  of  the  \ 
pretender.  To  secin-e  the  co-operation  and  support  of  Spain  in  these  | 
designs,  France  had  endeavoured,  in  the  year  ],763,  to  draw  the  lat-  '. 
ter  into  a  family  compact,  which,  though  afterwards  brought  abotit,  ' 
was  at  this  time  successfully  frustrated,  by  the  extraordinary  care  ; 
and  vigilance  of  the  British  minister  at  Madrid. 

2.  The  peace  established  in  Europe  in  1,748,  can  scarcely  be  said  I 
to  have  ever  been  effectually  extended  to  Asia  and  America.    The  . 
conquests  on  each  side  uuleed  had  been  relinquished  and  surrendered  1 
by  that  treaty,  but  in  a  most  negligent  manner  with  respect  to  limits 
and  boundaries ;  and  in  each  of  those  distant  settlements,  France  at  { 
that  time  happened  to  have  able  and  enterprising  servants,  who 
thought  they  saw,  in  their  respective  governments,  such  means  of  i 
aggrandizing  themselves  and  their  country,  and  of  thwarting  the  i 
British  interest,  as  were  not  to  be  overlooked  or  neglected.     In  the  ■ 
East  Indies  very  extraordinary  attempts  were  made  to  reduce  the  '■ 
wliole  peninsula  of  India  Proper,  in  short,  the  whole  Mogul  empire,  j 
under  the  dominion  of  France,  by  an  artful  interference  in  the  ap-  ■ 
pointment  of  the  governors  ot  kingdoms  and  provinces,  the  Souhahr 
dars^ .Yabobs^  and  liajahx.   The  power  ol'  the  mogul  had  been  ijegevoeiy— ' 
bly  shaken  by  Kouii-Khan,  in  1,738,  from  which  time  the  viceroys  ■ 
and  other  subordinate  goveniors  had  slighted  his  authority,  and,  in'  < 
a  greater  or  less  degree,  become  independent.    The  interference  of  i 
the  French  was  calculated  to  throw  things  into  confusion,  by  dispos-  i 
sessing  those  who  were  adverse  to  tjiem  of  their  governments  and  j 
territories,  and  thus  compelling  them,  as  it  were,  to  seek  succour  from  ^ 
the  English  ;  which  ultimately  brougiit  the  two  rival  nations  of  Eu- 
roj)e  into  a  state  of  hostihty,  not  as  avowed  principals,  but  as  the  ! 
auxiliaries  of  the  different  native   princes  or  nabobs.     In  no  long 
course  of  time,  tilings  took  a  turn  entirely  in  tiivour  of  the  English 
und  their  allies;  the  French  were  baffled  in  all  their  projects,  every  - 
place  they  possessed  taken  from  them,  a  suspension  of  arms  agreed 
upon,  in  1,754,  and  the  French  governor,  Dupleix,  the  ambitious an4 

Aa  2  36 


e 


282  MODERN  HISTORY. 

enterprising  author  and  fomenter  of  all  the  troubles,  but  who  had 
been  ill-supported  by  his  government  at  home,  recalled  from  India. 

3.  It  was  at  this  period  that  the  celebrated  Mr.  Clive,  afterwards 
lord  Clive,  first  distinguished  himselt,  who  had  not  only  discernment 
enough  to  see  through  and  detect  all  the  artifices  and  designs  of 
Dujileix,  but,  though  not  brought  up  to  the  military  profession,  soon 
displayed  such  skiiland  courage  in  conducting  the  operations  of  the 
army,  as  speedily  established  his  fame,  and  laid  the  foundationtfor  his 
future  elevation  and  glory. 

4.  In  America,  the  boundaries  of  the  ceded  provinces  not  ha^'in* 
been  justly  defined  in  the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  the  French  baa 
formed  a  design  of  connecting,  by  a  chain  of  torts,  their  two  distant 
colonies  of  Canada  and  Louisiana,  and  to  confine  the  English  entirely 
within  that  tract  of  country  which  lies  between  the,  Alleghany  and 
Apalachian  mountains  and  the  sea.  No  part  of  this  design  could  be 
carried  on  without  manifest  encroachment  on  territories  previously, 
either  by  agreement,  settlement,  or  impUcation,  appropriated  to 
others !  Where  the  boundaries  were  not  precisely  defined,  all  that  was 
not  English  or  French,  belonged  to  the  native  tribes,  and  the  only 
"Jolicy  that  the  European  colonists  had  to  observe,  was  to  conciliate 

he  friendship,  or  resist  the  attacks  of  these  ferocious  neighbours.  But 
the  scheme  the  French  had  in  agitation  threatened  to  be  extremely 
injurious  to  the  English  colonists ;  giving  them,  in  case  of  war,  a  fron- 
tier of  fifteen  hundred  miles  to  defend,  not  merely  against  a  race  of 
savages,  as  heretofore,  but  against  savages  supported  by  disciplined 
troops,  and  conducted  by  French  officers. 

5.  It  was  not  possible  for  England  long  to  contemplate  these  ag- 
gressions and  projects  without  interfering;  but  her  means  of  resisting 
them  were  not  equal  to  those  by  which  the  French  were  enabled  to 
carry  them  into  execution.  The  English  colonies  were  notoriously 
divided  by  distinct  views  and  interests  ;  had  many  disagreements  and 
differences  among  themselves,  which  seemed,  for  some  time  at  least, 
totally  to  prevent  their  acting  in  concert,  however  necessary  to 
their  best  iuterests.  The  French  depended  on  no  such  precarious 
support,  but  were  united  both  in  their  object  and  operations.  Hos- 
tilities, however,  did  not  actually  commence  till  the  year  1,755,  frona 
which  period  the  contest  in  North  America  was  carried  on  with 
various  success,  between  the  French  and  English,  severally  assisted 
by  different  tribes  of  Indians ;  in  the  course  of  which,  it  is  more  than 
probable,  that  sad  acts  of  cruelty  may  have  been  perpetrated,  and 
both  nations  have  been  to  blame  in  some  particulars ;  but  it  is  cer- 
tainly remarkable,  that  each  party  stands  charged  exclusively  with 
such  atrocities  by  the  historians  of  the  adverse  side  ;  and  while  the 
English  writers  attribute  the  whole  war  to  the  intrigues  and  en- 
croachmeats  of  the  French,  the  latter  as  confidently  ascribe  it  to  the 
cupidity  and  aggressions  of  the  English.  It  is  very  certain,  however, 
that,  before  the  war  actually  commenced,  the  French  court  made 
Such  strong  but  insincere  professions  of  amity,  and  a  desire  of  peace, 
as  to  deceive  its  own  minister  at  the  court  of  St.  James's,  M.  de 
Mirepoix.  who  felt  himself  so  ill-treated  in  being  made  the  tool  of 
guch  duplicity  and  dissimulation,  as  to  cause  him  to  repair  to  Paris, 
to  remonatrate  with  the  administration  who  had  so  cajoled  him.  It 
is  necessary  to  mention  these  things,  where  historical  truth  is  the 
great  obtect  in  view. 

6.  At  the  commencement  of  this  contest  between  France  and 
Englano,  the  former  seems  to  have  been  most  successful  on  Umd : 


MODERN  HISTORT.  283 

but  the  latter,  and  to  a  much  greater  degree,  at  sea.  Before  the 
end  of  ths  tiret  year  of  the  war,  do  less  than  tnree  hundred  French 
merchant  vessels,  some  of  them  extremely  rich,  with  eight  thousand 
sailors,  being  brought  into  the  English  ports ;  and  while  the  rate  of 
insurance  in.  the  latter  country  continued  as  usual,  in  Fi'ance  it 
quickly  rose  to  3U  per  cent.,  a  pretty  strong  indication  of  the  com- 
parative inferiority  of  the  latter,  as  far  as  regarded  her  marine,  and 
the  safety  of  her  navigation. 

7.  But  it  was  soon  found  expedient  by  one,  if  not  by  both  parties, 
to  divert  the  attention  from  colonial  to  continental  objects  ;  a  meas- 
ure which,  as  in  a  former  i.jstance,  the  French  writers  ascribe 
entirely  to  England,  and  the  English  writers  as  confidently  to  France  ; 
but  it  is  sufficiently  clear  that  the  latter  tirst  entertained  views  upon 
the  electorate  of  Hanover,  which  gave  that  turn  to  the  war  in  gen- 
eral. Considering  what  had  passed  in  the  preceding  struggle  upon 
the  continent,  nothing  could  be  more  strange  than  the  conduct  of  the 
different  states  of  Europe  on  this  particular  occasion.  Instead  of 
receiving  assistance  from  the  empress  queen,  whose  cause  England 
had  so  long  and  so  magnanimously  supported,  and  who  was  bound 
by  treaty  to  contribute  her  aid  in  case  of  attack,  Maria  Theresa 
evaded  the  applications  made  to  her  by  the  court  of  St.  James's, 
(perhaps  in  rather  too  high  and  peremptory  a  tone,)  on  the  pretence 
that  the  war  between  France  and  England  had  begun  in  America  f 
and  she  apphed  herself  with  peculiar  assiduity  to  recover,  through 
the  aid  of  Russia,  the  provinces  of  Silesia  and  Glatz,  which  had  beec 
ceded  to  the  Prussian  monarch, 

8.  It  has  been  conjectured  that  her  imperial  majesty  had  been 
greatly  offended  at  the  preliminaries  of  peace,  in  1,748,  having 
been  signed  by  England  without  her  approbation,  and  that  she  was 
capable  of  carrying  her  resentment  so  far  as  voluntarily  to  throw 
herself  into  the  arms  of  France,  without  further  consideration  ; 
while  the  French  king,  whose  strange  course  of  life  had  been  too 
openly  ridiculed  by  the  king  of  Prussia,  foolishly  suffered  himself  to 
be  cajoled  into  an  alliance  with  Austria,  after  three  hundred  years  of 
warfare,  against  his  former  active  and  powerful  ally  ;  thereby  break 
ing  through  the  wise  system  of  Richelieu,  and  helping  to  raise  the 
very  power,  of  whose  greatness  France  had  the  most  reason  to  be 
jealous ;  but  Maria  Theresa,  and  her  minister,  prince  Kaunitz,  to 
produce  this  great  change  in  the  pciicy  of  France,  had  stoojped  t« 
flatter  and  concihate  the  king's  mistress,  the  marchioness  of  Pom- 
padour. 

9.  Fortunately  for  England,  however,  the  conduct  of  these  two 
courts  quickly  determined  the  king  of  Prussia  to  form  an  alliance 
with  the  elector  of  Hanover;  to  stitle  and  forget  all  former  diifer- 
ences  and  animosities,  and  peremptorily  to  resist  the  entrance  of  for- 
eign troops  into  Germany ;  a  measure  which,  though  first  directed 
against  Russia,  subsidized  by  England,  equally  applied  to  France. 
An  alliance  between  the  kings  of  Great  Britain  and  Prussia  had  long 
been  contemplated  by  some  of  the  ablest  statesmen  of  the  former 
country,  as  the  most  natural  and  wisest  connexion  that  could  be 
formed  to  counteract  the  projects  and  piiwer  of  France.  Hitherto 
strong  personal  jealousies  and  ill-will  on  the  part  of  the  two  sove- 
reigns had  prevented  any  such  union,  and  now  it  was  brought  about 
by  accident;  much  more,  however,  to  the  adviuitage  of  Prussia  than 
of  Great  Britain,  It  had  been  proposed  in  England,  to  subsi.iize 
Russia,  but  the  aegotiations  of  the  former  with  the  king  of  Pruasiat 


284  MODERN  HISTORY. 

whom  the  czarina  personally  disliked,  produced  a  close  but  unex- 
pected union  of  Russia,  Austria,  and  France ;  not  so  much  against 
England,  perhaps,  as  against  Prussia,  nor  yet  so  much  against  the 
kingdom  of  Frussia  as  against  (he  king  himself. 

10.  Such  was  the  commencement  of  whnt  has  been  tem^  the 
seven  years'  war.  It  seemed  soon  to  be  forgotten  that  it  wasVirigin- 
ally  a  maritime  or  colonial  war.  The  whole  vengeance  of  France 
and  Austria,  in  1,757,  was  directed  against  the  king  of  Prussia,  and 
electorate  of  Hanover.  The  Prussian  monarch,  relying  on  his  well- 
organized  army  and  abundant  treasury,  despised  the  powerful  com- 
bination against  him,  and  commenced  the  war  in  a  most  imposing, 
though  precipitate  manner,  by  dispossessing,  at  the  very  outset,  the 
king  of  Poland,  elector  of  Saxony,' in  alliance  with  Austria,  ot  his 
capital,  of  his  whole  army,  and  of  his  electoral  dominions,  in  a  way 
little  creditab4e  to  his  characier,  notwithstanding  the  strong  political 
motives  alleged  in  his  subsef]uent  manifestoes.  The  situation  of 
France,  by  this  sudden  manoeuvre,  was  certainly  rendered  most  ex- 
traordinary. At  the  commencement  of  the  former  war,  she  had 
done  her  utmost  to  dethrone  Augustus,  king  of  Poland,  in  favour  of 
Stanislaus,  whose  daughter  had  married  the  French  king ;  and  she 
had  now  just  as  strong  and  tirgent  a  reason  to  assist  in  restoring  Au- 
gustus to  his  hereditary  dominions,  (he  daughter  of  the  latter  being 
marrie<l  to  the  dauphin,  and  the  lite  of  the  dauphiness  having  been 
endangered  by  the  intelligence  received  of  the  rigorous  treatment  of 
her  royai  parents. 

1 J .  It  was  during  the  seven  years'  war,  that  Frederic  of  Prussia 
acquired  that  glory  in  the  tield  which  has  rendered  his  reign  so 
conspicuous  and  remarkable.  The  intended  victim,  as  he  had  great 
reason  to  suppose,  of  an  overwhelming  confederacy  of  crowned 
lieads,  he  lost  no  time  in  delending  himself  against  their  attacks,  by 
occupying  the  territories  of  those  who  threatened  him,  so  suddenly 
and  arbitrarily  indeed,  with  regard  to  Saxony,  as  to  give  oft'ence  to 
ihe  greater  part  of  Europe;  but  genei-aliy  contending  with  surprising 
success  against  superior  armies,  though  incessantly  summoned  from  one 
field  of  battle  to  {mother,  by  the  numerous  and  divided  attacks  of  his 
opponents  :  nor  was  there  one  of  all  the  powers  that  menaced  him, 
whom  he  did  not  find  means  to  humble,  and  in  some  instances  punish 
most  severely,  at  first,  with  an  impetuosity  bordering  upon  rashness; 
afterwards,  by  more  wary  and  circumspect  proceedings.  In  Siiesia. 
Saxony,  Brandenbuurg,  Hanover,  and  Westpiialiit,  he  had  to  contend 
with  the  armies  ol'  the  empire,  Austria,  Russia,  Sweden,  France,  and 
Saxony  :  2UU,0(XJ  men  are  supposed  to  have  fallen  annually  in  these 
campaigns.  Though  often  worsted,  (as  must  be  the  case,  where  no 
consideration  of  superior  numLteis  is  allowed  to  operate  as  a  check,)  his 
great  genius  was  never  more  manitested,than  in  the  quick  reparation 
of  such  reverses.  Often  did  his  situation  appear  per^ctly  desperate, 
both  to  friends  and  enen)ies,  yet  as  ollen  did  he  suddenly  succeed  in 
some  new  eflort,  and  in  extricating  himself  from  disasters  which 
threatened  entirely  to  overwhelm  him;  being  all  the  while  under 
the  ban  of  the  empire,  in  virtue  of  a  decree  of  the  auiic  couficil, 
which  bound  every  German  circle,  in  obedience  to  the  imperial 
orders,  to  assist  in  depriving  him  of  his  possessions,  dignities,  and 
prerogatives.  The  rapidity  of  his  motions  was  beyond  all  example; 
neither  danger  nor  misibrtune  could  dishearten  him ;  and  hati  his 
moderati  ;n  been  but  eyuai  to  his  courage,  had  he,  in  all  cuses,  been 
to  humane  as  he  was  brave,  his  military  character  would  have 


MODERN  HISTORY.  285 

stood  higher,  perhaps,  than  that  of  any  other  commander,  ancient  or 
modern. 

12.  The  army,  it  must  be  acknowledged,  for  some  time  afforded 
but  little  assistance  to,  if  it  did  not  actually  embarrass,  the  operations 
of  Frederic.  A  formidable  force  of  38,000  Hanoverian,  Hessian, 
and  other  troops,  under  the  command  of  the  duke  of  Cumberland, 
had,  in  a  most  extraordinary  manner,  been  reduced,  though  neither 
beaten  nor  actually  disarmed,  to  ;;  state  of  inactivity,  and  the  king's 
German  dominions  abandoned  to  the  enemy,  by  a  convention  the 
most  singular  upon  the  records  of  history  ;  and  if  actually  necessary, 
only  rendered  so  by  the  impolitic  movements  of  the  commander-in- 
chief,  who,  instead  of  endeavouring  to  join  the  Prussians,  after  a 
sharp  contest,  in  which  the  French  had  the  advantage,  retreated  in  a 
totally  different  direction,  merely  to  keejp  up,  as  it  has  been  supposed, 
a  communication  with  the  place  to  which  the  archives  and  most 
valuable  effects  of  Hanover  had  been  removed. 

13.  This  convention,  indeed,  signed  at  Closter-seven,  September 
8,  1,757,  was  said  to  have  been  concluded  against  the  wishes  of  the 
royal  commander  himself,  rnd  entirely  at  the  instance  and  requisition 
of  the  regency  of  Hanover.  Be  this,  however,  as  it  may,  it  was  un- 
doubtedly almost  fatal  to  the  king  of  Prussia,  and  exceedingly 
liumiiiating  to  England,  thous;h  uUimately  attended  with  this  good 
effect,  that  it  seems  to  have  routed  ai.d  stimulated  both  the  people 
and  government  to  greater  exeriioLS.  Unfortunately  mucti  of  this 
good  ?j>irlt  ''•^d  renewed  activl'j  .vas  wasted  in  fruitless  attempts  on 
the  coast  of  France,  which  cost  the  nation  much  mone> ,  T".^,  °!  l[ 
turned  out  contributed  little  or  no  hing  to  her  glory  and  advantage  ; 
the  demolition  of  the  works  at  Ciu-^rburg,  and  capture  of  Belle  Isle, 
1,7G1,  which  was  of  use  afterwards,  as  an  exchange  for  Minorca, 
being  all  she  had  to  boast  of.  To  her  great  and  indefatigable  ally, 
the  king  of  Prussia,  those  expedition*  to  the  French  coast  could  be 
of  no  use,  except  in  diverting  a  p.rt  at  least  of  the  French  forces, 
which  might  otherwise  have  t2en  opposed  to  him ;  but  they  had 
scarcely  this  effect,  and  though  tha^  great  minister,  Mr.  Pitt,  after- 
wards lord  Chatham,  appears  to  h.ive  been  the  chief  promoter  of 
these  measures,  in  opposition  to  many  members  of  the  British 
cabinet,  the  policy  of  them,  even  had  they  been  more  euccessjful,  has 
been  pretty  generally  questioned.  Her  soldiers,  many  thought,  were 
principally  wanting  in  Germanv,  the  grand  theatre  of  military  opera- 
tions, to  strengthen  and  give  effect  to  the  judicious  and  bold  measures 
of  prince  Ferdinand,  who,  being,  by  the  advice,  it  is  said,  of  the 
Prussian  moTiarch,  on  the  retirement  of  the  duke  of  Cumberland, 
after  the  convention  spoken  of,  placed  at  the  head  of  the  allied 
army,  had  succeeded  in  compelling  the  French  to  evacuate  Hanover, 
Brunsw  ick,  and  Bremen.  England  indeed  had  been  liberal  in  her 
subsidies,  even  to  a  degree  that  some  thought  unwise  and  extrava- 
gant, and  she  had  been  successful  in  America,  Asia,  Africa,  and  gen- 
erally on  the  ocean.  The  French  navy  indeed,  was  almost  annihilat- 
ed ;  and  her  colonies,  both  in  the  east  and  west,  had  fallen  a  prey  to 
the  English  armies  ;  even  Canada,  the  source  and  focus,  as  it  were,  oi 
the  transatlantic  disputes  between  England  and  France,  was  complete- 
ly subdued  by  the  armies  under  the  command  of  Wolfe,  Townshend, 
Monckton,  Murray,  and  Amherst,  who  displayed  such  zeal,  valour, 
and  abilities,  in  the  capture  of  the  towns  of  Quebec  and  Montreal,  as 
have  never  been  exceeded. 

14.  Though  prince  Ferdinand  had  driven  the  French  back,  it  wai 


806  MODERN  HISTORY. 

doubted  whether  the  forces  under  his  command  would  be  sufficient 
to  maintain  these  advantages;  apprehensions, indeed,  were  entertain- 
ed, that  he  mieht  be  reduced  to  form  another  convention  as  humiliat- 
ing as  that  of  Closter-seven.  But  the  genius  and  valour  of  this 
great  prince  surmounted  the  difficulties  in  which  he  seemed  to  be 

f laced,  by  most  judiciously,  and  with  no  small  art,  compelling  the 
rench  to  come  to  an  engagement,  under  circumstances  peculiarly 
tavourable  to  the  allied  army ;  ;md  the  battle  of  Minden,  which  tooK 
place  August  1,  l,759j  though  thesubject  afterwards  of  much  jealousy 
a[nongstthe  allies,  effectually  relieved  the  electorate  of  Hanover,  and 
the  greater  part  of  Westphaha,  from  the  presence  of  the  French. 

15.  It  was  at  this  period,  August  10,  1,759,  that  t'erdinand  V'l., 
of  Spain,  died,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother,  don  Carlos,  king 
of  the  two  Sicilies,  under  the  title  of  Charles  III.,  in  consequence^ 
of  whicii  succession,  and  according  to  the  terms  of  the  treaty  of 
Aix-la-Chapelle,  don  Philip  should  have  surrendered  the  duchies  of 
Parm.i,  Placentia,  and  Guiistalla  to  Austria  and  Sardinia,  and  remov- 
ed to  Naples,  (see  Sect.  V.  §  5;)  but  as  Charles  III.  had  never  acced- 
ed to  tbat  treaty,  he  left  the  crown  of  the  two  Sicilies  to  his  tliird  son, 
Ferdinaml,  and  don  Philip  agreed,  and  was  allowed  by  Austria,  to 
retain  the  three  duchies ;  the  courts  of  France  and  Spain  having 
managed  to  quiet  the  alarms  of  Sardinia,  in  regard  to  the  reversion 
of  Placentia. 

16.  The  removal  of  don  Carlos  to  Spain,  at  a  time  when  so  many 
advantages  had  bpfj^  ^^'^ J  --—  i;,e  tronct)  by  the  English,  at  sea 
anri  in  America,  justly  alarmed  the  new  monarch  for  his  own  colonies 
and  settlements  in  those  parts ;  and  these  apprehensions  soon  became 
•a  reason  for  his  entering  into  a  fauiily  compact  with  France,  which 
bad  been  attempted  before,  but  fruslraled  by  the  care  and  vigilance 
of  the  British  minister.  It  was  in  fact  entirely  arranged  and  conr 
eluded  in  the  month  of  August j  1,761,  and  extended  to  all  the  Bour- 
bcn  princes ;  it  was  a  treaty  of  mutual  and  reciprocal  naturalization, 
and  equality  of  rights,  to  the  subjects  of  all  the  Bourbon  states, 
France,  iipain,  the  tij'o  Sicilies,  Farma,  and  Placentia,  with  a  general 
gu:trantee  of  each  other's  dominions,  under  all  possible  circumstances 
except  one,  which  was,  that  Spain  should  be  excused  from  interiering 
in  any  quarrels  of  France,  arising  out  of  the  treaty  of  Westphalia, 
unless  some  maritime  power  should  take  part  in  such  disputes,  or 
France  be  invaded. 

17.  'l"he  above  clause  in  the  treaty  was  judged  to  be  so  evidently 
aimed  at  England,  as  to  justify  an  "immediate  declaration  of  war 
against  Spain  on  tlie  part  of  the  former,  which  accordingly  took 
place  early  in  the  year  1 ,7G2 ;  nor  was  Spain  backward  in  following 
the  ex;miple  against  England,  in  resentment,  as  it  was  alleged,  of  the 
supercilious  and  arbitrary  manner,  in  which  the  latter  had  interfered 
with  regard  to  the  family  compact. 

18.  The  first  fi-uiis  of  this  extraordinary  confederacy  were  a  gross 
attempt  upon  the  independency  of  Portugal,  as  an  ally  of  England, 
by  France  and  Spain;  an  attempt  the  most  appalling  to  Portugal, 
had  not  her  brave  and  honourablt;  sovereign  resolved  rather  to  per- 
ish than  to  submit  to  the  terms  dictated  to  him  by  the  combined  mon- 
archs.  England  was  in  every  way  bound  to  give  aid  and  support  to 
her  ancient  and  faithful  ally,  on  so  trying  an  occasion  ;  and,  fortunately, 
her  help  came  so  opportunely  and  so  promptly,  as  to  enable  the 
king  of  Portugal  to  repel  the  Spaniards,  who  had  not  only  passed  the 
frontiers,  but  actually  taken  several  towns.    Thus  was  that  monarch 


MODERN  HISTORY.  287 

and  his  dominions  saved  from  the  effects  of  as  wicked  and  arbitrary 
a  design  as  was  ever  entertained  against  an  independent  or  neutral 

f)otentatG,  and  that  on  the  sole  ground  of  his  connexion  with  Eng- 
and  at  the  moment ;  to  whose  resentment  he  would  of  course  have 
been  exposed,  had  he  tamely  submitted  to  the  tyrannical  demands  of 
France  and  Spain.  In  either  case,  he  seemed  to  be  threatened  with 
Fuin  and  destruction,  had  things  taken  a  different  turn,  from  what 
actually  came  to  pass. 

19.  The  hostilities  into  which  Great  Britak|was  driven  by  this 
unprovoked  attack  upon  Portugal,  as  well  f^by  the  threatening 
aspect  and  spirit  of  ttie  family  compact^  whijii  seemed  to  undo  all 
that  had  been  accomplished  by  the  succession  war,  Avere  in  every 
Instance  crowned  with  success  ;  so  that  in  both  hemispheres,  her  arms 
may  be  said  to  have  been  victorious,  and  her  triumph  complete  ;  and 
Spain  had  great  cause  to  rue  her  short  concern  in  the  war,  into 
which  she  had  been  cajoled  by  France,  and  which  operated  as  fully 
to  the  disappointment  of  the  latter  power.  In  the  mean  while,  the 
king  of  Prussia,  who  had  been  brought  to  the  very  verge  of  ruin, 
according  to  his  own  statement  and  confession,  was  most  unexpect- 
edly relieved  by  surpri-fing  changes  in  the  Russian  councils,  through 
the  demise  of  Elizabeth,  and  accession  of  Peter  III.,  whose  reign  in- 
deed was  too  short  to  enable  him  to  render  any  real  assistance  to 
the  king  of  Prussia,  in  the  field,  which  might  have  been  expected 
from  the  enthusiastic  admiration  with  which  his  actions  were  beheld 
by  the  Russian  monarch.  But  this  weak,  though  benign  prince,  in 
consequence  of  his  too  extensive  plans  of  reform,  and  a  difference 
with  his  empress,  was  soon  removecl;  and  though  his  successor  and 
consort,  Catherine  the  second,  did  not  by  any  means  pay  the  same 
court  to  Frederic,  yet  her  opposition  to  him  was  very  slight,  and 
soon  terminated  by  a  treaty  of  peace,  in  which  she  was  followed  by 
Sweden. 

20.  All  these  things  evidently  tended  towards  a  general  peace,  if 
England,  who  had  certainly  been  the  most  successful  of  all  the  pow- 
ers concerned,  could  be  brought  to  consent  to  be  stopped  in  her 
career  of  victory  and  triumph.  A  change  of  ministry  had,  however, 
laid  the  foundation  for  such  measures.  Mr.  Pitt,  who  was  for  the 
continuance  of  the  war,  on  some  private  information,  as  it  has  been 
thought,  of  the  progress  and  terms  of  the  family  compact,  had  re- 
signed soon  after  the  demise  of  the  king,  George  II. ;  and  lord  Bute, 
wno  owed  his  place  and  power  as  minister,  much  more  to  the  per- 
sonal good-will  and  attachment  of  the  new  king,  than  to  the  voice 
and  favour  of  the  people,  foreseeing  that  it  might  be  difficult  for 
him  to  raise  either  money  or  men  tor  the  prosecution  of  the  war, 
(bounties  for  recruits,  in  particular,  having  risen  to  an  unexampled 
height,)  and  having  against  him  many  important  individuals  of  both 
parties,  entered  freely  into  negotiations  with  Franc<^,  which  were 
brought  to  an  issue  by  the  peace  of  Paris,  (or  Fontainebleau,)  1,763. 

21.  This  treaty  was  not  popular  in  England,  though,  undnjubtedlv, 
she  reaped  the  benefit  of  many  remarkable  concessions,  particularly 
in  America,  where  she  acquired,  not  only  the  whole  province  of 
Canada,  but  part  of  Louisiana ;  the  junction  of  which  two  distant 
French  settlements,  to  the  embarrassment,  and  possibly,  total  sui>jec 
tion  of  the  English  colonies,  had  been  the  express  occasion  of'the 
war ;  but  by  many  persons  it  was  thought,  and  perhaps  with  great 
reason,  that  England  had  surrendered  too  much,  considering  the 
high  situation  in  which  she  stood,  and  the  advantages  that  might 


288  MODERN  HISTORY. 

have  been  reaped  by  a  little  longer  continuance  of  the  war ;  and  in 
what  she  both  surrendered  and  retained,  an  ill  and  impolitic  selec- 
tion, it  was  alleged,  had  been  made  of  posts  and  settlements.  The 
treaty  of  Hubertsburg,  by  which  the  war  was  terminated  between 
Austria  and  Prussia  in  the  same  year,  1,763,  restored  matters,  in  re- 
gard to  those  two  powers,  exactly  to  their  former  state,  after  skven 
most  destructive  and  expensive  campaigns  !  Nothing  of  territory 
was  lost  and  nothing  gained  by  either  party.  England,  undoubtedly, 
was  left  in  the  higlAt  state  of  prosperity  at  the  conclusion  of  these 
two  treaties.  Her  mR^  unimpared,  or  rather  augmented  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  navy  of  ib'ance  ;  her  commerce  extending  from  one 
extremity  of  the  globe  to  the  other,  with  an  accession  of  important 
settlements  ceded  to  her  by  France  in  Asia,  Alrica,  and  America. 


SECTION  VII. 

FROM  THE  ACCESSION  OF  GEORGE  III.  1,760,  TO  THE  COM- 
MENCEMENT OF  THE  DISPUTES  WITH  AMERICA,  1,764. 

1.  Though  a  new  enemy,  for  a  very  short  time,  was  added  to  the 
list  of  those  who  were  contending  with  England  and  her  allies, 
when  George  the  second  died,  by  the  accession  of  Spain  to  the 
family  compact^  and  continental  confederacy,  in  1,761,  yet  the  seven 
years'  war,  through  the  exhaustion  of  the  allies  of  Austria,  par- 
ticularly the  Saxons,  Poles,  z.vA  French,  may  be  said  to  have  Leen 
drawing  to  a  conclusion,  wben  George  111.  ascended  the  throne  of 
Great  Britain,  on  the  demise  of  his  grandfather,  October  25,  1,760. 
For  the  termination  of  that  warj  see  Sect.  V  I. 

2.  Much  notice  was  taken  of  a  passage  in  the  king's  first  speech 
to  his  parliament,  in  which  he  expressed  the  glcrj'  he  ielt  in  having 
been  born  and  educated  in  Britain  ;  and  though  some  have  pretended 
to  see  in  it,  a  reflection  on  his  royal  predecessors,  yet  it  was  surely 
wise  in  the  first  sovereign  of  the  house  of  Hanover,  who  stood  clear 
of  foreign  manners,  and  foreign  partialities,  so  to  bespeak  the  love 
and  attachment  of  his  subjects.  It  is  true,  indeed,  that  England  had 
prospered  in  no  common  degree  from  the  first  accession  of  that 
illustrious  family,  but  it  cannot  be  denied,  that  a  distaste  of  foreign 
manners,  as  well  as  a  jealousy  of  foreign  partialities,  had  occasioPiaiiy 
interrupted  the  proceedings  of  government,  and  were  at  all  e\ents 
calculated  to  keep  up,  in  the  minds  of  the  disafTccted,  a  remembrance 
of  the  breach  that  had  been  made  in  the  succession  to  the  throne. 
Fourteen  years  having  passed  since  any  attempt  had  been  made  to 
restore  the  Stuart  fimiily,  and  the  condition  of  that  family  having 
become  such,  as  to  render  any  further  endeavoui-s  to  that  effect,  ex- 
tremely improbable,  nothing  more  seemed  wanting  to  remove  all 
remaining  prejudices  against  the  Brunswick  line  of  princes,  than 
that  the  sovereign  should  be  a  native  of  the  land  he  ruled. 

3.  In  addition  to  this  tie  upon  his  subjects,  every  thing  seemed  to 
conspire,  as  far  as  regarded  the  character,  manners,  and  disposition 
of  the  young  king,  to  secure  to  him  the  attachment  of  his  people  ; 
and  to  give  hopes  of  a  quiet  and  ^ranquil  reign.  One  of  the  very 
first  acts  of  which  was  calculated  to  impress  the  idea  of  his  being  a 
true  friend  to  the  liberty  of  the  subject,  by  rendering  the  judges 
independent  of  the  crown.  His  majesty  was  married,  soon  after  his 
aocession,  to  the  princess  Charlotte  oi  Mecklenburgh  Strelitz,  with 


MODERN  HISTORY.  989 

whom  he  was  crowned  at  Westminster,  on  the  22d  day  of  Septem- 
her,  i,76l. 

4.  However  promising  the  appearances  both  of  external  and  in- 
ternal tranquillity  might  be,  at  the  commencement  of  the  new 
reign,  it  was  not  long  before  the  nation  became  agitated  by  party 
disputes  and  diiierences,  of  no  small  importance.  In  1,762,  a  ques- 
tion arose,  which  though  it  led  to  very  distres^ig  tumults,  terrainat 
ed  in  the  relief  of  the  subject  from  an  arbitn«l»i  oc>?s,  ejteeedu.gl^ 
repugnant  to  the  spirit  of  the  constitution,^BPlhe  great^^hartor  oV 
British  liberty.  General  warrants,  and  thejfetire  of  private  papers 
without  sufficient  necessity,  the  legality  of  m*ich  had  been  disputed, 
in  the  case  of  Mr.  Wilkes,  member  for  Ailesbury,  during  which  that 
gentlemen  displayed  considerable  fortitude,  though  certainly  with 
great  failure  of  respect  towards  the  crown,  were  declared  to  be 
illegal  by  a  solemn  decree  of  parliament,  1,765,  nor  has  any  attempt 
been  since  made  to  reinvest  the  government  with  so  dangerous  and 
formidable  a  power.  The  question  of  general  warrants,  however, 
was  not  the  only  one  in  which  Mr.  Wilkes  appeared  as  the  champion 
of  the  people's  liberties.  Being  elected  for  Mid<llesex,  after  having 
been  expelled  the  house,  he  claimed  his  seat,  in  defiance  of  the  res- 
plulions  of  parliament,  but  was  not  allowed  to  sit.  Five  years  after- 
wards, he  was  permitted  again  to  enter  the  house  of  commons  ;  but 
in  this  instance  the  parliament  maintained  its  power  of  declaring  a 
particular  individual  disqualitied,  against  the  decision  of  a  majority 
of  electors ;  a  curious  point  as  affecting  the  constitution,  and  the 
elective  franchise. 

6.  Though  the  courts  of  Vienna,  France,  and  Prussia,  bad  cause  to 
be  tired  of  the  war,  in  which  they  had  been  engaged  since  the  year 
1,755,  it  is  certain  that  England  was  in  a  state  to  continue  it,  especial- 
ly by  sea,  when  the  treaty  of  Paris,  or  Fontainebleau,  was  concluded, 
in  1,763.  As  long  as  Mr.  Pitt  continued  a  member  of  administration, 
the  war  had  been  carried  on  vigorously,  and  had  become  exceeding- 
ly popular,  so  that  on  the  resignation  of  that  great  minister,  in  1,761, 
and  the  appointment  of  lord  Bute,  whose  distrust  of  his  own  abilities 
to  continue  it,  disposed  him  to  listen  to  the  overtures  of  France, 
great  discontents  arose.  The  minister  was  suspected  of  harbouring 
in  his  breast  the  most  despotic  principles,  and  of  having  inculcated 
the  same  into  the  mind  of  his  sovereign,  while  yet  a  youth.  He 
was  supposed  to  possess  too  exclusive  an  influence  in  that  quarter  ; 
and  though,  in  private  life,  a  most  respectable  nobleman,  of  great 
worth  and  probity,  learning,  and  talents,  his  public .  measures  were 
the  continual  theme  of  obloquy  and  abuse.  Had  Mr.  Pitt  continued 
hi  office,  it  is  more  than  probable  that  the  allies  might  have  gained 
greater  advantages  on  the  continent,  and  the  Spaniards  been  more 
severely  punished  for  their  interference ;  so  that  the  pacific  meas- 
ures of  the  new  minister,  drew  upon  him  the  displeasure,  if  not  the 
contempt,  as  well  of  his  own  countrymen,  as  of  the  king  of  Prussia 
also ;  who  in  his  writings  has  inveighed  greatly  against  the  prevail- 
ing influence  of  the  noble  earl  at  tliis  period,  in  the  cabinet  and  coun- 
cils of  Great  Britain. 

6.  The  riots  and  tumults  excited  by  the  proceedings  against  Mr 
Wilkes,  and  the  extreme  unpopularity  of  lord  Bute,  contributed  to 
render  the  fii-st  years  of  the  reign  of  George  III.  exceedingly  unqui- 
et, and  to  involve  his  majesty  m  many  unpleasant  difficulties,  from 
the  addresses,  petitions,  and  remonstrances,  which  flowed  in  upon 
him,  often  couched  in  such  language  as  it  was  impossible  not  to  r«- 
Bb  37 


290  MODERN  HISTORY. 

seat,  and  as  often  insinuating  what,  perhaps,  was  not  founded  oo 
truth :  for  it  has  never  yet  been  clearly  ascertained  that  the  public 
actually  suffered  from  any  improper  secret  influence,  or  that  the 
measures  of  lord  Bute,  with  regard  to  the  peace  of  Paris,  all  things 
considered,  were  impolitic  or  unwise.  U'be  worst  feature  in  this 
peace,  with  regard  to  England,  seems  to  have  been,  the  failure  to 
guard  against  the  eftects,  in  future,  of  the  family  compact,  which 
was  left  in  full  force. ^JVIr.  Pitt  had  his  eye  coustanlly  upon  this,  and, 
had  he  continued  inafcwer,  would,  no  doubt,  have  continued  the 
war  with  spirit  and^^everance :  this  great  minister  had  retired 
undisgraced;  he  receiVOT  a  pension  indeed  for  himself,  and  a  peer- 
age for  his  lady.  His  politics,  to  the  day  of  his  death,  continued 
widely  different  from  those  of  lord  Bute,  and  were  constantly  more 
popular :  but  the  great  fault  of  the  latter  seems  to  have  been,  that 
he  engaged  in  public  business,  contrary  to  the  bent  of  his  own  dispo- 
sition, and  was  too  sensible  of  his  unpopularity,  to  undertake  any 
measure  that  required  much  public  support.  All  he  did,  therefore, 
seemed  to  be  managed  in  the  way  of  private  induence,  cabal,  and 
intrigue. 

7.  In  addition  to  the  addresses  and  remonstrances  alluded  to  in  the 
foregoing  section,  the  popular  fervour  and  agitation  received  consid- 
erable encouragement  from  the  letters  of  an  anonymous  writer, 
nev^er  yet  discovered, — a  writer  who  displayed  such  an  extraordi- 
nary knowledge  of  the  proceedings  of  the  court  and  cabinet,  and 
had  the  power  of  expressing  himself  in  a  style  so  vigorous,  striking, 
and  keenly  satirical,  as  to  demand  the  attention  of  all  parties,  and 
confound  the  majority  of  those  whom  he  personally  attacked.  But 
the  extreme  severity  of  a  concealed  and  unknown  accuser,  and  the 
gross  personalities  in  which  he  often  indulged,  not  sparing  majesty 
itself,  threw  a  cloud  over  his  writings,  whicci  can  never  be  done 
'Sway,  to  the  satisfaction  of  any  candid  or  liberal  mind.  Though  the 
mention  of  these  celebrated  letters  is  rather  anticipated  in  this  place, 
as  they  did  not  publicly  appear  till  the  year  1,769,  yet,  as  they  par- 
ticularly relate  to  the  foregoing  transactions,  and  state  of  atiairs  in 
the  early  years  of  the  reign  of  George  III.,  and  long  preceded  the 
actual  commencement  of  the  war  with  America,  the  first  authors  of 
which  he  seemed  disposed  to  screen,  a  better  opportunity  of  intro- 
ducing the  subject  might  scarcely  be  found.  The  many  fruitless,  but 
very  curious  attempts  that  have  been  made,  at  various  times,  to  dis- 
cover the  real  author,  have  contributed,  in  addition  to  the  extraordi- 
nary character  of  the  work  itself,  and  the  political  questions  discuss- 
ed in  it,  to  prevent  its  ever  sinking  into  oblivion.  The  letters  of 
Junius,  with  all  their  blemishes,  will  probably  never  fail  to  find  a 
place  in  the  libraries  of  the  British  scholar,  and  British  statesman, 

8,  In  the  prosecution  of  this  work,  it  should  also  be  noticed,  that  a 
great  constitutional  point  came  under  discuasion,  namely,  whether, 
m  cases  of  hbel,  the  jury  were  judges  of  the  kw,  as  well  as  of  the 
fact.  In  most  other  cases,  no  such  difficulty  seemed  to  occur.  In 
cases  of  murder,  not  only  the  act  of  kilhng,  but  the  murderous  in- 
tent, was  submitted  to  the  decision  of  the  jury  ;  and  in  trials  for  felony 
of  every  description,  the  course  was  the  same.  Lord  Mansfield,  in 
this  case,  insisted  that  the  jury  had  only  to  decide  on  the  tact  of 

Eublication,  and  that  the  court  was  to  determine  upon  the  law  of 
bel.  This  has  generally  been  disputed  by  juries ;  and  they  have 
found  ways  of  evading  the  difficulty,  by  either  themselves  referring 
the  law  to  the  judge,  oy  a  special  verdict,  or  by  pronouncing  a  gen- 


MODERN  HISTORY.  291 

eral  acquittal.  Unfortunately,  libels  are  of  that  description  as  con- 
stantly to  excite  those  jealousies  and  suspicions,  from  which  every 
court  of  justice  should  be  free.  They  afiect,  also,  two  of  the  high- 
est privileges  of  Englishmen, — the  right  of  private  judgment,  and 
the  liberty  of  the  press.  In  the  case  of  Junius,  the  point  in  dispute 
was  by  no  means  so  settled  as  to  obviate  future  diflerences. 

9.  The  year  1,764  is  momoralle  for  the  commencement  of  the 
dispute  between  Great  Britain  and  her  American  colonies ;  but  as 
the  history  of  this  contest  involves  many  curious  questions  of  policy; 
as  its  results,  in  regard  not  only  to  England  and  America,  but  to  the 
world  in  general,  were  very  important ;  and  its  termination  led  to  a 
total  separation  of  the  colonies  from  the  mother  country,  thereby 
establishing  a  distinct  state  and  goveinment  of  European  settlers  in 
the  western  hemisphere,  the  details  of  it  will  be  reserved  for  another 
section. 


SECTION  VIII. 

DISPUTES  BETWEEN    GREAT   BRITAIN  AND  HER  AMERICAN 
COLONIES.     1,764—1,783. 

1.  The  seven  years'  war,  terminated  by  the  peace  of  Paris,  or  Fon- 
tainebleau.  in  1,763,  had  been  begun  in  America^  as  has  been  shown. 
(Sect.  VI.)  Great  Britain,  at  considerable  expense  of  men  and 
money,  had  resisted  the  encroachments  of  France  on  the  British 
colonies,  and  thereby  atforded  to  tl'e  latter,  protection,  perhaps  be 
yond  what  any  commercial  benefits,  under  the  colonial  system, 
could  be  said  fidly  to  compensate.  A  question  therefore  arose, 
whether  the  colonies  might  not  be  called  upon  to  contribute,  by  di- 
rect taxation,  to  the  relief  of  the  general  expenses  and  burthens  ot 
the  mother  country.  The  national  debt,  it  was  argued  by  the  British 
government,  was  the  debt  of  every  individual  in  the  whole  empire, 
whether  in  Asia,  America,  or  nearer  home. 

2.  The  question,  however,  was  no  sooner  started  than  decided 
by  administration ;  chiefly  through  the  influence  and  on  the  sugges- 
tion of  Mr.  George  Grenville,  then  prime-minister,  who,  in  the  very 
year  succeeding  the  peace  of  Paris,  procured  the  stamp-act  to  be 
passed,  by  which  the  Americans  were  directly  subjected  to  a  tax 
imposed  by  the  British  parliament,  without  their  own  consent,  not 
immediately  applicable  to  their  own  wants  or  necessities,  and  contrary 
to  every  former  mode  of  raising  money  for  such  purposes.  Thfs 
was  certainlv  sufficient  to  excite  alarm,  and  lead  to  questions  of  pol- 
icy and  prudence  ;  of  power  and  right ;  of  legislation  and  represen- 
tation ;  never  yet  so  thoi'oughly  discussed  or  investigated.  Hitherto, 
without  questioning  the  power,  government  had  forborne  from 
taxing  them  as  a  matter  of  policy  and  propriety;  and  thus,  as  it 
was  well  said  at  the  time',  th0se»tvvo  very  difhcult  points,  superiority 
in  the  presiding  state,  and  freedom  in  the  subordinate,  had  been  prac- 
tically reconciled. 

3.  The  situation  of  America  rendered  these  questions  the  more 
important  and  alarming  to  the  mother  country,  in  case  of  opposition, 
as  having  been  originally  peopled  from  Europe,  in  a  great  measure. 
by  refugees,  exiles,  and  persons  adverse  to  the  governments,  which 
they  had  Jeft,  both  in  church  and  state,  and  well  inclined,  probably,  to 


Sn  MODERN  HISTORY. 

assGTt  a  republiTjHn  independence.  Their  legislative  assemblies  wer« 
alreidy  of  the  popular  cast,  and  their  feelings  and  spirits  accordant. 
It  mast  also  be  admitted,  that  upon  the  very  ground  of  pecuniary  or 
other  aids,  they  had  much  to  allege  in  respect  of  their  beneficial 
returns  to  England,  in  taking  her  manufactures,  and  having  assisted 
her  in  the  conquest  of  Canada.  Most  anfortunately,  the  very  grants 
which  had  been  made  by  their  assemblies,  in  aid  of  England,  dnrhig 
the  last  war,  were  alleged  as  an  argument  (a  most  irritating  one,  un- 
doubtedly,) of  their  ability  to  pay  any  imposts  the  parliament  might 
choose  to  lay  upon  them. 

4.  As  the  ministry  hud  decided  hastily  upon  the  general  question, 
they  seem  alsotoha^e  suffered  themselves  to  be  precipitated  into 
some  of  the  worst  measures  they  could  have  adopted  to  render  their 
novel  demands  palatable.  Their  very  first  tax,  imposed  hy  the 
stamp  act  of  1,764,  though  simple  in  its  principle,  was  ill-siiited  to 
tlie  state  of  America.  The  mere  distribution  of  the  stamps,  through 
such  a  variety  of  different  states,  involved  in  it  a  thousand  difficulties; 
and  there  were  provisions  in  the  act  itself^  which  might,  if  at  ail 
abused  or  neglected,  have  subjected  the  people  to  unheard  of  vexa- 
tions and  oppressions.  It  is  scarcely,  therefore,  to  be  wondered  that, 
on  its  first  promnlgsition  in  America,  the  act  should  have  been  re- 
ceived with  the  greatest  indignation,  and  even  with  defiance. 

5.  In  the  mean  time,  the  cause  of  the  Americans  was  espoused 
by  a  strong  party  at  home,  a  party,  so  far  from  being  contemptible, 
as  to  include  some  of  the  first  persons  of  the  nation,  both  in  rank  and 
importance.  The  debates  in  both  houses  were  violent,  but  the  topics 
discussed,  in  every  point  of  view,  interesting.  The  friends  of  the 
Americans,  if  it  may  be  proper  now  to  call  them  so,  obtained  and 
swayed,  for  a  very  short  period,  the  helm  of  government.  In  June, 
1,765,  the  Grenviile  adnnnistration  was  dismissed,  and  a  new  one,  at 
the  head  of  which  was  placed  the  marquis  of  fiockingliam,  came 
into  power,  through  the  mediation  of  the  duke  of  Cumberland. 
They  continued  in  office,  however,  for  little  more  than  one  year; 
but  in  that  short  space  of  time,  the  stamp-act,  which  had  been  so  ill 
received  in  America,  was  formally  repealed. 

6.  But  the  grand  question  relatmg  to  the  right  of  taxation  was 
by  no  means  determined  by  this  measure :  a  declaratory  act  was 
particularly  passed  at  the  same  time,  for  maintaining  the  constitu- 
tional authority  of  Great  iiritian,  in  "all  cases  whatsoever ;"  and 
though  there  was  certainly  no  design,  in  those  who  promoted  the 
)epeal,  to  act  u]>on  this  authority,  by  establishing  any  other  tax  of 
a  similar  kind,  yet  the  colonists  -neve  prepared,  as  much  as  ever, 
to  dispute  the  principle,  as  far  as  it  regarded  taxation ;  and  their 
courage  and  confidence  at  this  time  stood  high,  in  consequence  of 
the  importance  which  had  been  given  to  them  in  the  last  war,  and 
their  emancipation  from  all  dread  of  the  French  and  Spaniards,  by 
the  cession  of  Canada  and  the  Floridas.  In  the  colony  of  Virginia 
the  right  of  taxation  was  voted  to  rest  entirely  iu  the  kuig,  or  his 
representative,  and  the  general  assembly  of  the  colony.  This  was, 
undoubtedly,  the  usual  course  of  things ;  and  in  this  way  subsidies  to 
a  considerable  amount  had  been  granted  to  the  crown.  This  prece- 
dent was  soon  followed  by  others  of  the  legislative  bodies,  and 
adopted  in  the  general  congress  of  New  York,  1,705. 

7.  It  was  not  pretended  that  the  Americans  paid  no  taxes ;  but  a 
distinction  was  now  set  up,  which  there  had  been  no  occasion  to 
insist  upon  before.    To  external  taxation,  through  the  operation  o|' 


MODERN  HISTORY.  293 

laws  of  trade  and  navigation,  enacted  in  the  mother  country,  they 
were  willing  to  yield  submission ;  they  had  constantly  done  so,  nor 
were  they  now  disposed  to  resist  such  enactments;  but  all  inter- 
nal duties  for  raising  a  revenue,  or  supporting  establishments,  were 
held  to  be  very  differently  circumstanced.  Taxes  of  this  nature 
were  considered  as  being,  in  the  very  language  of  parliament  itself, 
gifts^  and  grants.  None,  therefore,  it  was  urged,  could  give  the 
money  of  America  but  the  people  of  America  themselves.  If  they 
chose  to  make  such  grants,  they  might  I'eceive  a  legislative  sanction,  as 
in  England  ;  but  legislation  and  taxation  were  distinct  things.  Tax- 
ation, according  to  the  spirit  of  the  English  constitution,  implying 
consent,  direct  or  by  representation,  could  not  otherwise  be  rendered 
either  legal  or  just.  Local  circumstances  would  render  the  repre- 
sentation of  America,  in  the  British  parliament,  impracticable , 
and  a  supposed  virtual  representation  was  no  less  than  mockery. 
The  representatives  of  England,  in  taxing  others,  taxed  themselves 
also ;  but  this  could  not  be  the  case  in  regard  to  American  imposts. 

8.  Such  were  some  of  the  strongest  reasons  urged  against  the 
measure  in  general;  but,  as  the  right  of  taxation  had  not  beeh  ex- 
pressly given  up  by  any  part  in  England,  but  rather  insisted  upon  in  the 
declaratory  act,  no  concession  short  of  this  seemed  likely  to  do  good. 
The  stamp-act  h.ad  caused  an  irritation,  which  no  qtmlijied  repeal 
could  allay  :  internal  taxation  was  not  only  resisted  as  an  encroachment 
on  established  rights  and  usages,  but,  in  resentment  of  such  wrongs, 
attempts  were  made  to  hinder  the  further  operation  even  of  exter- 
nal taxation.  Non-importation,  and  non-consumption  agreements 
were  soon  entered  into,  and  associations  formed  to  methodise  and 
consolidate  the  opposition  to  government.  A  resolution  had  been 
passed  when  lord  North  was  minister,  promising  to  desist  from  all 
taxation,  except  commercial  imposts,  whenever  any  one  of  the 
colonial  assemblies  should  vote  a  reasonable  sum,  as  a  revenue,  to  be 
appropriated  by  parliament;  but  this  had  no  good  effect. 

9.  In  so  embarrassed  a  state  of  things,  it  is  not  very  surprising 
that  the  ministry  at  home  should  have  entertained  wrong  measures, 
and  miscalculated  the  effects  of  the  plans  they  were  pursuing. 
The  truth  of  history  tends  to  show  that,  however  they  might  be 
embarrassed  by  an  active  opposition  in  parliament,  that  opposition 
fairly  forewarned  them  of  the  consequences  of  their  meditated  pro 
ceedings,  which  came  to  ptiss  exactly  i«  they  had  been  foretold. 
But  after  this  demand  had  once  provoked  the  question  of  right,  and 
that  question  had  divided  the  people  of  both  countries  into  two  strong 
parties,  things  soon  fell  into  that  state,  in  which  it  became  impossible 
to  restore  aftairs  to  their  original  condition,  either  by  perseverance 
or  concession.  Every  effort  of  coercion  was  resented  as  an  illegal 
encroachment;  every  conciliatory  proposition  received  as  a  proof 
of  alarm  and  timidity,  and  as  a  pledge  of  victory  and  success  to  fu 
ture  opposition.       « 

10.  It  has  been  questioned  whether  independence  was  not  in  the 
view  of  the  Americans  from  the  very  fhst  stirring  of  the  question, 
or  even  previously ;  but  had  this  been  the  case,  they  would  have 
been  more  prepared ;  their  addresses  to  the  king  and  parliament,  on 
various  occasions,  after  the  commencement  of  the  dispute,  must  have 
been  fallacious  to  the  highest  pitch  of  dissimulation,  if  they  bad  de- 
termined against  all  compromise  from  tht  very  beginning ;  but,  in- 
deed, the  retnonsJtanc(^s  and  complaints  of  Genera!  VVnsiuu;;'!'!),  on 
Ihe  ill  stale  of  his  araiy,  and  total  want  of  many  essential  requisite*, 

6  b  2 


«4  MODERN  HISTORY. 

on  first  taking  the  command,  seem  clearly  to  prove  that  they  were 
driven  to  assert  their  independence  by  the  course  of  things;  a  large 
portion  of  their  fellow-subjects  and  countrymen  on  both  sides  of  the 
Atlantic,  judged  them  to  be  oppressed,  and. thus  gave  a  character  to 
their  opposition  which  could  not  very  creditably  be  forfeited.  Upon 
the  Avhole  it  may  be  considered  probable  that  some  of  the  most 
prominent  and  active  leaders  of  the  revolution  had  very  early  con- 
ceived the  design  of  establishing  the  independence  of  their  country  ; 
but  that  the  mass  of  the  people  in  the  colonies,  had  no  such  inten- 
tion until  after  their  first  successes. 

11.  Hostilities  did  not  actually  commence  till  the  year  1,775,  ten 
years  from  the  first  passing  of  the  stamp-act.  In  a  short  time  after 
the  passing  of  that  act,  it  was  repealed,  as  has  been  stated ;  but  in 
1,767  the  project  of  taxing  America  was  revived  by  Mr.  Chailes 
Townshend,  and  from  that  period  to  tlie  commencement  of  the  war, 
both  countries  were  in  a  state  of  the  greatest  agitation.  Debates 
ran  high  at  home,  and  in  America  their  gravest  proceedings  were  ac- 
companied with  such  threats  of  defiance,  and  such  indignant  resent- 
ment of  all  innovations,  as  almost  necessarily  to  bring  them  under  the 
strong  hand  of  power.  But  government  underrated  their  means  of 
resistance;  when  brought  into  a  state  of  union,  by  the  congress, 
their  force  was  no  longer  to  be  despised  ;  all  temporizing  expedients 
were  at  an  end,  a  circumstance  ill  understood  by  the  ministry  at 
home,  who  lost  much  time  in  endeavouring  to  retrieve  matters,  by 
fruitless  attempts,  sometimes  in  the  way  of  conciliation,  and  at 
others,  of  inefficient  resistance.  Thus,  when  in  1,770  many  com- 
mercial duties  were  taken  ofif,  which  the  mother  country  had  an  un- 
doubted right  to  impose,  the  concession  was  ill  received,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  single  exception  of  tea,  which  was  continued  in  order 
to  assert  the  rights  and  supremacy  of  Great  Britain ;  but  this  was 
done  in  a  manner  too  imperious,  and  without  sufficient  force  to  subdue 
the  resentment  it  was  calculated  to  excite,  at  such  a  moment.  At 
the  very  breaking  out  of  the  war,  ministers  appear  to  have  been  by 
far  too  confident  of  speedily  suppressing  so  formidable  an  insurrec- 
tion ;  an  insurrection  which  had  ]iad  time  allowed  it  to  organize 
itself^  and  which  bad  drawn  upon  it  the  attention  of  the  whole  civ- 
ilized world. 

12.  The  war  may  be  said  to  have  actually  commenced  only  on 
the  14th  of  April,  1,775,  though  some  English  regiments  had  been 
sent  to  Boston  so  early  as  the  year  1,768.  In  an  affair  at  Lexington, 
amounting  to  no  moi^e  than  a  skirmish,  the  English  were  completely 
worsted,  a  circumstance  calculated  to  give  spirits  to  the  Americans, 
at  a  most  awful  and  momentous  period.  General  Washington,  who 
had  distinguished  himself  in  the  war  against  the  French,  and  bore  a 
most  irreproachable  character,  was  appointed  to  take  the  command 
of  the  American  army ;  a  post  of  the  utmost  responsibihty,  and  re- 
quiring^alents,  temper,  ana  discretion,  of  no  common  description. 

13.  The  sword  being  drawn,  and  no  hopes  remaining  of  an  amica- 
ble adjustment  of  differences  between  the  crown  and  its  transatlantic 
subjects,  now  in  a  state  of  open  revolt ;  and  the  success  of  the  first 
hostilities  having  animated  the  military  aixiour  of  the  Amt  ricans, 
they  proceeded,  by  a  solemn  declaration  of  the  general  congress  at 
Philadelphia,  July  4,  1,776,  to  declare  the  thirteen  provinces  inde- 
pendent ;  by  which  act  America  may  be  said  to  have  been  divided 
from  the  mother  country,  294  years  alter  the  discovery.of  that  coun- 
try by  Columbus ;  166  irom  the  first  »ettlement  of  Virginia;  and  lb$ 


MODERN  HISTORY.  596 

from  the  settlement  of  Plymouth  in  Massachusetts  Bay.  The  Amer 
ican  Congress  exercised  its  important  functions  with  great  energy 
and  dignity,  and  the  campaign  of  1,776  turned  out  favourably  for  the 
Americans,  and  highly  to  the  credit  ol"  their  very  able  and  brave 
comaiander. 

1 4.  Whether  it  were  ^wing  to  the  low  opinion  entertained  by  the 
government  at  hon>e,  of  the  resistance  likely  to  be  offered  by  the 
Americans,  or  to  a  dislike  of  the  cause  in  which  they  were  engaged 
on  the  part  of  the  British  commanders,  it  is  exceedingly  certain,  mat 
the  English  army  did  not  obtain  the  advantages  it  was  supposed  it 
might  have  done,  or  proceed  as  if  it  were  able  speedily  to  crush  the 
rebellion  that  had  been  raised.  The  American  troops  vvere  every 
day  improving,  and  every  day  deriving  encouragement,  ehher  from 
unexpected  successes,  or  the  inactivity  of  the  armies  opposed  to 
them.  On  the  other  hand,  the  English  were  either  indulging  in 
pleasure,  when  they  should  have  been  in  action,  or  disheartened  by 
sudden  surprises  or  repulses,  which  redounded  greatly  to  the  credit 
of  their  less  disciplined,  and  less  organized  opponents.  In  a  short 
time,  however,  the  war  became  more  complicated,  and  opened  a 
scene,  which  not  only  involved  the  continent  of  Europe  in  the  con- 
flict of  the  day,  but  probably  led' to  changes  and  convulsions,  as  ex- 
traordinary and  as  extensive  as  ever  the  world  experienced. 

15.  In  the  month  of  November,  1,776,  the  celebrated  Dr.  Franklin 
and  Silas  Deane  had  been  despatched  by  congress,  to  solicit,  at  the 
court  of  Versailles,  the  aid  anfl  assistance  of  French  troops.  Accord- 
ing to  the  former  course  of  things,  nothing  could  be  more  strange 
than  such  an  application,  at  such  a  court ;  an  application  from  rebel- 
lious subjects,  from  the  assertors  of  republican  independence,  to  a 
court  celebrated  for  the  most  refined  despotism,  and  ruling  a  people, 
heretofore  the  grossest  admirers  and  flatierers  of  regal  power;  an 
application  from  persons  of  the  simplest  habits;  frugal,  temperate, 
industrious,  and  little  advanced  in  civilization,  to  a  court  immersed  in 
pleasure,  gay,  and  dissipated^  profligate  and  corrupt,  civilized  to  the 
highest  pitch  of  courtly  rehnenient,  of  polished  manners,  and  of 
splendid  luxury :  lastly,  an  application  from  a  people  who  had  car- 
ried their  dissent  from  the  church  of  Rome  farther  than  any  protes- 
tants  in  Europe,  to  a  court  still  subject  to  the  papal  see,  a  cherished 
branch  of  the  catholic  church. 

16.  Extraordinary,  however,  in  all  respects,  as  this  American  mis- 
sion seems  to  have  been,  it  met  with  a  cordial  and  favourable  recep- 
tion. Even  the  queen  of  France  was  fotmd  to  espouse  the  cause  of 
the  revolted  subjects  of  Great  Britain,  little  foreseeing  the  handle 
she  was  giving  to  many  keen  observers  6f  her  own  courtly  extrava- 
gance ana  thoughtless  dissipation.  The  die  was  soon  cast ;  a  fortnal 
treaty  was  entered  into,  acknowledging  the  independency  of  Amer- 
ica ;  succour  and  support  to  a  large  e^ztent  promised,  and  oificers  ap- 
pointed to  conduct  the  French  forces,  likely,  il  would  seem,  above 
all  others,  to  imbibe  the  spirit  of  freedom,  which  animated  the 
Americans,  and  to  espouse  their  cause  ui)on  principle.  They  were 
all  noble,  indeed  ;  but  in  America  they  vvere  sure  to  be  taught  how 
vain  were  such  distinctions,  if  not  supported  by  public  opinion, 

17.  The  English  government  was  not  formerly  apprised  of  this 
unexpected  alliance,  till  the  year  1,778,  when  it  received  a  very 
curious  and  insulting  notification  of  it  from  the  French  ambassador. 
If  does  not  appear  that  the  aid  thus  obtained  by  the  American  mis- 
sion, was  altogether  grateful  to  the  Americans  themselves,  though  H 


S36  MODERN  HlSTORr. 

had  the  full  effect  of  raiding  up  new  and  powerful  enemies  against 
the  mother  country,  and  involving  Europe  in  their  cause ;  lor, 
throudi  the  French  intiuence,  in  the  year  1,779,  Spain  joined  the 
confederacy  against  England,  and,  in  1,780,  Holland.  In  the  mean 
while  commissioners  had  been  sent  from  England  to  America,  to 
treat  for  peace,  but  the  Americans,  in;-istiig  on  the  previous  ac- 
knowledgment of  their  independency,  rendered  their  attempts  fruit- 
less. 

18  Whatever  loss  of  fame,  reputation,  and  territory  Great  Britain 
incurred  in  America,  her  arms  never  shone  with  greater  lustre  than 
on  some  occasions  in  which  she  was  engaged  during  this  war,  with 
the  confederate  powers  of  Europe ;  in  Asia  particularly,  she  was 
acquiring  an  empire  ten  times  greater  in  wealth  and  population,  than 
all  she  had  to  lose  in  the  west :  but  of  all  her  achievements  at  this 
period,  none,  periiaps,  was  so  conspicuous,  none  so  glorious,  as  the 
defence  of  Gibraltar  under  General  Elliot,  afterwards  lord  Heath- 
iieid,  against  the  combined  forces  of  Spain  and  France.  The  prepa- 
rations made  to  recover  that  important  fortress  for  Spain,  exceeded 
everything  before  known.  Ihe  ultimate  success  of  the  attempt 
was  calculated  upon  as  so  certain,  that  some  of  the  French  princes 
of  the  blood,  repaired  to  the  Spanish  camp  merely  to  witness  lis  sur- 
render. But  the  heroism  of  the  troops  in  garrison  baffled  all  their 
designs,  and  the  timely  arrival  of  the  British  fleet  completed  the 
triumph,  in  October,  1,782.  The  siege  (begun  in  1,779)  was  entire- 
ly abandoned,  with  the  loss  of  all  the  Spanish  floating  batteries,  and 
the  defeat  of  the  combined  fleets  ol  F'rance  and  Spain,  by  lord  Howe. 
This  action  took  place  on  the  20th  of  October ;  in  the  following 
month  provisional  articles  of  peace  were  signed  at  Paris,  by  British 
and  American  commissioners,  and  early  in  the  ensuing  year  a  treaty 
concluded  at  Versailles,  between  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Spain, 
to  which,  in  February,  Holland  also  acceded. 

19.  Towards  the  close  of  the  war,  many  important  discussions  in 
parliament  took  place  on  the  American  affairs,  in  which  it  was 
found,  that  those  who  had  most  espoused  her  cause,  on  the  question 
of  iiUernal  taxation,  and  most  objected  to  the  measures  of  administra- 
tion in  the  conduct  of  the  war,  differed,  at  the  last,  from  each  other, 
on  the  question  of  American  independence;  a  difference  rendered 
peculiarly  memorable,  as  being  the  subject  of  the  last  speech  and 
aoiJearance  in  parliament  of  that  illustrious  statesman,  the  earl  of 
Cfhatham.  On  April  7,  1,778,  though  labouring  under  a  severe  tit  of 
illness,  he  appeared  in  his  place,  in  the  house  of  lords,  and  delivered 
a  most  animated  and  energetic  speech,  in  which  he  strongly  protest- 
ed against  the  surrender  of  the  sovereignty  of  Great  Britain  over 
her  colonies ;  soon  after,  rising  to  reply  to  the  Duke  of  Richmond, 
he  fell  back  on  the  seat  in  a  fainting  lit,  and  in  a  few  days  expired, 
at  his  seat  in  Kent  In  four  years  from  this  event.  Great  Britain  was 
compelled,  to  yield  upon  this  great  point,  and,  by  the  peace  of  V'er- 
sailles,  ralitied  and  concluded  beptember  3,  1,783,  the  thirteen  United 
oloiiies  of'jli)ierica  were  admitted  to  be  "  /ree,  Sovereign,  and  indepen' 
dent  SiaUt  ^ 


MODERN  HISTORY.  297 


SECTION  IX. 

FRANCE,  FROM  THE  PEACE  OF  PARIS,  1,7C3,  TO  THE 
OPENING  OF  THE  ASSEMBLY  OF  THE  STATES  GENERAL, 
1,789. 

1.  For  thfe  affairs  of  France,  from  the  death  of  Lewis  XIV".,  to 
the  peace  of  Vienna,  1,738,  (see  Sect.  I.)  In  the  year  of  1,740^ 
owing  to  the  death  of  the  emperor,  Charles  VI.,  Europe  was  again 
agitated,  and  France,  in  espousing  the  cause  of  the  elector  of  Bava- 
ria, against  the  house  of  Austria,  became  involved  in  the  war,  which 
was  terminated  by  the  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  1,748,  (see  Sect 
III.)  From  the  conclusion  of  the  above  treaty,  to  the  commence- 
ment of  tlie  seven  years'  war,  she  enjoyed  a  state  of  external  peace 
and  tranquillity.  B'jt  though  this  short  interval  of  repose  from  war, 
was  applied  to  the  improvement  of  the  kingdom,  in  no  common  de 
gree,  both  in  the  capital  and  provinces,  by  the  establishment  of 
schools  and  hospitals,  the  erection  of  public  edifices,  the  building  of 
bridges,  digging  canals,  and  repairing  roads;  in  the  cultivation  and 
improvement  of  many  arts,  the  extension  of  commerce,  and  encour- 
agement of  manuftctures;  uf.>iik,of  porcelain,  and  tapestry,  in  par- 
ticular; yet  amidst  all  these  improvements  she  enjoyed  little  of  inter- 
nal tranquiility.  K*?Ji^iQUS  disputes  ^a-eatly  occupied  the  attentiyu 
of  all  ranks  of  persons,  and  involved  the  clergy,  tl:G  col'rt,  tiie  par- 
liaments, and  the  people,  in  incessant  contests,  exceedingly  disgrace- 
ful, and,  considering  the  temper  of  the  times,  the  advancement  of 
human  knowledge,  and  the  progress  of  ideas,  extremely  injudicious. 

2.  During  the  reign  of  Lewis  XIV.,  a  tierce  contention  had  arisen 
between  the  Jesuits  and  Jansenists,  on  certain  obscure  points  in 
theology,  wliich,  after  much  fruitless  argument,  much  raillery  and 
abuse  on  both  sides,  through  the  influence  of  the  Jesuits  with  the 
king,  were  referred  to  the  decision  of  the  Roman  pontitf.  One  hun- 
dred and  one  propositions,  out  of  one  hundred  and  three,  which  were 
said  to  favour  the  Jausenists,  in  a  book  written  by  the  Fere  Quesnel, 
were,  in  the  year  1,713,  decl-.ued  by  the  holy  oilice  to  be  heretical, 
and  consequently  condemned  in  form.*  The  interposition  of  his  ho- 
liness had  httle  effect,  in  regard  to  the  restoration  of  peace  and  tran- 
quillity. The  public  instrument,  by  which  the  sentence  was  passed 
on  the  Jansenist  party,  (in  the  language  of  Rome  commonly  called 
the  bull  "  Unigenitiis^'"  from  the  hrst  word  with  which  it  begins,) 
became  the  signal  for  fresh  animosities,  murmurs,  and  complaints. 
The  people,  the  parliament,  many  prelates,  and  others  of  the  clergy, 
violently  exclaimed  against  it,  ;is  an  infringement  of  the  rights  of  the 
Gailican  church,  contrary  to  the  laws,  and  a  violation  of  the  freedom 
of  opinion  in  matters  of  religion.  But  the  king,  acting  under  the 
same  influence  as  had  induced  liim  to  forward  the  appeal,  ordered  it 
to  be  received,  and  in  a  short  time  afterwards  died.  The  regent 
duke  of  Orleans  found  means  to  keep  things  tolerably  quiet  during 

*  The  kind's  confessor,  the  P.  le  Tellier,  happened  to  have  told  the 
king  that  this  book  contained  ynore  than  a  hundred  censurable  propositions. 
To  save  the  credit  of  cne  confessor,  the  pope  condemned  a  hundred  and 
one,  and  stated  the  above  reason  for  what  he  had  done,  in  express  tertna, 
to  the  French  ambassador  at  Rome. 


298  MODERN  HISTORY. 

his  administration  of  affairs,  nor  did  the  flame  burst  out  again  fill  the 
year  1,750,  when,  through  the  bigotry  of  the  then  archbishop  of 
Paris,  the  clergy  were  encouraged  to  refuse  extreme  unction  to  all 
who  should  not  produce  .  contiessional  notes,  signed  by  persons  wh© 
adhered  to  the  bull. 

3.  It  is  easy  to  guess  the  confusion  and  deep  distress,  indeed, 
which  so  singular  and  intolerant  a  measure  was  likely  to  produce. 
The  cause  of  the  recusants  and  people  in  general,  was,  upon  this 
occasion,  strongly  supported  by  the  parliament  of  Paris,  and  other 
parliaments;  and  as  in  the  preceding  struggles  the  Jansenists  had 
been  thrown  into  prison,  in  this  the  magistrates  made  no  scruple  of 
committing  ail  who  refused  to  administer  the  sacrament  to  pei-sons  in 
their  last  moments.    The  Jesuits  had  again  recourse  to  the  king. 

4.  The  common  course  of  proceeding,  in  all  disputes  and  con- 
tentions between  the  king  and  his  parUamentS,  had  hitherto  borne 
the  stamp  of  the  most  perfect  despotism.  However  bold,  or  how- 
ever respectful  the  remonstrances  might  be  on  the  part  of  the  lat- 
ter, they  were  not  allowed  to  have  the  least  effect  against  the  de- 
termination of  the  court.  If  these  judicial  bodies  became  too  re- 
I'ractory,  banishment  ensued  of  course,  and  not  the  slightest  regard 
was  pjiid  to  any  arguments  they  might  allege,  nor  any  resistance 
they  might  offer,  in  support  of  the  liberties  ot  their  fellow  suLjects. 

5.  Things  came  to  the  usual  crisis  on  the  present  occasif»u.  All 
the  chambers  of  parliament  refused  to  register  the  letters  patent  by 
which  they  were  commanded  to  suspend  the  prosecutions  relative 
to  the  refusal  of  the  sacraments.  In  the  year  1,763,  they  were 
banished,  and  much  inconvenience  arose  from  the  interruption  of 
business,  and  suspension  of  justice ;  while  the  clergy,  attached  to 
the  bull,  made  great  boast  of  the  victory  they  had  obtained,  and 
endeavoured  continuallj'  to  strengthen  themselves  more  and  more 
against  their  adversaries.  The  king  often  wavered,  but  was  as 
often  brought  back  by  the  interposilion  of  the  pope  and  obstinate 
perseverance  of  the  Jesuits;  in  1,754,  however,  seizing  the  opportu- 
nity of  the  birth  of  a  second  son  to  the  dauphin,  (the- duke  of  Ber- 
ry, afterwards  Lewis  XVI.,)  he  recalled  tiie  parliament,  but  with- 
out effecting  peace.  The  members  had  been  received  at  Paris 
with  loud  acclamations,  and  every  demonstration  of  joy ;  their 
conduct  had  rendered  them  popular  to  an  extraordinary  degree,  so 
that  when  commtmded  afresh  to  register  the  king's  edicts,  they 
again  refused.  This  iiold  act  of  disobedience  subjected  them  to 
the  last  extremity  of  kingly  authority.  The  sovereign  repaired 
himself  to  the  hall  of  parliament,  JNovember,  1,756,  and  in  a  bed  of 
justice  (the  term  by  which  such  assemblies  were  peculiarly  desig- 
nated,) finally  ordered  them  to  register  the  edicts  in  his  name,  which 
they  could  no  longer,  as  the  constitution  then  stood,  refuse.  Many, 
however,  resigned  their  appointments,  and  much  discontent  prevailed 
amongst  the  people.  It  should  be  observed,  that  by  this  time  the 
depositaries  of  the  laws  and  advocates  had  begun  to  depart  from 
their  usual  routine  of  technic;d  formalities,  and,  animated  by  the  ex- 
amples set  them,  to  enter  largely  uito  the  general  questions  of  law 
and  liberty,  rights  and  obligations,  duty  and  privilege ;  they  began, 
in  short,  systematically  to  take  the  part  of  the  oppressed  ;  they  were 
prepared,  not  only  to  remonstrate,  but  to  argue,  debate,  and  openly 
to  protest  against  the  violation  of  the  rights  of  the  people. 

6.  The  tiand  of  a  fanatic,  in  the  year  1,757,  appeared  to  have 
tbe  effect  of  altering  the  king's  mind  once  more.    As  bis  majesty 


MODERN  HISTORY.  899 

WM  stepping  into  his  carriage,  he  was  stabbed  by  an  assassin  of 
the  name  of  Damiens^  his  object  being,  according  to  his  own  confes- 
sion, not  to  kill,  but  to  alarm  his  majesty,  with  a  view  of  producing 
some  change  in  the  king's  sentiments,  that  might  dispose  him  to  en- 
join the  administration  of  the  sacraments  to  dying  persons,  without 
the  confessional  notes  insisted  upon ;  but  little  reliance  is  to  be  placed 
on  "any  declarations  of  this  nature.  In  this  instance  they  seemed 
not  to  agree  with  the  conduct  of  the  assassin.  That  Lewis  acted  as 
he  did  soon  allerwards,  with  regard  to  the  points  in  dispute,  in  conse- 
quence of  this  attempt  on  his  life,  is  by  no  means  certain  ;  but  in  a 
short  time  matters  were  accommodated  with  the  parliament,  and  the 
archbishop  of  Paris,  the  chief  fomenter  of  the  disturbances  on  the 
part  of  the  clergy,  banished. 

7.  It  may  not  be  unreasonable,  perhaps,  to  date  the  commence 
ment  of  the  revolution  that  broke  out  nearly  thirty  years  after- 
wards, from  this  period.  Scarcely  any  thing  could  have  contributed 
more  to  encourage  the  revolutionary  principles  already  at  work, 
than  disputes  which  indicated  such  inveterate  superstition  and  big- 
otry ;  such  determined  opposition  to  all  freedom  of  thought ;  such 
sophistry  and  intrigue  ;  such  submission  to  the  court  of  Rome;  such 
contempt  of  the  public  opinion,  as  expressed,  for  want  of  any  better 
constituted  organ,  in  the  remonstrances  of  the  French  parliament ; 
such  a  disposition  on  the  part  of  the  court  and  clergy  to  uphold  the 
arbitrary  po\yers  of  the  sovereign,  and  this  at  a  moment  when  the 
private  life  of  the  monarch  himself  was  in  the  highest  degree  profli- 
gate and  abandoned,  and  the  wiiole  system  of  government  a  system 
of  venality,  favouritism,  and  public  plunder.  These  imprudent  and 
unwise  proceedings,  at  such  a  time,  gave  a  handle  to  the  philosophei's, 
or  literati,  of  the  day,  to  take  the  reform  of  matters  into  their  own 
hands,  and  by  supplying  them  with  such  ample  materials  for  the 
exercise  of  their  wits,  as  well  as  their  courage,  laid  the  foundation 
for  a  revolution  which  (so  extensive  were  the  abuses  of  government) 
almost  necessarily  threw  every  thing  into  confusion,  and  in  the  end 
far  outstepped  the  bounds  of  all  sober  and  discreet  reform.  Bred  up 
by  the  Jesuits  themselves,  and  instructed  in  all  the  branches  o^ 
wtridly  and  polite  knowledge,  they  were  amply  prepared  to  expose 
the  weakness  or  wickedness  of  their  masters,  when  ^nce  the  veil 
that  shrouded  their  deceptions  was  by  any  accident  removed.  They 
stood  ready  to  avail  themselves  of  any  circumstances  that  might 
tend  to  render  manifest  the  pnde  and  obstinacy,  hypocrisy  and 
deceit,  of  an  overbearing  sect,  who  by  their  influence  with  the  king, 
might  at  any  time  trample  upon  the  liberties  of  the  people. 

8.  These  philosophers,  (for  so  they  have  been  with  too  little  dis- 
crimination called,)  thus  raised  in  the  estimation  of  an  oppressed 
people  into  the  rank  of  champions  of  public  freedom,  were  unfortu- 
nately, but  probably  through  the  artful  designs  of  their  instructers, 
little  acquainted  with  the  true  principles  of  religion,  however  fa- 
miliar they  might  be  with  its  abuses.  In  directing  their  attacks, 
therefore,  against  the  Jesuits,  they  were  rather  anxious  that  their 
shafts  should  reach  all  the  regular  clergy,  or  monastic  orders  in 
general;  nor  were  they  at  all  careful  how  much  religion  itself 
might  suffer  in  the  overthrow  of  its  ministers.  The  enemies  of  the 
Jesuits  in  China,  Portugal,  Spain,  and  America,  had  been  the 
Dominicans  and  Cordeliers.  It  was  the  aim  of  the  philosophers,  in 
crushing  the  Jesuits,  to  crush  their  rivals  also ;  they  were  there- 
fore as  severe  against  the  Domioicans  as  against  the  Jesuits:  the 


300  MODERN  HISTORY. 

parliament  only  attacked  the  latter.  However  attached  Lewis  XV. 
might  be  to  the  Jesuits,  as  the  defenders  of  the  catholic  religion, 
and  kingly  authority,  he  appears  to  have  entertained  a  jealousy 
of  them,  as  censors  of  his  immoi'al  course  of  life,  and  as  more  at- 
tached to  his  son  the  dauphin  than,  to  himself  He  therelbre  be- 
came inciiSerent  to  the  attacks  making  upon  them ;  while  his  mis- 
tress, tlie  marchioness  of  Pompadour,  and  his  minister,  the  duke  de 
Choiseul,  in  order  to  keep  the  king  wholly  in  their  own  power,  were 
ready  to  take  part  against  the  dauphin,  the  queen,  the  royal  family, 
and  the  Jesuits  themselves,  of  whom  they  were,  for  the  reasons 
above  -stated,  justly  suspicious.  Tlie  duke  de  Choiseul  himself,  in- 
deed, is  said  to  have  given  the  following  account  of  his  enmity  to  the 
order ;  that  being  on  un  embassy  at  Rome,  the  general  of  the  order 
frankly  told  him,  that  he  knexv,  before  he  came,  every  thing  that 
he  had  said  about  the  society  at  t'aris,  and  so  convinced  him  that 
what  he  said  was  true,  that  he  could  not  doubt  but  that,  through 
some  means  or  other,  they  were  able  to  learn  all  that  passed,  not 
only  in  the  cabinets  of  princes,  but  the  mterior  of  private  houses, 
and  that  so  dangerous  a  society  ought  not  to  subsist.  It  is  proper  to 
state  this,  in  order  to  exonerate  the  duke  from  any  suspicion  of 
having  sacrified  them  to  the  philosophers,  wliose  irreligious  princi- 
ples he  is  known  h.tterly  not  to  have  approved. 

9.  hi  the  year  1,759  the  Jesuits  had  betu  expelled  from  Portugal, 
In  a  charge  of  countenanchig  an  attack  op  the  king's  life.)  Under 
uiese  circumitances,  it  is  not  surprising  that  the  enemies  of  tlie  order 
at  Paris  should  attempt  to  fix  bn  them  the  charge  of  the  late  ;itto<ilc 
on  Lewis  X\'.,  and  to  attribute  to  them  regicide  principles.  Damieiu 
himself  seemed  to  have  taken  pains  to  leave  the  matter  in  extreme 
doulit.  They  already  were  suthciently  branded  in  the  eyes  ol"  the 
public,  as  the  friends  and  assertors  of  arbitrary  power,  and  enemies 
to  liberty.  To  relieve  the  sovereigns  of  Europe  from  the  thraldom 
of  a  sect  so  powerful,  so  artiul  and  dangerous,  became  a  principle  of 
action,  which  the  public  were  well  enough  disposed  to  countenance, 
and  an  opportunity  only  was  wanting  to  accomplish  their  ruin. 

10.  This  opportunity  the  Jesuits  themselves  provided  for  their 
enemies.  Having  endeavoured  to  escape  from  a  demand  made  on 
them  in  consequence  of  some  mercantile  proceedings,  in  which  one 
of  their  society  was  deeply  involved,  the  tribunals  to  which  the 
case  was  referred,  having  a  handle  given  them  by  the  pleadings 
of  the  Jesuits,  very  properly  required  to  see  the  articles  of  their 
institution,  hitnerto,  that  is,  for  more  than  two  centuries,  kept  se- 
cret from  all  the  world.  The  times  were  well  fitted  for  such  a 
discovery.  All  men  of  wit  and  understanding,  however  unprinci- 
pled themselves,  were  well  prepared  to  detect  and  expose  the  vul- 
nerable parts  of  their  great  charter  or  institute,  (for  so  it  was 
sailed)  and  to  lay  open  to  the  world  at  large  the  peculiar  arts  and 
contrivances,  by  which  they  were  systematically  instructed  to  ac- 
j|uire  an  absolute  dominion  over  the  minds  and  consciences  of  men. 
The  mysterious  volume  was  found  to  contain  sufticient  to  convict 
them  of  such  bad  principles,  with  regard  both  to  civil  government 
and  morality,  that,  though  the  king  hesitated  at  first  to  pass  sen- 
tence on  them,  being  almost  as  much  afraid  of  their  rivals  and  op- 
ponents, the  Jansenists,  the  parliament,  and  the  philosophers,  as  of 
themselves;  yet,  at  length,  August  6,  1,762,  he  was  prevailed  upou 
to  issue  a  decree,  by  which  they  were  secularized,  and  their  posses- 
sioiw  ordered  to  be  sold,  which  was  speedily,  and  with  very  iew 


MODERN  HISTORY.  301 

exceptions,  carried  into  execution  in  aFl  parts  of  the  kin^fTouL 
Efforts  indeed  were  made  to  s;ive  them,  as  being  essenti  tliy  ii.^cessa- 
ry  to  combat  the  attacks  ol  the  new  ptiilosophy,  and  to  chccL  ihe 
progress  of  deism  and  atheism;  as  heretolore  they  h;id  interposed  to 
contound  schismatics  and  heretics  ;  both  the  altar  and  the  throne,  it 
was  aUeged,  needed  their  services  now  more  tiian  ever;  but  all 
these  movements  in  their  favour  were  in  vain.  The  duke  de 
Choiseul  and  the  marchioness  of  Pompadour  had  the  inflnc  nee  to 
procure  an  edict  from  the  king  for  tiie  actual  abolition  of  the  order 
in  France,  which  was  issued  in  November,  1,764,  and  other  co'.rtf 
of  Europe  judged  it  wise  to  take  the  same  steps.  Spain  and  Fortu 
gal  having  at  this  time  ministers,  whose  principles  and  jiolitics  much 
resembled  those  of  the  duke  de  Choiseul;  the  count  d'Aranda,  and 
the  marquis  de  Pombal ;  the  Jesuits  were  expelled  from  Spain, 
Naples,  and  Sicily,  from  Mexico,  Peru,  and  Paraguay,  in  the  coui-so. 
of  one  and  the  same  year,  1 ,767. 

11.  The  fate  of  the  Jesuits  was  no  sooner  decided,  than  the  par- 
liaments, elated  by  the  downtal  of  their  great  opponents,  began  to  at- 
tack the  arbitrary  power  of  the  king.  The  piotiigate  life  of  the 
latter  hail  withdrawn  him  too  much  from  the  cares  of  govemmerii, 
and  opened  the  door  to  anuses  in  almost  every  department  of  adn'',iii- 
istration ;  hut  while  the  parliaments  were  thus  engaged,  some  very 
extraordinary  processes  at  law,  particularly  the  case  of  the  Colas 
family  at  Thoulouse,  of  Labarrc  at  Abbeville,  and  of  the  celebrated 
Laliy^  commander  in  India,  in  which  shocking  instances  of  fanaticism 
and  oppression  occurred,  turned  the  eyes  of  the  philosophei"s,  with 
Voltaire  at  their  head,  to  the  defects  of  the  French  jurisprudence^  and 
excited  a  strong  feeling  against  both  the  laws  of  France,  and  the 
administrators  ot  them. 

12.  The  nation  had  sustained  a  considerable  loss  in  the  death  of 
the  dauphin,  who,  though  a  favourer  of  the  Jesuits  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent, exhibited  a  character  so  different  from  that  of  his  father  in 
many  most  essential  points,  as  to  render  him  very  justly  popular:  his 
highness  died  at  the  age  of  36,  in  the  year  1,765;  his  wife,  a  prin- 
cess of  the  house  of  Saxony,  surviving  him  only  fil'teen  months.  In 
1,770,  through *the  agency  of  the  duke  de  Choiseul,  a  new  connex- 
ion took  place  between  the  courts  of  Vienna  and  Versailles,  by  the 
marriage  of  the  young  dauphin,  afterwards  Lewis  X\  1.,  with  the 
daughter  of  the  empress  dowager,  the  archduchess  Marie  Antoi- 
nette ;  an  union  attended  with  such  costly  and  splendid  festivitiirs  at 
the  time,  as  must  excite,  in  every  sensible  rauid,  the  most  auful  ro- 
lleclions  on  the  dismal  events  which  are  now  known  to  have  clcudetl 
its  latter  days. 

13.  The  marriage  of  the  dauphin  took  place  at  a  time  when  the 
differences  between  the  king  and  his  parliament  had  arisen  to  the 
greatest  height.  In  the  course  of  the  years  1,770  and  1,771,  the 
king  held  several  beds  of  justice,  but  without  at  all  subduing  the 
spirit  which  had  been  raised  against  his  edicts,  and  which  the  minis- 
ter, in  opposition  to  the  chancellor,  is  supposed  to  have  encouraged  ; 
a  new  parliament,  and  six  councils,  on  the  suggestion  of  the  latter, 
were  proposed  to  be  constituted,  to  supply  the  place  of  the  refracto- 
ry members,  who  were  banished ;  but  this  measurtj  was  opposed, 
not  only  by  the  regular  parliaments,  but  by  the  priiltes  of  the  blood, 
and  several  even  of  the  very  persons  nominated  to  fbrrn  and  preside 
ia  the  new  assemblies.    Several  provincial  parliament*,  as  well  a» 

(j  c 


302  MODERN  HISTORY. 

that  6(  Paris,  were  suppressed,  and  as  many  as  seven  hundred  n\agis- 
trates  exiled  or  confined. 

14.  The  year  1,774  terminated  the  life  and  reign  of  Lewis  XV.  ; 
he  died  in  the  65th  year  of  his  age,  having  reigned  58.  The  latter 
part  of  his  Hfe  was  highly  disgracelui  in  a  private  point  of  view,  and 
utterly  feeble  in  a  public  one ;  nor  was  his  death  at  all  regretted. 
He  was  succeeded  by  his  grandson  Lewis  XVI.,  who  had  lost  an 
elder  brother  in  the  year  1,761,  his  father  in  1,765,  and  his  mother 
in  1,767;  strange  mortality  in  one  family,  and  too  much  resembling 
the  losses  in  that  of  Lewis  XIV.,  (see  Sect.  I.,)  then  imputed  to 
poison ;  a  charge  revived  upon  this  occasion,  but  probably  entirely 
without  foundation. 

15.  At  the  very  commencement  of  his  reign,  but  not  without  some 
sacrifice  of  his  private  feelings  and  opinions,  Lewis  XVI.  complied 
with  the  general  wish  of  having  the  old  parliaments  restored,  and 
the  new  councils  formed  by  the  chancellor  Maupeou,  dissolved;  a 
measure  which  seemed  to  difluse  an  almost  universal  joy  throughout 
the  capital  and  provinces.  The  king  had  taken  into  his  service  fwo 
ministers  of  a  disposition  favourable  to  the  wishes  of  the  people  ; 
the  venerable  count  de  Maurepas,  and  M.  Turgot.  In  conjunction 
with  these  ministers,  Lewis  was  undoubtedly  disposed  to  reform 
abuses,  and  promote  the  happine.^s  of  his  people  ;  but  unfortunately 
the  state  of  France,  if  not  of  the  world  in  general,  precluded  all 
hope  of  any  gradual  and  temperate  change. 

16.  The  American  contest  had  commenced  ;  a  declaration  of  rights 
had  appeared  there,  exceedingly  well  calculated  to  open  the  eyes 
of  those  who  had  not  yet  seen,  and  to  encourage  the  revolutionary 
movements  of  those  who  had  been  able  to  detect,  and  were  prepared 
to  expose,  the  great  abuses  subsisting  in  the  French  government;  al- 
ready had  the  philosophers  successlully  attacked  the  Jesuits;  aimed 
some  severe  blows  at  the  monastic  orders  in  general,  as  well  as  at  the 
court  of  Rome,  which  had  supported  and  abetted  them  in  every  at- 
tempt to  uphold  the  papal  and  royal  authority,  and  to  stifle  the  com- 
plaints of  the  people.  The  tyranny  thus  inveighed  against  and  at- 
tacked, had  incited  an  opposition,  much  more  likely  to  promote 
licentiousness  than  assist  the  cause  of  real  and  genuine  liberty.  The 
errors  of  Catholicism,  upheld  by  a  bigoted  and  infatuated  clergy,  at 
variance  with  the  only  assemblies  in  the  nation  capable  of  any  con- 
stitutional remonstrance,  however  ineflfectual,  naturally  hurried  the 
wits  and  freethinkers  of  that  lively  nation  into  extremes  which  every 
sober  minded  man  could  not  fail  to  lament;  in  a  very  short  course  of 
time,  from  railing  at  the  regular  clergy,  they  proceeded  to  rail  at 
religion,  and  even  atheism  was  propagated  in  a  way  that  bespoke  a 
dreadful  disregard  of  all  principles  of  religion,  common  honesty,  and 
honour;  in  works  purporting  to  have  been  written  by  very  respect- 
able persons,  deceased,  who  had  holden,  when  alive,  opinions  diamet- 
rically opposite  to  those  that  were  thus  stamped  with  their  names. 
These  were  among  socne  of  the  most  dreadful  lorerunners  of  a  rev- 
olution, which,  had  it  been  properly  managed,  had  it  fallen  into  the 
hands  of  persons  better  prepared  to  act  upon  the  true  principles  of 
religion  and  ordeily  government,  considering  the  progress  of  Knowl- 
edge and  thfeVowerful  impulse  wiiich  the  human  mind  had  received, 
was  not  unserfsc/uable  iv.  point  of  time  and  circumstances. 

17.  It  wouji'/be  absurd,  however,  to  deny  the  abilities  of  many  of 
the  persons  wiu;  now  stood  forward  to  stem  the  torrent  of  abuses, 
aud  vindicate  the  rights  of  the  people ;  several  of  them  had  wit, 


MODERN  HISTORY.  303 

and  learning,  and  science,  at  command,  to  the  highest  degree  ;  some 
ff  them  had  a  lively  sense  of  liberty,  but  they  had  been  ill-taught 
on  the  subjects  of  religion  and  morality  ;  they  had  read  Locke,  with- 
out imbibing  Locke's  best  principles  ;  they  had  confounded  the 
abuses  of  Christianity  with  Christianity  itself;  they  were  witty  and 
ingenious,  but  not  comparable  in  wisdom  and  conduct  Avith  their  con- 
temporaries in  Scotland,  or  in  England;  the  latter  were  the  truest 
friends  to  liberty,  the  best  philosophers,  and  the  best  politicians,  as 
their  writings  show.    The  celebrated  Encyclopaedia,  which  first  ap- 

F eared  in  1,751,  had  supplied  an  opportunity  for  all  the  literati  of 
ranee  to  express  their  most  private  sentiments  on  government, 
political  economy,  and  the  management  of  the  finances.  Amongst 
these  the  economists  bore  a  conspicuous  part;  their  whole  system, 
when  rigiitly  understood,  being  one  of  liberty,  whether  it  regarded 
personal  rights,  the  free  application  of  industry,  or  the  exportation 
of  corn.  The  author  to  the  Introduction  to  the  Encyclopaedia,  M. 
d''Alembert,  was  a  man  of  coin^iderable  talents,  but  a  deist  in  principle ; 
his  coadjutor,  Diderotj  an  atheist. 

18.  The  ministry  ot  Turgot,  while  it  lasted,  was  rather  calculated 
to  give  encouragement  to  the  French  reformers  ;  his  own  views 
were  undoubtedly  liberal  and  patriotic,  and  he  had  a  master  sincere- 
ly disposed,  in  all  likelihood,  to  further  any  practicable  plan  of 
reform,  but  the  course  of  the  minister  was  too  precipitate ;  his  views 
extended  to  too  many  objects,  and  were  such  as  admitted  not  of  anj 
speedy  accomplishment ;  they  were  too  mighty  for  the  grasp  of  any 
one  man ;  they  only  excited  the  animosity  of  the  privileged  orders, 
and  drove  them  into  measures  of  defence,  more  calculated  to  work 
their  own  overthrow  than  conciliate  their  enemies.  The  advocates 
of  ancient  abuses  and  unreasonable  customs,  they  treated  their  op- 
ponents with  an  ill-judged  contempt,  and  by  resisting  ail  amelioration 
of  the  present  order  of  things,  laid  the  foundation  for  a  thousand 
impracticable  systems  and  extravagant  theories,  new  constitutions 
and  schemes  of  government,  which-  being  severally  proposed,  tried, 
and  rejected,  ia  rapid  succession,  at  last  iiivolved  every  thing  in  con- 
fusion, anarchy,  and  ruin. 

19.  While  the  seeds  of  revolution,  if  not  of  republicanism,  plen- 
tifully sown,  were  beginning  to  germinate  in  Fraivce,  in  America  the 
people  were  already  acting  upon  the  very  principle  of  resistance  to 
an  alleged  tyranny.  It  required  only  to  brin^  the  two  countries,  by 
some  means  or  other,  into  contact,  to  spread  the  contagion,  and 
revolutionize  both  nations  as  the  different  circumstances  and  charac- 
ters of  the  people  should  sevenilly  determin8.^At  the  beginning  of 
the  year  1,778,  a  formal  alliance  was  negotiated  between  the  court 
of  Versailles  and  the  revolutionary  government  of  America;  but 
long  before  that,  in  the  year  1,774,  the  American  declaration  of 
rights,  on  which  their  opposition  to  the  English  government  x-ested, 
was  recei/ed  in  France,  as  a  kind  of  practical  application  of  the 
theoretical  schemes  of  the  French  philosophers,  and  might  reasona- 
bly have  alarmed  all  tlie  courts  of  Europe ;  though  the  contrary 
was  the  fact.  France  and  Spain  sent  help,  and  Prussia  approved  the 
American  proceedings,  not  so  much  out  of  friendship  towards  the 
Americans,  as  of  blind  hostility  to  Great  Britain.  The  king  of  France 
is  said  to  have  foreseen  the  ill  consequences  of  such  a  war,  but  to 
have  weakiy  given  way  to  contrary  advice. 

20.  The  speeches  of  opposition,  in  the  mean  time,  in  the  two  Eng- 
lish houses  of  parliament,  greatly  interested  the  people  on  the  conti 


304  MODERN  HISTORY. 

nent ;  the  crowned  heads,  indeed,  took  little  notice  of  the  warning 


was  inclined  to  economy,  fell  into  the  utmost  extravagancies  of 
luxury,  gayety,  and  dissipaiion ;  drew  largely,  and  without  any  con- 
sideration, on  the  public  treasury,  thougli  the  finances  were  in  a 
most  depressed  stale;  invented  all  kinds  of  novelties,  and  seemed 
bent  upon  exchanging  the  forms  and  etiquette  of  a  court  for  tritlingj 
though  expensive  amusen)ents,  not  omitting  such  as  promoted  and 
encouraged  the  spirit  of  gambling. 

21.  ^v-hile  these  things  were  going  on  at  court,  and  too  much 
coinitciiaiiced,  it  is  to  be  feared,;  t)y  the  queen,  she  received  a  visit 
fioni  her  eccentric  brother,  the  emperor  Joseph;  the  second,  which 
h^H,  or  appeared  to  have,  an  extraordinary  eflect  on  the  Parisians ; 
b'^ing  so  timed  as  to  fail  in  with  the  new  notions  that  had  been 
anopied,  of  manly  simplicity,  and  a  republican  severity  of  manners. 
Thv  incogjiitu  he  preserved,  he  carried  so  far  as  to  dismiss,  in  a  very 
strHung  manner,  all  the  glare  and  pomp  of  royalty ;  the  frankness 
of  his  manners,  uno.<tentatious  and  frugal  mode  of  hie,  led  the  French 
more  particularly  to  notice,  and  to  condemn  more  severely,  the 
thoughtless  hixury  and  dissipation  of  their  own  court  and  princes. 

22.  The  king  had  a  hard  and  cruel  task  upon  his  hands  ;f  he  found 
it  i;npossil)le  to  check  a  course  of  extravagance  and  levity  in  his 
own  f.imiij,  which  he  could  not,  and,  in  fact,  did  not  approve  ;fin  his 
choice  of  ministers,  he  was  sure  to  olfend  one  parly  or  the  other  p 
thus,  when  in  1,77U,  on  the  dismission  ofM.  Turgot,  he  iirst  appoint- 
ed the  C!'Lbrated  M.  Necker,  of  Geneva,  to  the  high  office  of  su- 
preme director  of  the  finances,  the  privileged  orders  took  the 
alarm  ;  they  thought  they  saw  in  the  citizen  of  a  republic,  and  a 
prclestairt,  a  decided  friend  to  the  liberal  ideas  that  were  afloat  to 
thfir  prejudice,  and  the  enemy  and  corrector  of  all  abuses  of  power 
an;l  place.  When,  on  the  removal  of  M.  Necker,  the  management 
of  the  finances  was  delivered  into  other  hands,  the  people  complain- 
ed tiiat  their  friend  and  favourite  had  been  sacrificed,  to  intrigue  and 
caial,  and  that  he  had  been  checked  and  supplanted,  at  a  moment 
IV  I-  :i  he  was  chalking  out  a  system  of  reform,  highly  beneficial  to 
th-  state,  and  favourable  to  their  best  interests. 

23.  In  1,783,  M.  de  Caionne  undertook  to  restore  order  to  the 
finances,  and  his  measures  were  exactly  such  as  were  calculated  to 
bring  matters  to  a  crisis,  and  hasten  the  revolution  which  had  for  a 
long  time  been  impending.  Inclined  to  favour  the  luxury  and  prod- 
ifjality  of  the  court,  and  at  the  same  time  to  provide  for  the  deficien- 
cies in  the  revenue,  he  boldly  attacked  the  privileged  orders,  by 
proposing,  as  the  best  impost  he  could  devise,  a  general  land  tax, 
fairly  adjusted,  and  from  which  there  should  be  no  exemption.  To 
carry  this  great  point  into  execution,  being  no  favourite  with  the 
parliament,  he  recommended  the  convocation  of  the  assembly  of  the 
NOTABLES ;  (a  name  given  to  a  former  meeting  of  select  and  distin- 
guished persons,  in  the  year  1,626.)  To  this  advice  the  king  assent- 
ed, doubtless  with  the  best  intentions,  though  many  about  the  court 
pretended,  even  at  that  time,  to  foresee  in  this  measure  the  downfal 
of  the  monarchy,  and  the  ruin  of  the  minister  who  had  proposed  it. 
The  king  gave  his  consent,  December  1,786,  and  in  February  1,787 
this  extraordinary  assembly  met.  The  minister  had  undoubtedly  act- 
ed constitutionally  in  calling  it,  however  rashly  in  regard  to  his  Qwn 


MODERN  HISTORY.  305 

interests,  and  the  king  has  been  supposed  to  liave  imbibed  from  his 
father  a  strong  inclination  to  consult  such  public  and  national  councils. 
In  tliis  instance,  however,  both  the  crown  and  the  minister  were  de- 
ceived ;  the  latter,  w!io  expected  to  be  allowed  to  laj^  his  plans 
before  them  in  the  way  of  commands  to  be  obeyed,  was  soon  dis- 
placed, on  the  remonstrances  and  demand  of  the  very  assembly  he 
had  ventured  to  call  together ;  and  though  it  did  some  good  in  the 
way  of  regulation  and  reform,  during  the  short  period  of  its  sitting, 
which  was  only  till  the  2oth  of  Way,  1,787,  it  was  far  fi-oni  answer- 
ing the  purposes  for  which  it  had  been  convoked.  The  members  of 
it,  however,  had  acquired  information  hitherto  withheld  from  the 
public,  and  imbibed  principles  I'riendly  to  liberty. 

24.  On  the  dismission  of  M.  de  Calonoe,  his  successor,  the 
archbishop  of  Thotilouse,  by  an  arbitrary  and  inconsiderate  be- 
haviour, involved  his  sovereign  in  another  unpleasant  contest  with 
the  parliament,  who,  in  a  moment  of  irritation,  called  for  a  meet- 
ing of  the  statt:s-geaeral.  The  credit  and  power  of  the  parliaments 
had  hitherto  been  chiefly  owing  to  the  disuse  of  these  national 
councils,  so  that  if  it  had  been  proposed  with  any  sincere  desire  of 
redressing  grievances,  and  resisting  oppression,  the  membei's  with 
whom  it  originated  would  jiave  deserved  the  credit  of  patriotism ; 
but  probably  they  were  swayed  by  motives  less  pure.  The  king, 
however,  consented  to  their  convocation  in  1,792,  but  in  the  mean 
time  had  many  unpleasant  altercations  with  the  parliament,  and 
on  one  occasion  was  treated  with  so  little  ceremony,  or  rather  such 
indignity,  as  it  was  thought,  by  the  due  d'Orleans,  as  to  occasion  his 
banishment. 

23.  The  minister,  in  order  to  break  or  reduce  the  power  of  par- 
liament, thus  openly  at  variance  with  him,  and  to  get  rid  of  the 
younger  members,  whose  refractory  spirit  was  but  too  apparent, 
projected  the  appointment  of  a  cour  pleniere^  consisting  of  persons 
selected  by  the  king  from  the  principal  nobility,  professions  and 
officers  of  state.  The  court  vvas  Ibrmed,  and  sat  long  enough  to 
enforce  the  ministerial  decrees,  but  amidst  such  murmuring  and 
confusion,  such  violent  remonstrances  and  objections,  attended  with 
popular  commotions  in  the  capital  and  provinces,  that  in  a  short 
time  the  scheme  was  abandoned,  and  the  minister  announced  to  the 
public  the  king''s  intention  of  convoking  the  states-general  in  the 
year  ensuing ;  he  was  then  dismissed  from  his  high  office,  and,  to 
the  great  joy  of  the  parliament  and  people,  M.  Necker  was  recalled. 

26.  The  rojal  word  had  been  pledge  for  the  summoning  the 
states-general  in  1,789;  and  it  was  soon  found  to  be  a  promise, 
which,  though  the  chief  management  of  the  tinances  had  passed 
into  other. and  more  popular  hands,  could  not  easily  be  abandoned. 
They  had  not  been  assembled  since  the  year  1,614,  and  difficulties 
therefore  were  started  as  to  the  best  mode  of  arranging  them  ;  the 
king  even  condescended  to  refer  the  matter  to  the  decision  of  all 
the  corporate  and  learned  boilii-s  of  the  realm  ;  an  extraordinaiy  step 
to  take,  hat  favoured  by  the  minister,  who  ha^l  it  in  view  to  give  con- 
sequence to  the  third  estate,  or  commonalty,  in  order  to  counter- 
balance the  too  great  influence  of  the  privileged  orders, 

27.  This  popular  design  of  the  minister,  besides  alarming  the 
clergy  and  nobility,  did  not  meet  with  the  ready  concurrence  of 
the  parliament ;  and  it  was  even  proposed,  by  M.  d'Cspresrnesoil, 
a  member  who  had  incurred  both  banishment  and  imprisonment  in 
the  couree  of  his  opposition  to  the  court,  to  adopt  at  ouce  the  plan  of 

.        Cc2  39 


see  MODERN  HISTORY. 

1,614;  a  proposal  lo  which  the  parliament  acceded;  but  it  had  the 
effect  of  rendering  them  immediately  as  unpopular  as  the  privi- 
leged orders.  The  claims  of  the  third  estate  met  with  the  support 
of  a  large  toajority  of  the  people,  as  might  naturally  have  been 
expected  at  such  a  moment ;  the  commons  of  1 ,788  were  very  dif- 
ferent from  those  who  were  first  summoned  to  meet  in  1,302,  upon 
apian  which  had  continued  to  1,614.  It  was  reasonable  to  adopt 
new  forms ;  and  it  was  therefore  strongly  insisted  that  they  should, 
upon  this  occasion,  in  order  to  be  upon  a  par  with  the  other  orders, 
have  a  double  representation,  and  deliberate  together.  Had  the  plan 
of  the  states-general  of  1,614  been  adopted,  the  parliament  would 
have  appeared  there  with  much  greater  eclui  than  in  any  new  ar- 
rangement ;  this  may  account  for  the  part  they  took  upon  this  occa- 
sion. They  entirely  expected,  in  demanding  the  convocation  of  the 
states,  that  they  should  have  the  chief  place  in  that  assembly,  and 
continue  to  enjoy  the  confidence  of  the  people. 

28.  Such  was  the  state  of  things  at  this  memorable  period ;  an 
infatuation  the  most  surprising  seemed  to  hurry  on  the  privileged 
orders  to  their  ruin  and  destruction,  and  with  them  the  monarchy. 
Instead  of  bending  in  any  manner  to  the  force  of  popular  opinion, 
or  acknowledging  the  justice  of  the  claims  made  on  them,  as  a  fa- 
voured class,  tney  more  strongly  than  ever  stood  upon  their  privi- 
leges, and  appeared  to  treat  with  contempt  that  powerful  and  now 
enlightened  m:ijority  that  was  opposed  to  them  ;  they  insisted  more 
than  ever  upon  their  feudal  rights,  after  the  whole  system  had  been 
virtually  abolished.  Conduct  of  this  kind  could  not  fail  to  stimulate 
the  other  party  to  deeds  of  violence  and  retaliation,  in  which  the 
authority  of  the  established  laws  and  customs  came  soon  to  be  to- 
tally disregarded,  and  every  thing  seemed  to  tend  to  ruin  and  dev- 
astation ;  when  the  election  of  the  states-general  was  appointed  to 
take  place,  both  sides  exerted  themselves  with  the  utmost  zeal  and 
anxiety,  but  the  result  was  found  to  be  highly  favourable  to  the 
democratic  party. 

29.  Great  changes  had  already  taken  place  in  the  character  and 
manners  of  the  Parisians.  Since  the  American  war,  a  strong  dispo- 
sition had  been  shown  to  imitate  the  English,  in  dress,  manners, 
amusements,  and  freedom  of  speech  ;  the  respect  which  had  former- 
ly prevailed  for  high  birth  and  rank  was  every  day  diminishing; 
persons  of  all  classes  were  beginning  to  be  raised  to  situations  of  dis- 
tinction and  confidence ;  and  some  of  the  great  themselves,  instead 
of  maintaining  the  distance  preserved  by  Uieir  ancestors,  made  ap- 
proaches towards  the  lower  ranks,  by  intermarriages,  ana  the  open 
and  general  encouragement  of  literature,  trade,  commerce,  and 
agriculture ;  even  the  iemales  began  to  discuss  questions  of  state,  to 
express  a  lively  and  sentimental  concern  for  all  oppressed  persons  or 
nations,  and  to  wish  that  all  the  young  men  who  could  speak  elo- 
quently upon  these  subjects  in  their  private  assemblies,  should  have^ 
as  in  England,  a  field  opened  to  them  for  tlie  more  public  display  of 
their  talents  and  abilities.  It  is  not  to  be  wondered  that,  under  these 
circumstances,  every  eye  should  be  fixed  on  the  meeting  of  that 

'reat  national  council,  whose  powers  had  not  been  called  into  action 
or  the  long  space  of  nearly  two  ceQturie& 


^ 


MODERN  HISTORY.  307 


SECTION  X. 


AUSTRIA,  FROM   THE   CONCLUSION  OF   THE   SEVtN  YEARS' 
WAR  TO  THE   DEATH  OF  MARIA   THERESA,  1,763—1,780. 

1.  With  regard  to  Austria,  the  seven  years'  war  terminated  with 
the  peace  of  Hubertsburg,  which  was  signed  on  the  5th  of  Febru- 
ary, 1,763,  (see  Sect.  VI.)  and  on  the  27th  of  May,  1,764,  as  the 
fruits  of  that  peace,  the  empress  w;a9  gratified  with  the  election  of 
her  son  Joseph  to  the  dignity  of  king  of  the  Romans ;  a  point  of 
great  importance  to  her,  considering  the  circumstances  that  had  re- 
tarded the  elevation  of  her  royal  consort  to  the  imperial  throne. 
The  election  was  most  opportune,  for  the  emperor  Francis  survived 
it  but  a  very  short  time,  being  struck  with  a  fit  of  apoplexy  in  the 
month  of  August  of  the  same  year,  while  attending  the  nuptials  of 
his  second  son  at  Inspruck,  in  the  Tyrol.  Francis  had  borne  his  fac- 
ulties meekly,  resigning  to  his  imperial  consort  the  cares,  as  well  as 
the  state  and  parade  of  government,  which,  indeed,  more  regularly 
appertained  to  her  than  to  himself;  he  obviously  withdrew  from 
the  authority  that  seemed  to  have  devolved  to  him  ;  and  if  he  occu- 
pied himself  at -all  with  the  affairs  of  government,  it  was  rather  to 
supply  its  pecuniary  demands  from  his  Tuscan  treasury,  than  for  any 
other  purposes;  not  so  ranch  in  the  way  of  gain,  as  of  regular  busi- 
ness and  prudential  management.  Of  the  high  estimation  in  which 
he  was  held  by  the  empress  there  can  be  little  doubt ;  her  affection 
for  him  had  a  romantic  cast,  and  seemed  founded  on  what  so  seldom 
occurs,  or  can  be  expected  to  occur  in  royal  marriages,  an  early, 
fixed,  and  solid  attachment. 

2.  Her  majesty  employed  herself,  from  the  conclusion  of  the 
treaty  of  Hubertsburg,  in  ameliorating  in  every  way  possible  the 
condition  of  her  country ;  in  founding  philosophical  academies,  re- 
forming the  schools,  encouraging  by  premiums  the  manafactures, 
and  in  restraining  several  feudal  abuses:  she  had  the  opportunity 
afforded  her  of  contributing  to  the  introduction  of  the  variolous  inocu- 
lation into  her  dominions.  She  interfered,  and  in  a  very  judicious 
manner,  in  the  regulations  regarding  monasteries  and  nunneries,  abol- 
ished the  dangerous  privilege  of  asylum,  the  horrible  excesses  of 
the  inquisition,  and  the  inhuman  judicial  process  of  torture.  She 
also  suppressed  the  society  of  Jesuits. 

3.  Cfonsidering  the  extreme  repugnance  Maria  Theresa  had 
shown  to  the  dismemberment  of  her  own  domains  on  the  oeath  of 
her  father,  it  must  seem  greatly  to  redound  to  her  discredit  that  she 
could  have  become  a  party  to  the.  partition  of  Poland:  but  it  may 
very  fairly  be  inferred  that  she  was  driven  into  it.  Being  unable  to 
serve  the  cause  of  Saxony  she  had  no  other  alternative  against  the 
combination  of  Russia,  Prussia,  and  the  Forte,  than  to  claim  a  part : 
though  it  is  almost  proved  that  she  \va9  drawn  in  by  Prussia  to  par- 
take of  the  plunder,  that  she  might  also  share  the  odium  excited  by 
it.  After  the  partition  indeed  began  to  have  effect,  and  was  sanction* 
ed  by  the  Polish  delegates  nominated  for  that  purpose,  Maria 
Theresa  appears  to  have  had  no  scruples  in  extending  her  encroach- 
ments, and  supporting  Prussia  in  t^e  same  attempts,  to  such  a  degree 
eyen  as  to  provoke  the  interpoeitiOQ  of  Russia.    It  was  not  till  the 


508  MODERN  HISTORY. 

year  1,777  that  all  the  three  parties  were  satisfied,  and  brooght  to 
an  agreement  in  regard  to  limits;  the  portion  assigned  to  Austria 
being  decidedly  l!ie  greatest  in  extent.  In  the  same  year  the  em- 
press q-H?.ea,  by  n  convention,  signed  on  the  5th  day  of  February, 
obtained  possession  of  tiie  Buccovina,  ceded  to  her  by  the  Porte. 
Her  situation  was  at  this  period  particularly  flourishing,  her  army, 
numerous  and  well  di-ciplir,?  i,  her  hnances  in  good  order,  and  her 
alliance  witii  France  cemented  by  many  marriages  with  the  Bourbon 
princes;  but  after  the  partition  of  Foland,  and  the  connexion  the 
empress  queen  seemed  thus  to  have  formed  with  Russia  and  Prussia, 
an  anii-Aastrian  party  sprang  up  at  the  court  of  Versailles,  who 
persuaded  the  king  to  renew  iiis  connexions  with  Prussia,  in  order 
to  secure  some  check  against  the  augmentation  of  the  power  of 
Austria ;  this,  however,  was  done  without  violating  subsisting  trea- 
ties, or  bi-eaking  friendship  with  Maria  Theresa.  Lewis  XV  1.  was 
much  more  jealous  of  the  son  than  of  the  mother,  and  not  without 
i-eason ;  the  views  of  the  former  being  evidently  ambitious  and  en- 
croaching, and  highly  anti-gallican. 

4.  In  December,  1,777,  on  the  death  of  the  elector  of  Bavaria, 
both  the  emperor  and  empress  queen  laid  claim  to  his  dominions  as 
fiefs  or  allodials,  properly  descending  or  reverting  to  one  or  other 
of  them,  having  previously  taken  steps  to  arrange  matters  with  tbeir 
more  immediate  competitor,  the  elector  Palatine  ;  and  relying 
strongly  on  the  support  of  France,  as  well  as  on  the  age  and  intirmi- 
ties  of  the  king  of  Prussia  :  but  the  latter  found  means  to  interpose 
by  stimulating  the  duke  of  Deux  Fonts,  presumptive  heir  to  the 
ek-ctor  Palatine,  to  appeal  to  himself  and  the  king  of  France  against 
the  dismemberment  of  the  Bavarian  territories,  referring,  in  confir 
mation  of  iiis  riglits,  to  the  treaty  of  Pavia,  contlrmed  by  the  Golden 
Bull,  and  the  treaty  of  Westphalia;  all  these  authorities  were  disput- 
ed on  the  part  of  the  emperor  and  empress,  who  insisted  on  tlie 
validity  and  legality  of  the  arrangements  made  with  the  elector 
Palatine.  The  emperor  in  the  mean  while  olYered  to  submit  his 
own  claims  to  tlie  judgment  of  the  diet,  and  to  mediate  between  his 
mother  and  the  other  claimants :  preparations,  nevertheless,  were 
made  for  deciding  the  matter  by  arms,  and  both  the  emperor  and 
king  of  Prussia  took  the  field  at  the  head  of  their  respective  forces  : 
but  the  empress  queen,  fearing  for  her  son,  made  many  overtures  oi 
peace,  sought  the  mediatinn  of  Russia  and  France,  and,  though  con- 
tinually thwarted  by  the  emperor,  who  was  inclined  to  war,  and  un- 
willing to  submit  to  the  dictates  of  foreign  powers,  succeeded  in  re- 
storing tranquillity,  by  the  treaty  of  Teschen,  1,779.  By  this  treaty 
many  arrangements  were  entered  into  to  satislV  the  king  of  Prussia^* 
the  elector  Palatine,  the  duke  of  Deux  Fonts,  and  the  elector  of 
Saxony.  And  Austria  acquired  territory,  though  of  no  great  extent, 
very  important  in  point  of  situation.  She  obtained  from  Bavaria  the 
circle  of  Burghau*en,  which  opened  a  passage  to  the  Tyrol,  and 
was  not  compelled  absolutely  to  renounce  any  of  her  claims,  though 
she  found  means  to  forego  with  credit  the  further  prosecution  of 
them. 

France  had  done  enough  during  these  disputes  about  Bavaria,  to 
give  umbrage  to  the  court  of  Vienna ;  she  had  secretly  opposed  the 
dismemberment  of  the  electorate,  she  had  not  supplied  the  succours 
she  was  required  to  do  according  to  the  treaty  ot  Versailles,  and  she 
had  manifested  a  distrust  of  the  emperor,  bordering  upon  contempt 
ThU  coaduct  bad  the  effect  of  throwing  the  iatter  into  the  arms  of 


MODERN  HISTORY.  309 

England  and  Russia;  in  the  contest  with  America,  Joseph  espoused 
the  cause  of  England,  pronounced  it  to  be  the  cause  of  all  sovereigns, 
and  prohibited  all  intercourse  between  the  subjects  of  the  empire 
and  the  revolted  colonies.  With  regard  to  Russia  he  took  a  more 
active  part;  he  visited  Catherine  on  her  celebrated  journey  to  the 
Crimea,  and  at  Petersburg  ingratiated  himself  with  her  to  an  ex- 
traordinary degree,  alienated  her  from  the  old  king  of  Prussia,  and  in 
so  doing  procured  her  assistance  in  promoting  the  advancement  of 
his  brother  the  archduke  Maximilian  to  the  coadjutorship  of  Cologne 
and  Munster,  the  last  wish  of  Maria  Theresa,  who  had  thus,  in  aa 
extraordinary  manner,  found  the  means  to  provide,  before  her  death, 
for  all  her  numerous  family.  But  her  end  was  approaching:  ia 
November,  1,780,  she  was  seized  with  an  illness,  which  terminated 
her  existence  ;  her  last  days  were  passed  in  acts  of  devotion  and  atten- 
tions to  her  son,  the  emperor,  and  others  of  her  family,  particularly 
striking  and  grand.  She  displayed  at  this  awful  moment  a  powerful 
mind,  a  warm  heart,  and  a  truly 'ciuistian  fortitude :  she  died  No- 
vember 29,  1,780,  in  the  6-lth  year  of  her  age,  and  41st  of  her 
reign.  She  was  not  exempt  tVom  weaknesses,  but  her  virtues,^ 
both  public  and  private,  greatly  preponderated ;  the  former  were  of 
the  most  splendid  cast,  the  latter  altogether  as  amiable.  Nine  out  of 
sixteen  children  survived  her. 

Joseph,  who  succeeded  her;  Leopold,  great  duke  of  Tuscany j 
Ferdinand,  governor  of  Austrian  Lombardy  and  duke  of  Modena 
by  reversion;  Maximilian,  coadjutor  of  Cologne  and  Munster;  Mary 
Anne,  abbess  of  Prague;  Mary  Christina,  wife  of  Albert,  duke  of 
Saxony ;  Maria  Elizabeth,  abbess  of  Inspruck  ;  Maria  Amelia,  duchess 
of  Parma ;  Carohne,  queen  of  Naples ;  Maria  Antoinetta,  queen  of 
France. 


SECTION  XI. 

REIGNS  OF  JOSEPH  II.,  LEOPOLD  II.,  fee,  FROM  1,765  TO  1,806. 

1.  On  the  demise  of  his  father,  Francis  I.,  Joseph,  who  had  been 
elected  king  of  the  Romans  in  1,764,  ascended  the  imperial  throne, 
at  the  age  of  twenty-four,  in  the  year  1,765,  his  mother  being  still 
living.  It  was  soon  apparent  that  he  projected  great  changes,  and 
the  reformation  of  many  abuses,  but  in  pursuing  these  purposes  he 
was  undoubtedly  too  precipitate  and  too  adventurous ;  his  educa- 
tion had  not  been  such  as  to  fit  him  for  such  high  attempts.  It  was 
impossible  to  unite  in  the  way  he  proposed  such  scattered  domin- 
ions; it  was  impossible  to  carry  into  execution  all  the  schemes  he 
had  invented  for  the  consolidation  and  improvement  of  the  empira 
In  the  Belgic  provinces,  in  particular,  he  rendered  himself  extreme- 
ly unpopular  by  the  violence  of  his  proceedings,  but  this  was  not 
till  after  his  mother'^  death  ;  as  long  as  she  lived  she  sedulously  en- 
deavoured to  restrain  the  impetuosity  and  warlike  disposition  of  her 
son,  apprehending  that  he  had  many  enemies  at  hand,  and  that  not- 
withstanding the  pretended  courtesy  of  the  king  of  Prussia,  mani- 
fested in  private  interviews  as  well  as  public  negotiations,  he  could 
not  have  much  chance  of  success  in  coping  with  so  able,  powerful, 
and  experienced  an  opponent ;  in  this,  perhaps,  she  showed  some 
sense,  though  it  has  been  doubted  whether  she  did  not  too  much 
control  the  ardent  spirit  of  her  son.    The  empress  queen  dying  in 


310  MODERN  HISTORY. 

the  year  1,780,  Joseph  was  left  to  the  pursuit  of  his  own  whims  and 
projects,  in  nriKny  instances  most  extravagant,  in  almost  all  oppressive. 
For  though  there  was  an  appearance  of  liberality,  and  much  show  of 
good,  he  evidently  seemed  to  consult  nothing  but  his  own  arbitrary 
will. 

2.  Had  his  education  been  such  as  to  enable  him  to  form  a  right 
)U(lgment  of  things,  had  not  his  genius  been  cramped,  and  his  rea- 
son perverted,  by  a  choice  of  tutors  and  preceptors  peculiarly  ill 
qualified  to  fit  him  for  the  arduous  and  conspicuous  station  to  which 
he  had  been  elevated  by  the  circiamstances  of  his  birth  and  con- 
nexions, he  might  certainly  have  done  great  good,  and  actually 
ameliorated  the  condition  of  a  large  and  most  interesting  portion 
of  the  human  race,  for  his  manners  were  such  as  to  have  led  him 
to  V.  just  knowledge  of  their  wants,  and  a  proper  sense  of  their 
c!ai(rii-j  upon  society.  He  travelled  through  Europe,  as  if  he  were 
bfjit  on  seeing  the  real  condition  of  his  fellow-creatures,  in  all  ranks 
aiii}  -^ittiafions  of  life  ;  discarding  all  ppuip  and  parade,  he  sought  the 
socio!}  and  conversation  of  persons  far  below  him,  and  encouraged 
eytiry  one  to  give  him  information  upon  subjects  most  nearly  touch- 
ii'.g  their  interests.  Since  Peter  I.  ol"  llussia,  no  monarch  had  taken 
such  jiaios  to  procure  information,  and  survey  every  thing  with  liw 
Qv\  n  »^yes. 

3.  The  whole  extent  of  his  dominions  was  supposed  to  contain 
a  population  of  24,000,000,  distinguished  however  by  a  great  va- 
riety oi'  laws,  customs,  religious  opinions,  and  language ;  the  lower 
orders  subject  to  many  restrictions,  attaching  to  the  state  of  vas- 
salage in  which  they  were  still  held  by  their  feudal  lord  and  su- 
periors. The  Roman  cathoix  religion  chielly  prevailed ;  the  cler- 
gy were  wealthy,  and  possessed  great  influence.  Maria  Theresa 
had  perceived  what  was  wrong,  and  had  shown  an  excellent  dis- 
position to  amend  matters,  but  had  partly  been  compelled  by  cir- 
cumstances, and  swayed  by  prudence,  to  proceed  moderately  and 
gradually.  .Toseph  was  more  impetuous;  he  was  so  eager  to  break 
down  fill  distinctions,  Ihat,  among  other  regulations,  he  insisted 
on  having  but  an-e  language  for  the  whole  empire,  though  no  less 
than  ten  principal  languages  were  spoken  at  that  time,  and  in 
common  use.  vVithin  the  confines  of  his  dominions,  all  his  other 
projects  were  of  the  same  description,  whether  good  or  bad,  ex- 
ceedingly too  hasty ;  he  broke  up  old  systems  before  he  was  well 
prepared  to  establish  new  ones,  and  in  the  interval,  necessarily 
occasioned  such  contusion,  disgust,  and  trouble,  as  to  hinder  every 
good  eiioct,  and  thwart  his  own  purposes;  in  all  his  regulations  he 
seemed  bent  upon  upholding  his  own  imperial  power,  not  only  by 
omitting  to  introduce  any  new  checks  upon  it,  but  even  abolishing 
old  ones ;  he  particularly  displeased  his  Hungarian  subjects,  those 
faithful  adherents  of  his  mother,  by  interfering  wi^h  their  laws  and 
customs,  and  offending  some  of  their  fondest  prejudices. 

4.  Though  attached  to  the  Roman  catholic  religion,  he  showed 
great  disregftrd  of  the  papal  authority,  by  subjecting  the  monas- 
teries to  episcopal  jurisdiction,  suppressing  many,  and  reducing  the 
nnmbers,  both  of  monks  and  nuns,  in  all  that  were  p<^*rniitted  to 
continue,  with  great  want  of  feeling ;  he  omitted  to  make  any  pro- 
vision for  those  who  were  discharged ;  he  broke  thro'.igh  many  su- 
perstitions, not  rightiv  judging  how  deeply  they  were  interwoven 
with  the  reUgious  '"eelings  of  the  people,  and  hoiv  much  the  latter 
therefore  were  likely  to  be  affected  by  such  violence  and  haste ; 


MODERN  HISTORY.  311 

he  abolished  the  privileges  of  primogeniture,  declared  marriage 
(heretofore  regarded  as  a  sacrament)  to  be  only  a  civil  contract, 
and  rendered  bastards  capable  of  inheriting.  (The  wisest  and  most 
truly  liberal  of  ail  his  innovations  was  thi.t  which,  by  a  public  edict, 
dated  October  31,  1,781,  established  a  general  toleration  for  all  the 
"^cai/to/iaV  or  dissenters  from  the  Romisii  reiigion.,  This  and  otiier 
measures  of  interference  with  ecclesiastical  matters'so  disturbed  and 
alarmed  pope  Pius  VI.,  as  to  induce  him  to  take  a  journey  to  Vieiuia, 
personally  to  remonstrate  with  the  emperor.  His  pian  was  opposed 
at  Rome,  and  entirely  discouraged  by  the  Austrian  ministry  ;  but  his 
holiness  persisted,  and,  after  a  visit  of  much  form  and  ceremony,  re 
turned  in  about  a  month,  without  eflfecting  any  change  in  ttie  senti^ 
ments  or  proceedings  of  Joseph. 

5.  In  the  same  precipitate  manner,  as  in  other  instances,  he  sud- 
denly abolished  feudal  vassalage,  without  any  suitable  arrangements 
for  the  relief  of  those  who  must  evidently  suffer  by  such  an  impor- 
tant change  of  tenure  ;  and  while  he  prided  himself  upon  putting  an 
end  to  slavery,  he  subjected  the  emancipated  to  such  arbitrary  im 
posts  of  his  own  invention,  as  plainly  to  convince  them  that  they  had 
not  in  reality  recovered  their  ireedum.  To  countervail  these  errors 
in  legislation  and  government,  he  certainly  showed  great  merit  in 
the  encouragement  he  gave  to  arts,  letters,  trade,  and  manufiictures ;. 
in  founding  numerous  schools  and  universities,  public  horaries,  labor- 
atories and  observatories ;  in  improving  the  public  roads,  making 
canals,  and  establishing  free  ports.  In  1,784,  he  obtained  permission 
from  the  Porte  to  niivigate  the  Turkish  seas,  which  seemed  to  aSbrd 
excellent  means  to  his  Hungarian  subjects,  who  were  otherwise  ill 
situated  for  trade,  to  cairy  on  an  extensive  commerce  by  way  of 
the  Danube  ;  war,  however,  soon  interrupted  this  accommodation ;  in 
1,787  it  came  to  an  end. 

6.  In  1,781,  Joseph,  having  concerted  his  plans  with  France,  who 
had  altered  hei  measures  towards  him,  probably  for  the  very  pur- 
pose, determined  to  break  through  the  barrier  treaty*  imposed 
upon  Austria  when  the  Netherlands  were  transferred  to  Charles  VI., 
and  which,  though  undoubtedly  affording  security  to  Austria  itself 
against  the  French,  must  be  allowed  to  have  constantly  carried  in 
it  something  galling  to  the  feelings  of  the  imperial  court,  as  entirely 
dictated  by  the  maritime  powei-s.  The  fortitications  of  the  barrier 
towns  had  now  fallen  into  decay,  and  the  connexion  which  had 
for  some  time  subsisted  between  the  courts  of  Versailles  and  Vien- 
na, seemed  to  afford  the  emperor  plausible  grounds  for  declining  to 

Say  for  the  military  protection  of  a  frontier  no  loipger  likely  to  be 
isturbed.  He  therefore  directed  all  the  fortifications  in  the  Nether- 
lands to  be  done  away,  except  those  of  Luxesabur^k^  Ostend^  jYamur, 
and  Antwerp ;  while  the  Dutch,  who  had  been  desired  to  withdraw 
their  garrisons,  iis  no  longer  necessary,  or  entitled  to  pay,  judged  if 
wise  to  comply. 

7.  This  violation  of  the  barrier  treaty,  complied  with  in  the  last 
instance  so  easily  by  the  united  provinces,  was  quickly  followed 
by  fresh  demands  on  the  latter  power,  under  pretence  of  more  ac- 
curately adjusting  the  boundaries  of  the  Dutch  and  Austrian  Neth- 
erlands. The  cession  of  the  city  of  iVIaestricht  and  the  contigu- 
ous district  of  Outer  Meuse  being  among  other  things  insisted 
upon.    At  length,  however,  and  about  the  year  1,784,  these  claims 

»  See  Coxe  iv.  152,  153,  &c. 


312  MODERN  HISTORY. 

all  seemed  to  merge  in  one  sweejnit:  demand,  to  have  the  fn'.l  and  ' 
free  iiavigation  ci'  the  river  Scheid,  lor  tne  pi  rj; uses  of  establishing,  i 
in  favour  of"  his  Flemish  snijecU,  a  direct  iraue  with  the  East  In-  ; 
dies,  and  of  restoriiij^"  the  ciiy  of  Antiverp,  once  tl.e  emporium  of  ' 
Europe,  to  its  proper  dc^grec  oi'  ?plf  uiiour  isnd  importance  ;  a  proj-  ; 
ect,  which,  if  it  could  have   L-efcn  acco:npii?hed  without  interfering  ! 
vpith  so  many  foreign  interests,  and  tho  manifest  violation  of  sub-  ' 
sisting  treaties,  may  fe  said  to  have  reliected  no  disgrace  on  the 
policy,  wisdom,  or  paternal  care  oi"  tiie  emperor;  l-ut  it  was  impos-  j 
sii>ie  to  expect  that  such   chan^^es  should  be  allowed  to  proceed  . 
witiiout  great  opposition.     It  was  soon  discovered  that  hotli  France  ! 
and  Prussia  were  prepared  to  support  the  Dutch  against  him,  and 
though  the  empress  of  Russia  had  endeavoured  to  deter  the  latter 
from  aiding  the  Hollanders,  tiie  project  was  laid  aside,  and  Joseph, 
instead  of  his  views  on  the  Scheid,  resumed  some  of  his  former  de-  ' 
mands.     In  th«  end,  however,  every  thing  was  compromised  by  ; 
money,  trirouj^h  the  mediatioti  of  the  French  king,  or  rather  in  con-  i 
formity  ^o  the  dictates  of  the  French  minister. 

8.  Another  object  which  the  emperor  attempted  almost  at  the  ' 
same  time,  but  equally  without  eflect,   was  the  exchange  of   the  ' 
Netlierland^  for  Bavaria,     lie  had  targht  his  mother  to  covet  the  '•■ 
latter  country,  and  its  acquisition  would  undoubtedly  have  render-  ■ 
ed  his  dominiuns  more  compact,  and  given  him  a  continued  line  of  ] 
territory,  fiom  the  frontier  of  Turkey  to  the  Mediterranean  sea,  • 
while  it  niight  have  relieved  him  from  the  charge  of  a  more  distant  • 
portion  of  his  dominions,  held  by  a  vei7  uncertain  and  troublesome 
tenurOk     Joseph  had  calculated  upon  overcoming  all  the  ditlicul-  • 
ties  that  might  arise  fr^"  foreign  powers;  had  secured  the  consent 
of  Russia,  and  even  negotiated  the  proposed  exchange  with  the 
elector  of  Bavaria,  f  wlio,  if  it  took  place,  was  to  be  made  king  of 
Austrasia  or  Burgundy.)     But  Frederic  11.,  at  the  age  of  seventy- 
four,  again  interposed  :  and,  by  forming  with  the  several  princes  and 
states  of  the  empire  what  was  called  the  Germanic  union,  for  main- 
taining the  integrity  and  indivisibility  of  the  Germanic  body  in  gen- 
eral, eft'ectually  prevented  the  exchange  so  much  desired.     I'he 
principal  parties  to  the  union,  which  was  settled  and  confirmed,  Juiy 
1,785,  were,  besides  the  king  of  Prussia,  the  electors  of  Hanover^ 
Saxony,  and  Mentz,  the  margrave  of  Anspach,  and  the  duke  ot 
Deux  Fonts.    The  whole  scheme,  indeed,  was  found  to  be  so  im- 
practicable, that  the  emperor  and  elector  judged  it  prudent  to  deny 
tliat  any  conventioil  to  that  effect  had  taken  place  between  them. 

9.  In  1,788,  Joseph  incurred  considerable  disgrace,  by  his  attacks 
upon  Turkey.  He  had  prrjected,  in  conjunction  wilh  the  empress 
of  Russia,  whom  he  had  dattered  by  a  visit  to  the  Crimea,  the  total 
dismemberment  of  that  empire  ;  but  blunder  upon  blunder  defeated 
his  purposes,  and  he  retired  from  the  contest  blamed  by  all  parties. 
In  1,789,  however,  hostilities  were  renewed,  and  in  the  battle  of 
Rimnik,  which  took  place  in  the  month  of  September,  the  combined 
forces  of  Russia  and  Austria  gained  an  important  victory  over  the 
Turks,  under  the  command  of  the  grand  vizir  r.  The  capture  of 
Belgrade  soon  after,  by  the  army  of  Lo«don,  completed  their 
triumphs  ;  but  their  success  occasioned  jealousies,  which  effectually 
interrupted  the  career  of  victory.  England,  Holland,  and  Prussia, 
began  to  be  alarmed  at  the  increasing  power  of  Russia  and  Austria; 
and,  by  fomenting  the  troubles  in  the  iNetherlands,  drew  the  atten- 
tion of  J  oseph  from  his  intended  encroachments  on  Turkey. 


MODKRIS  HISTORY.  515 

10.  In  no  part  of  his  dominions  were  his  attempts  at  reformation 
worse  received,  or  worse  managed,  than  in  the  Netherlands.  Di- 
vided into  many  provinces,  and  each  province  governed  by  distinct 
laws,  customs,  and  regulations ;  some  secured  by  charter,  in  the 
enjoyment  of  important  privileges  and  immunities,  nothing  could 
possibly  have  been  thought  of  more  vexatious  than  that  of  redu- 
cing them  all  under  one  system  of  administration,  commencing  with 
the  sudden  and  violent  abolition  of  many  convents,  and  the  sup- 
pression of  many  institutions,  forms,  and  ceremonies,  by  long  usage 
become  little  less  than  sacred  in  the  eyes  of  tiie  people.  The 
courts  of  law,  the  universities  and  schools,  were  subjected  to  sim- 
ilar changes,  nor  did  the  imperial  decrees  spare  any  order  of  men, 
or  any  public  establishment,  however  respectable  in  other  respects, 
from  undergoing  this  severe  ordeal,  and  revolutionary  process. 
Nothing  could  exceed  the  consternation  and  disgust  with  which  these 
new  regulations  were  received  by  all  ranks  of  persons,  from  the. 
lowest  to  the  highest ;  for  even  the  governors-general  sided  with 
the  refractory  party,  and  were  averse  from  carrying  into  executionr 
a  system  so  exceedingly  repugnant  to  the  teelings  of  the  people  in 
general,  but  especially  of  the  principal  pei'sons  among'=it  the  cler- 
gy, laity,  and  magistrates.  Riots  and  disturbances  took  place,  as 
might  have  been  expected,  in  many  parts,  and  France  was  appHed 
to  for  assistance,  as  guarantee  of  their  liberties.  The  whole  au- 
thority of  government  seemed  to  be  vested  in  the  minister  plenipo- 
tentiary of  the  emperor,  count  Belgioso,  who  had  to  contend  alone 
against  the  formidable  opposition  that  had  sprung  up ;  for  not  only 
the  governors-general,  as  has  been  before  intimated,  were  on  the 
side  of  the  pervple,  but  even  the  imperial  minister,  prince  Kaunitz, 
who  greatly  disapproved  the  violent  proceedin|;9  of  his  master. 

1 1.  Joseph  at  first  assumed  an  appearance  oi  rigour  and  intlexibili- 
ty,- in  the  pursuit  of  his  new  measures,  little  suitable  to  the  actual 
situation  of  afilairs.  He  had  not  foreseen  so  formidable  a  resistance, 
and  when  it  occurred,  he  depended  too  much  on  his  means  for  sup- 
pressing it ;  embarrassed  as  he  was  at  the  time  by  the  war  with 
Fiukey.  After  much  threatening,  therefore,  and  strong  marks  of 
displeasure  against  the  Bclgic  states,  he  found  it  advisable.to  com- 
promise matters,  for  a  time  at  least:  or  rather  to  offer  to  rWlinqui^h 
all  the  objectionable  parts  of  his  new  system  ;  to  re-establish  the 
ancient  constitution,  confirm  the  celebrated  charter,  called  La  joy- 
aise  E/i<ree,  and  submit  to  have  the  case  referred  to  (lelegates  on  both 
sides.  In  this,  however,  he  was  not  sincere,  and  his  duplicity  and 
arbitrary  disposition  becoming  every  day  more  manifest,  it  was 
impossible  to  prevent  things  coming  to  extremity.  The  example 
of  France  was  contagiotis  ;  the  whole  population  became  divided 
into  two  jparties  of  patriots  and  royalists,  and  the  former  were 
soon  found  to  be  the  strongest.  'In  November,  l,789y  the  states  de- 
clared their  independence,  in  consequence  of  a  meeting  held  at 
Ghent ;  the  soldiery  began  to  take  part  with  the  people.  On  the 
26th  of  December,  the  states  of  Brabant  assumed  the  sovereign  pow- 
er, in  which  they  were  soon  followed  by  the  states  of  the  other 

grovinces  ;  a  federal  union  was  formed,  under  the  title  of  the  United 
elgic  States,  and  a  congress  of  deputies  to  administer  the  new  gov- 
ernment, appointed  to  assemble  on  the  11th  of  January,  1,790. 

12.  Thus  were  the  low  countries  sacrificed  to  the  injudicious  and 
hasty  measures  of  the  emperor,  who  was  too  late  rendered  sensible 
of  his  errors,  when  he  found  them  perfectly  irreparable,  either  m 

Dd  40 


SH  MODERN  HISTORY 

Ihe  way  of  conciliation  or  force.  He  lived  to  see  his  offers  of  peace 
and  reconciliation  rejected  with  scorn  and  contempt,  while  he  totally 
failed  in  his  endeavours  to  procure  the  aid  of  foreign  states  to  reduce 
his  revolted  subjects  to  obedience.     In  other  parts  of  his  dominions; 

Karticulariy  in  Hungary,  the  same  spirit  of  opposition  to  his  plans 
ad  been  excited,  and  kept  up  by  similar  measures  of  irritation  and 
defiance,  till  the  time  of  his  decease  drew  near.  He  would  then 
willingly  have  retraced  his  steps,  and  did,  indeed,  take  some  meas- 
ures to  conciliate  the  offended  Hungarians;  but  the  termination  of  his 
life  was  fast  approaching,  hastened  no  doubt  by  the  opposition  and 
ill  fortune  whicn  had  attended  almost  the  whole  of  his  political  career. 
He  had  weakened  his  constitution  in  all  probability  by  the  restless 
life  he  had  led,  and  the  hardships  and  fatigues  to  which  he  had  ex- 
posed himself  in  the  field ;  but  he  suffered  severely  in  his  mind  from 
the  coui'se  things  had  taken  in  the  Netherlands,  and  though  he  e>uHb- 
ited  in  his  last  moments  the  fortitude,  rc?ignation,  and  composure 
of  a  true  christian,  yet  it  is  tndy  melancholy  to  think  that  his  whole 
reign  was  passed  in  rendering  himself  and  othei's  wretched.  He 
expired  on  the  20th  of  February,  1,790,;  in  the  forty-ninth  year  of 
his  age ;  and  leaving  no  issue,  was  succeeded  in  his  hereditary  do- 
minions by  his  brother  Leopold,  who  was  also  chosen  emperor  before 
the  end  of  the  year  in  which  his  brother  died. 

13.  The  reign  of  the  emperor  Leopold  II.  was  very  short,  and 
far  from  a  happy  one.  His  brother  had  left  his  dominions  in  a 
wretched  state  of  discontent  and  confusion ;  diminished,  in  some 
mo-t  important  instances,  and  pretty  generally  exposed  to  the  attacks 
of  formidable  and  designing  enemies.  Leopold  had  been  able  to  do 
some  good  amongst  his  Tuscan  subjects  before  he  ascended  the 
royal  and  imperial  thrones,  but  his  genius  and  talents  were  judged 
to  be  unequal  to  the  government  of  a  mighty  empire.    He  soon 

fave  satisfaction  however,  to  the  aching  minds  of  his  new  subjects, 
y  restoring  to  many  their  ancient  privileges,  and  revoking  the  in- 
udicious  and  irritating  innovations  ol  his  deceased  brother.  Nor  did 
le  manage  his  foreign  negotiations  ill,  which,  had  they  failed,  might 
have  involved  him  in  inextricable  diflicuUies.  By  flattering  the  Eng- 
lish, and  appearing  to  enter  into  their  views  in  regard  to  Turkey 
and  the  Netherlands,  he  deterred  the  king  of  Prussia  from  prosecut- 
ing his  designs  upon  Gallicia,  which  he  wished  to  procure  for  Po- 
land, in  exchange  for  Dantzic  and  Thorn.  Afterwards,  by  fomenting 
that  monarch's  resentment. against  England,  who  appeared  to  have 
abandoned  him,  he  managed  to  form  a  union  with  the  very  court 
which  at  the  commencement  of  his  reign  had  manifested  the  great- 
est symptoms  of  rivalry  and  opposition.  This  accommodation  with 
the  king  of  Prussia  greatly  facilitated  his  accession  to  the  imperial 
crown,  which  was  conferred  upon  him,  October  9,  1,790. 

14.  By  very  firm,  but  conciliatory  behaviour  towards  the  Hun- 
garians, who  seem  to  have  imbibed  at  this  time  many  of  the  demo- 
cratic principles  of  the  French,  he  not  only  effectually  ingratiated 
himself  with  the  leading  persons  of  the  kingdom,  but  regained  the 
affections  of  the  people  at  large,  which  had  been  sadly  alienated 
through  his  brother's  unwise  interference  with  their  most  favourite 
customs  and  established  rights. 

15.  Leopold  did  not  so  easily  settle  his  disputes  with  the  Nether- 
lands. The  mediation  of  England,  Holland,  and  Prussia,  had  been 
offered,  but  he  rather  inclined  to  rely  on  his  own  strength,  and  hia 
cooaexions  with  France,  which  were  every  hour  becoming  mor« 


fc 


MODERN  HISTORY.  315 

uncertain  and  precarious.    He  had  recourse  therefore  to  force,  and 
succeeded  indeed  in  re-establishing  the  imperial  authority,  but  total- 

g*  detached  from  any  cordial  returns  of  loyalty  on  the  part  of  the 
glgiiuis,  which  became  but  too  apparent,  when  his  subsequent  dis- 
putes with  the  revolutionary  government  of  France  exposed  those 
parts  of  the  Austrian  dominions  to  fresh  troubles  and  disturbances. 

16.  The  situation  of  the  emperor  Leopold,  it  must  be  granted, 
was  very  embarrassing  in  the  first  years  of  the  French  revolution. 
The  constraint  put  upon  the  royal  family  of  France,  to  which  he 
stood  so  nearly  allied,  and  the  threats  denounced  so  openly  against 
the  queen  his  sister^  in  particular,  must  have  greatly  afiected  his 
private  feelings,  while  many  of  the  German  states,  whose  rights, 
ecclesiastical  and    territorial,  guarantied  by    the   peace   of  West- 

Ehalia,  had  been  invaded  in  Alsace,  Franche  Compte,  and  Lorraine, 
y  the  decree  of  the  national  assembly,  for  abolishing  the  feudal 
privileges,  publicly  called  upon  him  to  interpose  in  their  behalf,  as 
head  ot  the  empire  ;  as  he  stood  bound  to  do  indeed  by  his  capitula- 
tion with  the  diet,  on  receiving  the  imperial  crown.  In  regard  to 
the  royal  family  of  France,  his  first  plans,  in  conjunction  with  the 
king  of  Prussia,  were  clearly  injudicious,  and  injurious  to  the  cause 
he  took  in  hand.  The  French  revolutionists  were  not  in  a  state  to 
be  intimidated  by  angry  manifestoes  or  threats  of  foreign  interfe- 
rence. The  emperor  himself,  indeed,  did  often  appear  cautious  of 
embroiling  his  country  in  a  war  with  France,  but  was  at  length  prob- 
ably provoked  into  it,  by  the  violence  of  the  Jacobinical  faction  at 
Paris,  rather  than  persuaded  by  the  representations  of  the  emigrant 
princes,  or  royal  family  at  Paris,  as  was  so  strongly  alleged.  Beyond 
the  alliance  with  Prussia,  however,  concluded  on  the  19th  of  Febru- 
ary, 1,792,  the  emperor  Leopold  can  scarcely  be  said  to  have  had 
any  share  in  the  war  with  France ;  for,  on  the  27  th  of  that  very 
month,  he  was  seized  with  an  illness,  which  in  three  days  terminated 
his  life,  at  the  early  age  of  forty-four,  leaving  his  dominions  in  a 
state  of  more  serious  danger  than  when  he  began  his  reign. 

17.  The  emperor  Leopold  was  succeeded  in  his  hereditary  states 
by  his  eldest  son  Francis^:  born  in  1,768,  who  became  emperor  in 

"  the  July  following  his  father's  death,  and  still  reigns.  This  mon- 
arch had  to  begin  those  hostilities  with  France  which  his  predeces- 
sor seems  to  have  contemplated  with  considerable  distrust,  and 
he  became  a  party  to  the  too  hasty  proceedings  of  his  Prussian  ally 
and  the  duke  of  Brunswick,  who  increased  the  irritation  and  pro- 
voked the  resistance  of  the  French,  by  menaces  extremely  impo- 
litic, considering  the  actual  state  of  things.  They  endeavoured,  in- 
deed, to  throw  the  blame  on  the  emigrant  princes,  who,  it  was 
alleged,  had  misled  them  by  false  representations  of  the  good  dispo- 
sition of  the  people  in  the  interior  of  France.  They  expected  to 
find  a  large  majority  ready  to  co-operate  with  them  in  the  overthrow 
of  the  ruling  faction. 

18.  The  emperor  soon  found  himself  in  a  very  awkward  situa- 
tion. Instead  of  invading  France  with  any  effect,  he  had  the  mor- 
tification to  see  his  own  dominions  invaded  by  the  French,  under 
a  general  (Duraourier),  who  had  boasted  that  he  would  subdue 
the  Austrian  Netherlands  before  the  end  of  the  year ;  an  engage- 
ment which  he  in  a  great  measure  fulfilled,  through  the  disaffection 
of  the  Belgians,  who  were  ready  enough  to  throw  off  the  Austrian 
yoke,  heedless  that  they  were  in  the  way  of  having  another  imme- 
«Iiatelji'  imposed  upon  theiu  still  more  galling  and  vexatious.    In  the 


316  MODERN  HISTORY 

month  of  November,  1,792.  all  subjection  to  the  imperial  authority 
was  openly  renounced  in  tne  very  capital  of  the  Netherlands,  and 
the  French  allowed  to  enter  the  city  in  triumph.  While  these  things 
were  going  on  in  Flanders,  Germany  itself  was  invaded  by  the  French 
general,  Custine,  Mentz  taken,  and  heavy  contributions  levied  in  the 
towns  of  Worms  and  Frankibrt. 

19.  Early  in  the  year  1,793,  the  Austrians  under  general  Clair- 
fait  and  the  prince  of  Saxe  Coburg,  obtained  advantages  over  the 
French,  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  which  were  followed  by  the  capture 
of  the  towns  of  Valenciennes  and  Conde,  in  conjunction  with  the 
British  army  under  the  command  of  the  duke  of  York.  A  separa 
tion  of  the  two  armies  afterwards  took  place,  which  was  attended 
with  unpleasant  circumstances,  and  seems  to  have  happened  very 
contrary  to  the  desire  and  wishes  of  the  Austrian  commanders. 
The  troops  under  the  duke  laid  siege  to  Dunkirk,  but  were  unsuc- 
cessful in  their  attempts  against  the  place,  being  obliged  to  abandon 
the  undertaking  witti  the  loss  of  the  greatest  part  of  their  artillery 
and  stores. 

2(J.  In  the  year  1,794,  the  allied  armies  again  acted  in  conjunction 
against  the  !•  ranch  under  general  Fichegru,  the  emperor  himself 
having  joined  the  camp,  but  the  overwhelming  power  of  the  French 
baffled  all  their  atteni]|)ts  to  defend  the  Netherlands,  which  fell  en- 
tirely into  the  hands  o<  the  enemy. 

2l".  The  share  whirh  the  emperor  Francis  II.  had  in  the  final 
dismemberment  of  Poland,  1,795,  will  be  shewn  in  the  history  of 
that  unhappy  country.  The  king  of  Prussia  having  gained  great 
advantages  by  this  transaction,  declined  any  longer  assisting  the  allies 
against  France,  and  in  open  violation  of  his  engagements  with  Eng- 
land, made  a  peace  with  the  French  government,  April  5,  1,795,  to 
the  great  disgust  of  the  confederates. 

22.  The  contests  between  the  armies  of  Germany  and  France, 
in  the  years  1,796,  1,797,  were  carried  on  with  the  greatest  vigour, 
skill,  and  bnivery,  on  the  Rhine,  in  Suabia,  in  the  Tyrol,  and  in 
Italy.  In  1,796,  the  archduke  Charles,  brother  of  the  emperor, 
acquired  great  glory  by  checking  the  progress  of  the  two  celebrat- 
ed French  generals,  Jourdan  and  Moreau :  and,  though  compelled 
to  retire  before  Buonaparte,  in  1,797,  and  to  subscribe  to  the  peace 
of  Campo-Formio,  as  w  ill  be  related  elsewhere,  his  credit  with  the 
army  remained  undiminished,  and  his  reputation  as  a  general  unim- 
paired. On  the  renewal  of  the  war  in  1,799,  at  the  instigation  of 
the  Neapolitan  court,  the  Austrians  were  assisted  by  the  Russians, 
and  at  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century,  the  tide  of  affairs  seemed 
to  be  turning  greatly  against  the  French,  when  a  new  revolution  in 
the  fluctuating  government  of  that  disturbed  people,  suddenly  chang- 
ed the  lace  of  things,  as  will  be  shewn  in  our  continuation  of  the 
history  of  France. 

SECTION  XII. 

FRANCE,  FROM  THE  OPENING  OF  THE  ASSEMBLY  OF  THE 
STATES-GENERAL,  1,789,  TO  THE  DEATHS  OF  THE  KING 
AND  QUEEN,  1,793. 

1.  The  states-general  met.  May  5,  1,789.    The  king's  speech  has 
been  much  admired,  as  the  address  of  an  upright,  humaoe,  an4 


MODERN  HISTORY.  31 , 

pfttriotic  prince,  to  a  respectable  assemblage  of  his  subjects,  by 
whose  political  and  legislative  exertions  he  hoped  to  improve  the 
state  of  the  nation.  The  nobles  and  clergy  had  expressed  a  willing- 
ness to  forego  their  pecuniary  privileges,  but  there  were  other 
grounds  upon  which  they  seemed  likely  to  he  at  variance  with  the 
third  estate.  The  latter  were  for  obliterating  all  traces  of  distinc- 
tion in  their  legislative  capacity;  while  the  Ibrmer  were  so  impru- 
dent as  to  take  some  steps,  not  only  indicative  of  an  invincible  attach- 
ment to  such  distinctions,  but  bearing  an  air  of  arrogance  and  deh- 
ance  in  them,  ill  suited  to  the  times.  The  very  costume  adopted  on 
the  occasion  was  calculated  to  render  the  representatives  of  the 
commonalty  almost  ridiculous  in  the  eyes  of  their  countrymen. 
The  nobles  and  clergy  were  distinguished  by  robes  peculiarly  rich 
and  brilliant;  but  the  whole  of  the  third  estate  were  directed  to 
appear  in  the  common  and  antiquated  black  di^ess  of  the  members  of 
the  iaw,  though  of  various  callings  and  prolessions.  As  soon,  how- 
ever, as  the  commons  had  verihed  their  powers  and  were  prepared 
to  act,  without  waiting  for  the  concurrence  of  the  ot'ier  two  order*, 
it  was  proposed  by  aJM.  Le  Grand,  and  seconded  by  the  Abbe  Sieyos, 
to  call  their  meeting  the  '•  .National  Assembly,"'  as  forming  a  national 
representation  one  and  indivisible.  This  was  eagerly  adopted  !iv 
a  majority  of  the  members,  but  objected  to  by  the  king ;  at  length, 
however,  some  of  the  clergy  and  nobles  having  joined  the  third  estate, 
the  king  himself  condescended  to  approve  and  sanction  the  union,  a 
matter  of  great  triumph  to  the  popular  party,  and  which,  in  facL 
made  them  the  arbiters  of  the  destiny  of  France. 

2.  On  the  11th  of  July,  1,789,  the  king  thought  it  necessary  to 
dismiss  M.  Necker;  many  tumults  and  insurrections  were  the  con- 
sequence of  this  unpopular  proceeding ;  the  Bastile  state  prison, 
Oiice  crowded  with  the  victims  of  arbitrary  power,  but  at  'his  mo- 
ment, and  under  the  mild  reign  of  Lewis  XVI.,  almost  empty,  was 
besieged  by  the  mob,  taken,  and  razed  to  the  ground.  After  many 
tumults  of  this  kind,  the  king  judged  it  expedient  to  comply  wiih 
the  wishes  of  his  people,  and  to  recall  the  discarded  misu^ter;  he 
was  also  induced  by  circumstances,  to  yield  to  another  demand  of 
more  importance,  namely,  the  dismissal  of  all  his  troops  Irom  the 
environs  of  Paris  and  Versailles.  In  the  meanwhile,  the  marquis  de 
la  Fayette,  who  had  been  engaged  in  America,  and  there  imbibed  a 
spirit  of  hberty,  was  tixed  upon  to  take  the  command  of  the  nevr 
miiitia  or  city  guard.  Alarmed  at  the  appearance  of  things  at  this 
period,  many  nobles,  and  even  one  of  the  king's  brothers,  left  the 
kingdom.  This  had  imdoubtedly  a  bad  effect ;  it  not  only  left  the 
king  more  exposed  to  the  violence  of  faction,  but  seemed  to  betoken 
a  disregard  of  the  liberties  of  their  country,  and  a  settled  purpose  of 
invoking  foreign  aid. 

3.  The  national  assembly  soon  divided  itself  into  two  parties; 
the  aristocrats.^  or  «>uch  as  not  only  favoured  royalty,  but  to  a  cer- 
tain extent,  the  privileged  orders,  nobles,  and  clergy;  and  the 
democrats^  or  advocates  of  freedom ;  the  sworn  enemies  of  all  op- 
pressive and  distinct  privileges;  they  were  also  distinguished  into 
royalists  and  patriots.  Among  the  former  we  may  reckon  the  mod- 
erates, whose  speeches  in  the  assembly  are  justly  to  be  admired, 
for  their  extreme  good  sense  and  rational  politics.  Of  the  nobles, 
it  should  be  observed,  that  the  most  obnoxious  were  those  who 
bad  purchased  their  nobility,  amotmting  to  many  thousan<is.  Of 
the  ancient,  and  hereditary  nobiliiy  there  were,  it  was  comput- 


318  MODERN  HISTORV. 

ed,  not  more  than  two  hundred  families  in  the  whole  kingdom 
when  the  revolution  began,  nor  were  their  privileges  and  exemp- 
tions by  any  means  so  great  as  was  pretended.  It  was  soon  seen 
which  party  was  the  most  powerful;  on  the  4th  of  August,  1,789, 
decrees  were  passed,  as  if  with  the  full  consent  of  the  whole  as- 
sembly, for  the  abolition  of  the  privileges  of  the  nobles  and  clergy, 
provinces  and  towns;  while  persons  of  every  rank  and  description 
were  pronounced  to  be  eligible  to  all  civil,  military,  and  ecclesi- 
astical appointments.  The  royal  family  were  exposed  to  horrible 
insults  and  indignities  at  Versailles,  and  at  length  almost  forcibly 
conveyed  to  Paris ;  in  consequence  of  which  removal,  the  assem- 
bly also  adjourned  its  sittings  to  the  capitJil,  a  fatal  step  to  take, 
as  it  could  not  but  expose  them  to  the  tyranny  of  a  faction,  and 
the  fury  of  the  Parisian  mob.  Among  the  measures  adopted  at 
this  period,  the  mo«*  impoitant  were  those  which  placed  all 
church  property  at  the  disposal  of  the  nation,  dissolved  all  monas- 
tic establishments,  feudal  privileges  and  rights,  and  suppressed  the 
provincial  parliaments  and  assemblies,  by  artfully  dividing  the  king- 
dom into  83  departments,  the  work  of  the  Abbe  Sieyes ;  by  this  act 
the  very  name  of  province  was  obliterated  from  the  French  vocabu- 
lary, and  with  it  all  pecular  rights,  laws,  and  jurisdictions ;  all  pro- 
Tincial  goveniors,  commandants,  sub-delegates,  presidents,  and  tri- 
bunals of  election  ;  mayors,  echevins,  jurats,  courts  of  aid,  chambers 
of  accounts,  &,c.  Every  thing  was  at  this  time  transacted  in  the  way 
of  violence  and  destruction ;  every  law  voted  by  acclamation,  h  itn 
little  patience  and  less  judgment ;  thus,  when  it  was  proposed  to 
abolish  all  titles  and  hereditary  distinctions,  armorial  bearings,  live- 
ries, &c.  the  democrats  would  scarcely  suner  the  question  to  be  de- 
bated, and  it  was  carried  by  a  large  majority,  though  so  many  mem- 
bers of  the  assenibly  must  have  been  deeply  affected  by  it 

4.  The  national  assembly  was  slow  in  preparing  a  constitutir:ial 
code,  particularly  in  deciding  upon  the  three  following  questions. 
Whether  such  assemblies  should  be  permanent  or  periodical  ?  com- 
posed of  one  or  two  chambers  ?  and  whether  the  king's  veto  should 
be  absolute  or  suspensive  ?  While  these  things  were  in  agitation,  the 
Ring  had  attempted  to  rescue  himself  from  the  trammels  imposed 
upon  him,  by  a  timely  escape  from  Paris ;  but  he  was  stopped  on  his 
journey,  and  compelled  to  return.  At  length  the  assembly  terminat- 
ed its  labours ;  a  constitutional  act  was  prepared  and  presented  to 
the  king,  of  which,  after  an  internal  of  ten  days,  he  declared  his  ac- 
ceptance. Had  he  been  free,  it  is  impossible  that  he  could  have 
given  his  sanction  to  a  measure  which  subjected  the  monarch  to  the 
will  of  a  domineering  assembly,  and  was  ill-calculated  to  repress  the 
efforts  and  designs  of  a  licentious  and  restless  taction.  The  assembly, 
however,  having  thus  completed  its  task,  was  dissolved  by  the  king 
on  the  Sdth  day  of  September.  l^^Slj  being  succeeded  by  another 
convention,  denominated  "  the  legislative  assembly,"  whose  delibera- 
tions were  confined  to  the  space  only  of  one  year ;  none  of  the 
members  of  the  former  assembly  being  eligible  to  the  latter. 

5.  In  the  year  1,792,  Austria  and  Prussia,  in  consequence  of  a 
declaration  and  agreement  (according  to  all  accounts  imprudent) 
determined  upon  at  Pilnitz,  in  the  preceding  year,  began  to  inter- 
fere in  behalf  of  the  king  and  royal  family,  but  so  far  from  alarnv 
ing  tlie  revolutionary  party  in  France,  their  interposition  seemed 
only  to  have  the  effect  of  instigating  it  to  acts  of  greater  violence 
and  more  determioed  courage.    War  was  without  scruple  declared 


MODERN  HISTORY.  319 

against  the  king  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia,  in  the  month  of  April, 
and  every  preparation  made  to  resist  all  counter  revolutionary 
projects.  Sweden  and  Russia  had  shewn  a  strong  disposition  also  to 
interfere;  but  the  assassination  of  the  Swedish  monarch,  GusLavus 
III.,  in  1,792,  and  the  distance  of  Russia  from  France,  prevented 
both  those  countries  engaging  in  actual  hostilities.  In  the  mean 
time,  Paris  became  a  scene  of  dreadful  confusion ;  every  day  some 
new  faction  seemed  to  arise  to  balHe  the  attempts  of  those  who 
had  yet  wisdom  or  temperance  enough  to  prevent  things  coming  to  an 
extremity.  The  legislature  was  at  tiie  mercy  of  the  Parisian  clubs, 
and  of  the  mobs,  too  freely  admitted  into  the  galleries  of  the  assem- 
bly. The  king  was  insulted  in  the  grossest  manner  for  having  ven- 
tured to  interpose  his  suspensive  negative  to  the  passing  of  two 
severe  decrees ;  one  against  those  wlio  had  emigrated,  and  the 
other  against  the  clergy  who  declined  taking  the  civic  oath.  M.  la 
Fay:;tte,  who  had  been  appointed  to  take  the  command  of  the  army, 
wrote  from  his  camp  to  admonish  the  national  representatives  to  res- 
cue the  country  and  the  king  from  the  factious  designs  of  the  enrag- 
ed jacobins ;  but  in  vain ;  it  served  only  to  exasperate  still  more  tiie 
anti-royalists,  and  to  bring  fresh  troubles  on  the  royal  family.  The 
design  of  the  factious  seems  to  have  been,  either  to  intimidate  the  king 
to  a  degree  of  abject  submission,  or  to  provoke  him  to  act  against  the 
constitution  in  a  manner  that  might  render  him  liable  to  the  ven- 
geance of  the  people.  The  march  of  the  Prussian  army,  and  a 
threatening  manifesto  issued  by  its  commander,  the  duke  of  Bruns- 
wick, irritated  the  violent  party  into  a  frantic  determination  to  abolish 
royalty.  The  king  was  supposed,  or  represented,  to  be  confederate 
with  the  enemy,  and  deeply  engaged  in  a  plot  with  his  emigrant 
brothers  and  relatives,  to  counteract  the  revolution. 

6.  A  dreadful  attack  was  made  on  the  palace  in  the  month  of 
August,  the  particulars  of  which  are  too  disgusting  to  dwell  upon; 
but  it  completed  the  triumph  of  the  demagogues  ;  tor  in  compeiUng 
the  king's  guards  to  act  on  their  detence,  they  had  it  h)  their  power 
to  charge  the  king  himself  with  having  made  war  upon  his  people. 
Nothing  was  now  heard  but  the  cry  of"  liberty  and  equality.  The 
"  chief  of  the  executive  power,"  as  they  cliose  to  denominate  his  maj- 
esty, was  formally  suspended  from  his  functions,  and,  under  the  pre- 
tence of  gimrdianskip^  committed  with  his  queen  and  tamily  to  the 
temple. 

7.  The  assembly  appeared  from  this  moment  to  be  as  much  in 
the  power  of  the  faction  as  the  king.  The  period  has  been  too 
justly  distinguished  by  the  appropriate  title  of  ^  the  reign  of  terror." 
The  execrable  Robespierre  was  in  reality  at  the  head  of  affairs,  and 
'i  would  be  impossible  adequately  to  describe  the  atrocities  of  his 
merciless  career.  It  would  exceed  the  limits  of  this  work  to  enter 
far  into  particular  details.  La  Fayette  abandoned  the  army,  as 
unwilling  to  serve  under  such  masters ;  his  conduct  has  been  ar- 
raigned, as  reflecting  at  once  upon  his  loyalty,  his  patriotism,  and 
his  courage ;  it  was  thought  that  with  the  army  so  much  at  his 
disposal  as  it  seemed  to  be,  had  his  principles  been  such  as  he  pre 
tended,  he  would  have  marched  back  to  Paris,  and  saved  his  coun 
try  and  his  king  from  the  ruin  with  which  they  were  threatened- 
In  the  meanwhile  the  combined  troops  of  Austria  and  Prussia  were 
approaching  the  frontiers ;  differences  subsisted  in  the  army ;  nor 
was  general  Dumourier,  who  had  succeeded  to  the  command  oa 
the  retirement  of  La  Fayette,  generally  confided  in,  either  by  the 


320  MODERN  HISTORV. 

army  or  the  faction.  To  lessen  the  number  of  aristocrats,  many 
suspected  of  belonging  to  that  party  were  hurried  to  prison,  where, 
without  scruple,  and  with  such  barbaiity  as  is  not  to  be  paralleled 
in  the  records  of  history,  they  were  almost  all  assassinated,  to  the 
amount,  as  it  has  been  estimated,  of  not  less  than  tive  thousand. 
This  happening  on  the  second  of  September,  all  who  were  con- 
cerned in  it,  as  principals  or  abettors,  were  denominated  Septem- 
bri^ers. 

8.  These  wore  but  preludes  to  a  catastrophe,  if  possible,  still 
more  shocking ;  a  murder  perpetrated  with  a  studied  dehberation, 
and  with  all  the  mockery  of  legal  forms  and  ceremonies.  However 
hastened  by  the  hostile  approach  of  the  confederate  powers,  and 
the  injudicious  threats  they  threw  out  in  case  any  violence  should 
be  offered  to  the  king's  person,  nothing  could  possibly  excui^e  the 
perversion  of  justice,  and  gruss  mhumanity  which  marlved  the  trials 
of  (he  king  and  queen ;  nothing  exceed  the  melancholy  circumstan- 
ces of  their  imprisonment  and  execution!  On  the  11th  of  Decem- 
ber, 1,792,  the  king  appeared  before  the  convention,  to  hear  the 
charges  preferred  against  him.  "  You  are  accused,"  .said  the 
president,  "  by  the  French  nation,  of  having  committed  a  multitude 
of  crimes,  tor  the  purpose  of  re-estaili-i.ing  your  tyranny  by  the 
destruction  of  liberty."  He  then  entered  into  a  few  particulars. 
The  king,  with  great  dignity,  replied,  "No  existing  laws  prohibit- 
■ed  me  from  doiiig  as  I  did ;  I  had  no  wish  to  injure  my  subjects,  no 
intention  of  shedding  tlicir  blood."  Further  accusations  were 
pressed  upon  him,  fiom  which  he  defended  himself  with  the  sjune 
tirmness  and  simplicity  of  langviage,  the  same  coolness  and  intre- 
pidity of  mind.  He  dt'clared  boldly,  that  his  conscience  fully  ac- 
quitted him  of  the  things  laid  to  his  charge,  and  appealed  to  the 
whole  course  of  his  behaviour  and  carriage  towards  them  as  king, 
to  exonerate  himself  tVom  the  horrid  imputation  of  having  been 
eager  and  ready  to  shed  the  blood  of  his  people.  This  charge,  in- 
deed, rested  solely  on  the  events  of  the  10th  of  August,  when  the 
rabble  broke  into  the  palace  of  the  Tuilleries,  and  not  only  men- 
aced the  hves  of  the  king  and  his  family,  but  are  allowed  to  have 
begun  the  sanguinary  part  of  the  conllict,  by  the  murder  of  Hve  of 
his  Swiss  guards,  it  was  not  till  after  this  event  that  the  rest  of 
these  faithlul  adherents  tired  upon  the  aggressors,  and  drew  upon 
themselves  the  vengeance  that  terminated  so  fatally,  for  they  were 
all  destroyed. 

9.  It  having  been  resolved  tLat  the  judgment  and  decision  of  the 
case  should  rest  with  the  national  representatives,  the  convention 
met  on  the  15th  of  January,  1,793,  to  discuss  the  question  of  the 
king's  guilt,  upon  the  charges  so  loosely  and  so  maliciously  brought 
against  him,  when  it  appeared  that  only  thirty-seven  were  disposed 
to  think  favourably  ol  his  conduct.  Six  hundred  and  eighty-three 
members,  with  little  or  no  hesitation,  some,  indeed,  with  the  most 
cruel  eagerness  and  exultation,  pronounced  him  guilty.  An  attempt 
was  made  to  procure  a  reference  of  this  matter  to  the  people  ;  bat 
it  was  over-ruled  by  a  majority  of  one  hundred  and  thirty-nine. 

10.  Having  determined  the  question  of  his  guilt,  that  of  his  pun- 
ishment became  the  next  subject  of  discussion.  It  was  proposed 
to  decide  between  detention,  banishment,  and  death.  After  a  de- 
bate, in  which  the  amiable  monarch  seemed  to  be  regarded  by  many 
as  despotism  personilied,  no  less  than  three  hundred  and  sixty-one, 
or,  according  to  some  accounts,  tlffee  hundred  and  slxtv-six  members, 


MODERN  HISTORY.  321 

voted  peremptorily  for  death  ;  and  on  a  further  question,  whether 
the  execution  of  the  sentence  should  be  suspended  or  take  place 
immediately,  the  votes  for  the  latter  amounted  to  three  hundred  and 
eighty  against  three  hundred  and  ten.  The  king  was  to  be  informed 
of  the  result  of  their  proceedings,  and  to  suffer  death  in  tAventy-four 
hours  afterwards.  The  advocates  for  the  king  were  allowed  te 
address  the  assembly,  and  to  move  an  appeal  to  the  people,  but  with 
out  effect.  On  the  motion  of  Robespierre,  the  decree  was  pro 
nounced  irrevocable,  and  the  king's  defendei-s  debarred  from  any 
further  hearing. 

11.  On  the  21st  of  January  his  majesty,  having  previously  taken 
leave  of  his  family,  and  performed  the  services  of  devotion,  was 
conveyed  to  the  place  of  execution ;  nothing  could  exceed  the 
pious  resignation  with  which  he  submitted  to  the  cruel  and  unjust 
sentence  which  doomed  him  to  death,  and  during  his  passage  to  the 
square  of  the  revolution,  where  the  guillotine  was  erected,  he  be- 
trayed no  symptoms  of  fear  or  anger.  On  the  scaffold,  he  manitVst- 
ed  a  strong  desire  to  address  the  crowd  ;  but  tlie  drums  were  made 
to  sound  louder,  and  he  was  rudely  bidden  to  be  silent ;  in  a  moment 
)(ffter,  his  head  was  severed  from  his  body,  and  shewn  to  the  people 
as  the  head  of  a  tyrant  and  a  traitor! 

12.  Hi'^tory,  both  public  and  private,  has  borne  ample  testimony 
to  the  falsehood  of  the  charges  brought  against  hini ;  every  nation 
in  Europe  concurred  in  condemning  the  conduct  of  the  French  regi 
cides ;  and  though,  in  exciting  the  resentment  of  fresh  enemies, 
England  and  Spain  particularly,  it  threatened  the  ruin  of  the  new 
republic ;  it  appeared  by  no  means  to  have  satisfied  the  blood-thirsty 
vengeance  ot  the  ruling  faction.  The  democratic,  or  repubUcan 
party,  had  long  been  split  into  two  divisions,  and  their  opposition  to 
each  other  seemed  at  this  time  to  be  at  the  height.  Bnssot,  who 
headed  the  Crirondists,  (so  called  from  the  department  of  Gironde^ 
which  some  of  that  side  represented,)  was  still  alive  ;  Robespierre, 
Danton,  and  Marat,  directed  the  movements  of  the  opposite  faction; 
for  some  time  previously  called  the  Mountain^  from  the  elevated  seats 
they  occupied  in  the  hall  of  the  convention. 

13.  It  seemed  now  to  be  a  question  which  of  these  turbulent  par- 
ties should  obtain  the  ascendancy  ;  and  a  contest  of  this  nature  was 
not  likely  to  be  decided  without  a  much  larger  effusion  of  blood. 
"  The  reign  of  terror""  still  continued,  and  many  more  victims  were 

{)reparing  for  the  stroke  of  that  fatal  instrument,  which  seemed  tc 
lave  been  timely  invented  for  the  quick  and  incessant  course  of 
decapitation  and  destruction  now  adopted.  Had  any  thing  been  capa- 
ble of  producing  domestic  union,  it  might  have  been  expected,  from 
the  formidable  contederacy  of  foreign  powers,  armed  against  tne  na- 
tion ;  for,  in  addition  to  Austria  and  Prussia,  England,  Spain,  and 
Portugal,  were  at  open  war  with  France  ;  while  a  royalist  party  had 
arisen  within  its  own  confines,  of  rather  a  formidable  description, 
considering  the  strength  of  the  enemies  without,  and  the  distracted 
state  of  the  government. 

14.- Though  such  was  the  situation  of  the  country,  with  regard 
to  foreign  powers,  and  royalists  at  home,  the  struggle  between  the 
Girondists  and  Robespierrean  faction  was  carried  on  at  Paris  with 
the  utmost  violence  and  precipitation ;  but  the  Mountain  prevailed. 
The  leaders  of  the  Brissotines  were  arrested  and  confined  in  the 
month  of  May,  and  on  the  31st  of  October  following,  all  executed. 
Prissot  himself  saw  sixteen  of  his  party  guillotined  before  it  cume  to 

41 


522  MODERN  HISTORY. 

his  turn,  and  four  were  beheaded  afterwards.  Many  of  them  were 
persons  of  considerable  talents,  and  not  destitute  of  private  virtues, 
had  they  lived  in  less  turbulent  and  trying  times. 

15.  Horrible  as  this  execution  must  have  been,  one  still  more 
appalling  had  engaged  the  attention  of  the  people,  on  the  same  spot, 
only  lifteen  days  belbre.  Loaded  with  insults,  and  deprived  of  every 
possible  comfort  or  consolation,  "  the  widow  of  Lewis  Capet,"  as 
they  chose  to  call  their  queen,  (a  princess  of  Austria,  and  daughter 
of  the  high-minded  Maria  Theresa,)  had  not  been  suffered  to  enjoy 
one  moment  of  repose  from  the  day  of  the  king's  execution ;  prep- 
arations were  soon  after  made  for  her  own  trial,  which,  if  possible, 
was  conducted  in  a  manner  still  more  revolting  to  every  feeling 
mind,  than  that  which  had  been  adopted  in  the  case  of  her  unhappy 
consort.  Her  guilt  and  her  punishment  were  as  soon  decided  upon  ; 
but  even  after  tlli^sa(l  act  of  vengeance  and  injustice,  shocking  circum- 
stances of  ignominy,  degradation,  and  persecution  took  place,  scarce- 
ly to  be  credited  as  the  acts  of  any  portion  of  a  people  at  all  advanced 
in  civilization ;  she  was  cast  into  a  dungeon,  and  delivered  into  the 
custody  of  a  gaoler  seemingly  selected  on  purpose  to  insult  over 
her  misfortunes,  and  aggravate  her  sufiierings.  On  the  dreadful  day 
of  her  exe  :ution,  she  was  conveyed  to  the  scaffold  in  a  common  cart, 
with  her  hands  tied  behind  her,  amid  the  brutal  shouts  of  an  infuriat- 
ed populace.  Thus  died,  in  the  38th  year  of  her  age,  the  queen 
of  one  of  the  greatest  kingdoms  of  the  earth ;  a  princess,  who, 
though  not  entirely  free  from  faults,  had,  till  this  fatal  revolution, 
lived  in  all  the  splendour  and  luxury  of  a  court,  the  marked  olgect, 
not  only  of  admrration  and  adulation,  but  of  homage  so  prcfound,  and, 
in  some  instances  so  senile  and  ensiiari7J^,  as  to  palliate  and  account 
for  all  the  errors  of  her  short,  but  eventlul  life, 


SECTION  XIII. 

GREAT  BRITALN,   FROM   THE  CONCLUSION  OF  THE   AlTERl-  i 

CAN  WAR,  1,783,  TO  THE  PEACE  OF  AMIENS,  1,802.  , 

^ 

L  From  the  peace  of  Versailles,  in  1,783,  to  the  commencement  i 
of  the  year  1,793,  Great  Britain  kept  free  from  war,  though  not 
without  some  disptifes  with   foreign   jiowers,  and   occasional  calls 

npon  her  to  interpose,  as  an  ally  or  mediatrix,  in  the.afliiirs  of  other  1 

slates,   Holland   particularly,      t^oon   after  the    termination   of   the  il 

American  war,   extraordinary   changes  in  the   administration   took  ' 

place.      The  ministry  tliat   negotiated   the   peace,  at  the   head  of  < 

which  was  the  earl  of  iShelburne,  was  displaced,  and  succeeded  by  , 

what  was  called  the  coalition  ministry,  from  the  extraordinary  cir-  i 

cumstance  of  Mr.  Fox  and  lord  IS^orth  becoming  joint  secretaries  of  \ 

state,  after  an  opposition  peculiarly  animated,  and  a  positive  declara-  , 

tion  on  the  part  of  the  former,  that  they  differed  so  in  principle  as  to  j 
render  such  an  union  for  ever  impracticable. 

2.  The  unpopularity  of  such  an  appap^nt  dereliction  of  principle, 
as  might  reasonably   be  expected,  rendered   their  continuance   in 
power  extremely  precarious,  and  it  was  not  long  before  their  re-  j 
moval  was  effected,  in  consequence  of  a  bill  brought  into  parlia- 
ment by  Mr.  Fox,  to  regulate  the  affairs  of  India.     The  measure  ■ 
was  judged  to  be  fraught  with  danger  to  the  constitution,  by  throw-  j 
iug  too  much  power  into  the  hands  oi  a  board  of  commissionei's,  to  . 


MODERN  HISTORY.  S23 

be  chosen  by  parliament,  and  though  it  passed  the  commons,  it  was 
thrown  out  by  the  lords,  and  the  ministry  dismissed. 

3.  Mr.  Pitt,  a  younger  son  of  the  great  lord  Chatham,  now  came 
into  power,  not  in  any  subordinate  situation,  but  as  premier,  though 
at  the  early  age  of  twenty-four,  and  under  circumstances  peculiarly 
embarraasing,  tor  he  had  long  to  contend  against  a  majority  of  the 
house  of  commons,  who  threatened  to  stop  tlie  supplies,  and  effect 
bis  removal,  as  not  enjoying  the  confidence  of  the  people.  This 
being  judged  too  great  an  interference  with  the  prerogative,  and 
many  addresses  being  presented  to  the  king  to  retain  him  in  his 
service,  the  parliament  was  at  length  dissolved,  and  the  issue  turned 
out  to  be  extremely  favourable  to  the  choice  of  his  m;ijesty. 

4.  The  atliirs  of  India  manifestly  requiring  the  interposition  of 
government,  Mr.  Pitt,  as  soon  as  possible,  procured  a  bill  to  that 
effect  to  be  passed,  according  to  which  a  board  of  control  was  to  be 
appointL'd,  not  by  parliament,  but  by  the  crown.  Though  this  in- 
creased in  some  degree  the  influence  of  the  latter,  it  was  judged  to 
be  far  less  hazardous  than  the  proposal  of  Mr.  Fox,  which  threatened 
to  throw  sach  a  power  into  the  hands  of  the  minister  and  his  friends, 
as  might  enable  them  to  overawe  the  sovereign,  and  render  their 
removal  almost  impracticable.  Mr.  Pitt's  bill,  also,  was  found  to  in- 
terfere far  less  with  the  chartered  rights  of  the  company.  It  passed 
the  lords,  August  9,  1,784. 

5.  Another  measure  of  considerable  importance  occupied  the  at- 
tention of  the  minister,  during  the  year  l,7u6,  which  was  expected 
to  contribute  greatly  to  the  support  of  public  credit.  This  was  the 
establishment  of  a  new  sinking  fund,  by  appropriating  the  annual 

.sum  of  one  million,  to  be  invariably  applied  to  the  liquidation  of  the 
public  debt.  At  a  subsequent  period,  a  sinking  fund  of  still  greater 
importance  was  established,  by  which  every  future  loan  was  to 
carry  with  it  its  own  sinking  fund.  This  was  proposed  to  the  house 
in  1792,  and  readily  adopted;  it  consisted  in  raising  one  per  cent., 
besides  the  dividends  upon  every  new  stock  created,  to  be  applied 
by  the  commissioners  tor  the  reduction  of  the  natiotial  debt,  in  the 
same  manner,  and  under  the  same  regulations  as  the  original  mil- 
lion.* 

6.  From  the  commencement  of  the  year  1,78G,  to  the  year  1,795, 
the  attention  of  the  British  pariiament  was  in  *a  very  extraordinary 
manner  occupied  with  the  charges  brought  against  Mr.  Hastings, 
governor-general  of  Bengal,  in  February,  1,786.  Mr.  Burke,  whose 
mind  had  been  long  affected  by  the  abuses  practised  in  hidia,  by 
the  servants  of  the  company,  had  appeared  tor  some  time  to  have 
fixed  his  eye  upon  Mr.  Hastings,  as  a  tit  object  of  prosecution ;  and 
he  now  moved  for  papers  to  substantiate  the  charges  upon  which 
he  meant  to  impeach  him.  These  charges  being  discussed  in  par 
liament,  during  the  session  of  1,787,  and  referred  to  a  committee, 
were  confirmed  by  the  house  of  commons,  on  the  9th  of  May,  and 
the  articles  of  impeachment  exhibited  to  the  house  of  lords,  on  the 
14th;  in  consequence  of  which  Mr.  Hastings  was  taken  into  cus- 
tody, but,  on  the  motion  of  the  lord  chancellor,  admitted  to  bail. 
The  trial  did  not  commence  till  February  15,  1,788,  was  continued 
not  only  through  the  whole  of  that  parliament,  though  very  slowly, 
hut  after  much  debate,  determined  to  be  pending  on  the  commence- 

*  By  this  provision  every  loan  would  have  its  own  fund,  which  would 
•perate  at  compound  interest,  and  discharge  the  debt  in  fofty-s«ven  yeara 
act  the  longest,  firom  the  time  it  -was  first  iucurred. 


324  MODERN  HlSTORy. 

ment  of  the  new  parliament,  1,790,  and  not  brought  to  a  conclusion 
till  the  month  of  ApriL  1,795. 

■  7.  The  question  wnether  the  impeachment  abated  on  the  dis- 
solution of  parliament,  appearing  to  involve  a  constitutional  point 
of  the  highest  importance,  was  di!>cusH  'l  with  singular  attention, 
and  a  large  display  of  legal  and  parliameatary  knowledge.  The 
law  members  of  both  houses  were  never  perhaps  so  divided  in  their 
opinions;  but  the  numerous  precedents  cited  by  Mr.  Pitt  seemed 
clearly  to  decide  the  question  as  follows :  that  though  legislative 
processes  are  abated  by  prorogation  or  dissolution,  it  is  not  so  with 
regard  to  judicial  proceedings.  It  appeared  to  be  a  nice  and  curious 
question,  and,  as  affecting  the  responsibility  of  ministers,  its  decision 
may  be  regarded  as  singularly  important. 

8.  Though  in  the  i  ourse  of  the  proceedings  and  prosecution  of 
the  various  charges  against  Mr.  Hastings,  the  eloquence  of  the 
Jnanagers  exceeded  all  that  could  have  been  expected,  yet  never 
perhaps  were  so  great  talents  employed  with  less  success ;  a  trial  of 
such  seeming  importance,  so  strangely  protracted ;  or  a  case  of 
impeachment  brought  to  an  issue  so  little  answerable  to  the  expec- 
tations that  had  been  excited.  It  would  be  impossible  to  deny  that 
/lagr.mt  and  enormous  abuses  had  been  committed  in  India  during 
the  period  in  question,  yof,  the  verj  length  of  the  trial  made  it  ap- 
pear to  most  persons  in  the  light  of  a  persecvtion^  and  that  oi"  an  iii- 
vlividual  to  whom  the  company  and  the  nation  stood  highly  indet>ted 
for  many  eminent  services.  As  it  ended  in  the  acquittal  of  Mr.  Has- 
tings, that  gentleman  m^y  be  presumed  innocent.  One  good,  how- 
ever, seems  to  have  arisen  from  the  investigation ;  all  succeeding 
governors-general  have  certainly  been  more  circumspect  and  correct 
m  their  proceedings. 

9.  In  tJie  course  of  the  year  1,787,  great  disturbances  having 
taken  place  in  the  united  provinces,  fomented  by  the  French,  and 
threatening  the  dissolution  of  the  sladl'iolderate,  an  alliance  was 
formed  between  the  courts  of  St.  James's  and  Berlin,  to  protect  the 
rights  ot'  the  prince  of  Orange,  and  resist  the  interference  ol'  the 
Frenclj*  Prepai-ations  for  war  took  place,  but  tbe  Prussian  army 
decided  matters  without  any  active  co-operalion  on  the  part  of 
Great  Britain.  The,alarniing  state  of  things  in  France,  appeared 
to  deter  the  court  of  \  ersaides  from  rendering  that  assistance  to 
the  malecontents  of  Holland,  which  tlie  latter  had  been  taught  to 
expect 

10.  During  the  cession  of  1,783,  the  attention  of  the  house  of 
commons  was  first  called  to  the  horrible  circumstances  attending 
tlie  African  slave-trade.  It  is  quite  surprising  that  such  a  trafiic 
should  have  been  so  long  carried  on,  witliout  exciting  the  resent- 
ment of  every  sensible  mind,  and  disgusting  the  feelings  of  a  civil- 
ized people ;  unfbrtunatelT,  when  tiist  noticed,  it  was  found  to  be 
10  deeply  interwoven  with  the  interests  of  our  settlements  in  the 
West  Indies,  and  to  depend  so  much  on  foreign  states,  as  well  as 
our  own,  as  to  render  it  almost  necessary  to  proceed  slowly  and 
cautiously,  though  it  was  impossible  not  to  be  horror-struck  with 
the  information  laid  before  the  house,  particularly  in  regard  to 
what  was  called  the  middle-passage,  or  transportation  of  the  uiihap- 
py  Africans,  from  their  native  shores  to  the  several  islands.  As  it 
would  be  inconsistent  with  the  nature  of  such  a  work  as  the  present, 
to  enter  into  the  detail  of  the  proceedings  upon  this  very  interesting 
aubject,  which  took  up  a  long  lime,  and  can  scarcely  now  be  said  t©- 


MODERN  HISTORY.  325 

be  terminated,  it  may  be  sufficient  to  note,  that,  after  continual  re- 
newals ot^  the  subject  in  the  two  houses  of  parliament,  yet,  owing  to 
many  uutovvard  circumstances,  it  was  ,not  hnally  abolished  till  the 
year  1,806,  nor  has  it  even  yet  been  in  the  power  of  any  ministry, 
or  any  of  our  diplomatists,  effectually  to  prevent  the  trade,  as  car- 
ried on  by  foreign  states,  though  every  person  of  humane  feelings 
must  devoutly  wish  and  desire  that  it  should  be  so.  It  must,  how- 
fever,  always  redound  to  the  credit  of  our  own  country,  tliat  the 
voice  of  compassion  and  mercy  was  tirst  heard  amongst  us,  and  that 
the  tirst  arm  stretched  out  to  save  and  to  rescue  a  large  proportion 
of  our  fellow-creatures  from  the  most  alject  slavery  and  cruel  tor- 
tures that  ever  were  inflicted,  was  the  arm  of  a  Briton. 

11.  The  parliament  being  prorogued  on  the  1  lib  of  July,  1,788, 
to  the  20th  of  November,  was  compelled  to  meet  on  the  day  ap 
pointed,  by  circumstances  of  a  most  distressing  kind.  His  majesty, 
probably  through  excess  of  business,  to  which  he  was  known  to 
devote  more  time  and  labour  than  could  well  be  consistent  with 
his  health,  was  seized  with  an  illness  which  totally  incapacitated 
him  from  discharging  the  f  inctions  of  his  high  and  exalted  station. 
It  must  appear  strange,  that  by  the  kuvs  and  constitution  of  the 
realm,  so  little  provision  had  been  made  for  a  catastrophe  by  no 
means  out  of  the  line  of  probability,  tliat  it  becama  a  question  into 
what  hands  the  suspended  executive  bad  devolved,  and  this  led,  as 
might  be  expected,  to  very  warm  and  important  debates  in  parlia- 
ment. Though  the  prince  of  Wales,  being  of  full  age,  did  not  person- 
ally claim  the  regency  as  matter  of  right,  his  party  did.  The  min- 
ister, Mr.  Pitt,  contended  that  it  belonged  to  parliament  to  supply 
the  deficiency ;  and  this  question  being  stated,  it  was  judged  expe- 
dient to  debate  it,  and  settle  it  by  vote.  The  decision  upon  tnis 
occasion  was  entirely  in  favour  of  the  power  of  parliament  to 
appoint  the  regent,  none  doubting,  however,  that  the  heir  apparent 
was  the  tit  object  of  such  appuintment.  Other  questions  were 
agitated  at  the  same  time,  of  equal'  ianportance ;  particularly  how 
far  restrictions  could  be  imposed  by  parliament,  in  regard  to  the  ex- 
ercise of  prerogatives,  the  whde  of  which  were  reasonably  enough 
supposed  to  be  essential  to  the  government  of  the  country  This 
question  also  was  decided  in  favour  of  the  minister,  who  had  proposed 
restrictions,  with  an  understanding,  however,  that  they  could  only 
apply  to  a  temporary  suspension  of  the  kingly  power.  In  this  case 
also,  the  care  of  t.ie  king  s  person  wiis  assigned  not  to  the  regent,  but 
to  the  queen.  One  great  difficulty  remained  alter  all  the  discussions 
upon  the  regency.  It  was  doubted  how  the  lord  chancellor  could 
be  empowered  to  put  the  great  seal  to  a  commission  tor  opening  the 
sessions  of  parliament,  so  as  to  restore  "  the  eflicacy  of  legislation ;" 
it  was  decided  that  he  might  be  directed  to  do  it  in  the  name  of  the 
king,  by  authority  of  the  two  houses. 

12.  Fortunately  for  the  public,  this  first  illness  of  his  majesty 
was  of  so  short  duration,  as  to  render  unnecessary  all  the  changes 
that  had  been  contemplated.  Early  in  the  year  1,789,  the  lord 
chancellor  was  able  to  aiinounce  to  the  liouses  of  parliament,  the 
perfect  recovery  of  the  king.  Nothing  could  exceed  the  transports 
of  joy  with  which  this  intelUgeuce  was  received  throughout  the 
whole  kingdom.  A  national  tnanksgiving  was  appointed,  and  his 
majesty  went  himself  in  great  ^tate  to  St.  PauFs,  to  ofcr  up  his 
grateful  devotions  on  the  event.  The  illuminatioas  on  the  occasion 
were  so  general,  that  it  is  probable,  from  the  accounts  give»  of 

Ee 


326  MODERN  HISTORY. 

them,  that  scarcely  a  cottage  in  the  most  remote  parts  of  the  island 
was  without  its  show  of  loyalty  and  aflection.  The  appearance  of 
the  metropolis,  in  particular,  was  most  extraordinary,  and  notwiili- 
standing  the  immense  concourse  of  people  that  continued  almost  the 
whole  night  in  tlie  streets,  and  the  crowded  thiong  ol'  carriages  and 
horses,  so  strong  a  disposition  was  sliown  by  all  rauliS  and  descriptions 
of  persons  to  conduct  things  peaceably,  that  fewer  accidents  occurred 
than  were  ever  known  before  in  similar  cases. 

13.  It  should  be  noted,  as  a  matter  of  general  history,  that  had 
not  his  mijesty  recovered  so  opportunely,  difticulties  of  an  extraor- 
dinary nature  might  have  ensued,  from  the  different  proceedings  of 
the  two  legislatures  of  Great  Biitain  and  Ireland.  While  in  Die 
former  it  was  decided  that  the  prince  could  not  assume  the  regency, 
as  matter  of  right,  and  that  the  parliament  had  a  power  to  impose 
restrictions,  in  Ireland,  his  right  appeared  to  be  acknowledged  by 
the  two  houses  agreeing  to  address  him,  to  take  upon  him  immediately 
the  government  of  that  kingdom,  during  the  king's  incapacity,  and 
with  the  usual  powers  of  royalty. 

14.  In  the  year  1,789,  the  proceedings  in  France  began  to  occupy 
the  attention  of  Europe,  and  of  England  in  particular.  A  struggle  for 
freedom  seemed  to  be  so  congenial  to  the  spirit  of  the  people  of  the 
latter  country,  that  it  is  not  to  be  wondered  that  the  commencement 
of  so  extraordinary  a  revolution  should  excite  the  strongest  sensa- 
tions. Unfortunately  the  abuses  in  the  French  government  were  so 
many,  and  some  of  tl^em  so  entirely  contrary  to  every  principle  of 
reason  and  equity,  that  it  soon  became  apparent  that  nothing  less 
than  a  nidical  change,  and  revolution  of  every  existing  institution 
and  establishment,  would  satisfy  the  disturbed  minds  of  that  voiatile 

Eeople  ;  minds  unhappily  prepared  not  merely  to  resist  oppression, 
ut  to  throw  off  every  restraint  of  religion  and  morality.  Such  an 
example,  therefore,  required  to  be  watched  and  guarded  against,  in 
a  country  whose  free  constitution  supplied  its  own  means  of  refor- 
mation in  every  case  of  necessitjr,  and  nhere  tumultuary  proceedings 
could  only  lead  to  ends  the  most  fatal  and  deplorable.  Mr.  Pitt 
seemed  aware  of  this,  and  though  his  measures  of  precaution  were 
supposed  occasionally  to  press  too  hardly  on  the  hberty  of  the  sub- 
ject, it  must  be  admitted  that  a  very  improper  intercourse  was  at 
times  carried  on  between  the  several  popular  associations  in  England 
and  Ireland,  and  the  national  assembly  of  France.  The  object  of 
the  latter,  in  its  replies  to  the  addresses  presented  to  it,  being,  accord- 
ing to  all  reasonable  interpretation  of  the  terms  used,  to  invite  and 
encourage  the  discontented  of  all  countries  to  follow  their  example, 
which  was  every  day  becoming  more  violent  and  anarchical. 
This  was  not  all ;  emissaries  were  employed  to  propagate  their 
principles  in  other  countries,  many  of  whom  came  to  England,  and 
met  with  an  encouragement  not  to  be  overlooked  by  a  government 
properly  sensible  of  the  dangers  to  be  incurred  by  any  adoption  of 
such  sentiments  and  principles,  in  a  country  so  very  differently  situ- 
ated from  that  of  France.  England  had  long  ago  done  for  herself 
what  France  was  now  attempting ;  and  though  no  such  changes  and 
revolutions  can  be  expected  to  take  place  without  some  violence, 
yet  England  had  passed  through  this  ordeal,  and  accomplished  her 
point  a  whole  century  before  France  began  to  assert  her  liberties. 
\T  was  uttle  less  than  an  bsult  to  every  true  Englishman,  therefore, 
to  attempt  to  stir  him  up  to  such  violent  proceedings  as  had  already 
been  «ouQteaaDeed  auad  saDCtioued  by  the  Frencb  revolutionists ;  but 


^"MODERN  HISTORY.  327 

that  such  attempts  were  making,  could  not  but  be  too  obvions.  On 
the  19th  of  November,  liTO^,  the  national  assembly  passed  a  decree, 
that  they  would  grant  fraternity  and  assistance  to  all  who  might  wish 
to  recover  their  liberty.  This  was  two  months  after  they  had  pro- 
claimed the  eternal  abolition  of  royalty,  and  imprisoned  tiie  king;  after 
they  had  declared  hereditary  nobility  to  be  incompatible  with  a  free 
state ;  and  thus,  by  implication,  declared  that  England  and  most  of 
the  other  states  of  Europe  were  not  free.  It  was  afterwards  proved, 
by  their  own  acknowledgment,  that  before  any  declaration  of  war 
more  than  a  million  sterling  had  been  sent  to  England  from  tha 
national  treasury  of  France,  lor  purposes  strictly  revolutionary 
No  country  was  free  from  these  political  disturbers ;  even  general 
Washington,  as  president  of  the  United  States  of  America,  was 
obliged  to  publish  letters  patent,  to  withdraw  his  countenance  from 
the  accredited  French  ministers  in  that  country,  who  had  grossly 
insulted  him  as  head  of  tlie  executive  government. 

15.  In  the  year  1,790,  an  unpleasant  dispute  arose  between  the 
courts  of  St.  iames's  and  Madrid,  which  had  nearly  involved  the 
two  countries  in  a  war.  It  related  to  a  settlement  on  the  north 
western  coast  of  America,  which  had  been  attempted  by  some  sub 
jects  of  Great  Britain,  at  Nootka  Sound,  for  the  carrying  on  a  fur 
trade  with  China.  The  Spaniards,  conceiving  this  to  be  an  invasion 
of  their  rights,  under  a  claim  to  these  distant  regions  the  most  ex 
travagant  and  absurd,  with  great  precipitation  attacked  the  English 
settled  there,  took  the  tort  which  had  been  erected  with  the  consent 
of  the  Indiana,  and  seized  upon  the  vessels.  It  was  not  possible  t<> 
pass  over  so  great  an  outrage  ;  but  by  the  vigorous  and  timely  prep 
arations  made  to  procure  reparation,  and  the  little  hqpe  ot  assist- 
ance to  be  derived  from  France,  in  case  things  should  come  to  ex 
tremities,  the  Spanish  court  was  brougijt  to  terms  before  the  expira 
tion  of  the  year;  and  not  only  every  point  in  dispute  ceded  to  tha 
English,  but  many  advantages  granted  with  regard  to  the  navigation 
of  the  Pacitic  ocean. 

16.  In  the  course  of  the  same  year,  the  British  court  interfered 
successfully  to  restore  peace  between  Austria  and  Turkey,  and 
was  further  instrumental,  though  not  without  some  hindrances,  in 
reducing  the  revolted  Netherlands  to  the  dominion  and  authority 
of  the  tormer  power.  Her  attempts  to  mediate  between  Russia 
and  the  Porte,  were  by  no  means  so  successful,  and  had  nearly,  in 
deed,  involved  the  nation  in  war,  for  an  object  of  very  little  im- 
portance in  the  eyes  of  the  public  at  large,  though  the  minister 
seemed  to  think  otherwise.  In  consequence,  however,  of  the  op- 
position he  met  with,  he  was  induced  to  forego  the  plan  he  had  in 
view,  of  preventing  Russia  g  4ting  possession  of  the  town  of  Ocza- 
kow,  and  a  peace  was  concluded  with  that  power  at  Yassi,  January, 
1,792. 

17.  Towards  the  close  of  the  same  year,  after  the  king  of  France 
and  his  family  were  in  a  state  of  conhnement,  many  attempts  were 
made  by  the  national  assembly  to  ascertain  the  views  of  England 
with  regard  to  the  confederacy  formed  against  her,  and  the  question 
of  peace  or  war  seemed  nearly  brought  to  an  issue,  before  the  horrible 
execution  of  the  king,  in  the  month  of  January,  1,793.  That  event 
being  followed  by  the  dismissal  of  the  French  minister  at  London, 
appeared  so  totally  to  dissolve  all  friendly  communications  between 
the  two  countries,  as  to  induce  the  French  government,  by  a  decree 
of  tlie  assembly,  February  3,  1,793,  to  declare  war  against  the  kinj^ 


328  MODERN  HISTORY. 

of  Great  Britain  and  the  stadtholder  of  Holland  ;'^'vci  which  decree, 
there  was  evidently  an  attempt  in  the  very  wording  of  it  to  separate 
the  people  of  the  two  countries  from  their  respective  sovereigns. 

18.  J3y  this  time,  indeed,  the  encroaching  disposition  of  the 
French  revolutionists  was  manifested  in  their  annexation  of  Savoy 
to  France  for  ever,  as  soon  as  they  had  gained  any  advantages  over 
it;  and  in  their  conduct  in  the  Netherlands,  by  declaring  the  navi- 
gation of  the  Scheld  free,  contrary  to  all  subsisting  treaties  with 
the  Dutch.  The  same  spirit  was  apparent  in  their  refusal  to  ex- 
empt Alsace  and  Lorraine  irom  the  operation  of  the  decrees  for  the 
abolition  of  feudal  rights,  and  in  their  forcible  seizure  of  Avignon 
and  the  comtat  Venaissin,  which  had  belonged  to  the  Roman  see 
for  many  centuries.  It  is  true,  the  indiscreet  manifestoes  of  the 
combined  armies  were  sufficient  to  stimukite  a  people,  already  in 
a  high  degree  of  irritation,  to  acts  of  severe  reprisal,  in  all  cases  of 
success ;  but  it  was  very  manifest  that  they  had  already  violated 
their  own  principle  of  not  acting  on  a  system  of  aggrandizement, 
of  which  they  made  such  boast  at  the  beginning  of  the  revolution. 
Their  glaring  abandonment  of  this  principle,  and  the  injury  done  to 
the  Dutch  by  opening  the  Scheld,  were  the  ostensible  grounds  of 
the  war  on  the  part  of  England.  The  declaration  of  France,  in 
some  degree,  saved  the  minister  from  the  responsibility  of  having 
actually  commenced  hostilities,  however,  in  the  opinion  of  opposi- 
tion, he  might  be  said  to  have  provoked  them  ;  but  it  sliould  still  ha 
observed,  that  there  was  a  treaty  subsisting  between  the  two  countries^ 
affirming  that  the  recal  or  dismission  of  public  ministers  should  be 
considered  tantamount  to  a  declaration  of  war.  If  so,  and  the  treaty 
was  not  invalidated  by  the  change  of  things  at  Paris,  as  many  assertea, 
the  first  declaration  of  war  proceeded  from  the  English  government, 
who,  on  the  suspension  of  the  kingly  authority,  had  recalled  lord 
Gower  from  Paiis,  (many  other  courts,  however,  having  done  the 
same,)  and  on  the  death  of  the  king,  abruptly  dismissed  the  French 
minister,  M.  Chauvelin,  from  England. 

19.  The  exact  objects  of  the  hostile  interference  of  England 
were  never  formally  explained  in  parliament,  though  in  the  king's 
declaration  they  were  regarded  as  too  notorious ;  every  thing  con- 
duced to  render  it  apparent,  that  they  had  in  view  as  much  to  op- 
pose the  propagation  of  anarchical  principles,  as  the  violence  of 
territorial  aggressions;  that  previously  to  the  declaration  of  war 
on  either  part,  the  English  goveniraent  had  shown  a  disposition  not 
to  interfere  with  the  internal  affairs  of  France,  seems  manifest  from 
many  circumstances. 

20.  It  is  not  necessary  to  enter  into  the  details  of  the  war  that 
tobk  place  after  England  joined  the  confederacy.  The  extraor- 
dinary progress  and  success  of  the  Fre^ich  appertains  to  the  history 
of  that  country,  and  may  therefore  be  found  elsewhere.  Though 
the  British  troop  fought  with  their  accustomed  bravery,  and  ob- 
tained in  their  hrst  campaign  some  signal  advantages,  yet,  owing 
in  some  measure  to  the  want  of  harmony  and  cordiality  between 
the  confederates,  but  still  more  to  the  overwhelming  force  of 
France,  now  risen  en  masse,  they  ultimately  met  with  great  reverses,, 
and  were  compelled  to  abandon  the  country  they  had  undertaken  to 
defend;  but  though  unsuccessful  by  land,  on  the  ocean  England 
maintained  her  wonted  superiority.  Many  of  the  French  West  In- 
dia islands  fell  into  her  power  in  the  summer  of  1,794,  and  a  most 
decisive  victory  was  gained  by  lord  Howe,  over  the  Brest  fleet,  on 


MODERN  HISTORY.  529 

the  1st  of  June.  The  island  of  Corsica  also  was  subdued,  and  by 
the  anti-galiican  party,  with  the  celebrated  Paschal  Paoli  at  their 
head,  erected  into  a  monarchy,  the  kingly  power  and  prerogatives 
being  freely  conferred  on  his  majesty  George  111.  In  the  month  of 
October,  however,  1,796,  the  French  party  recovered  the  ascenden- 
cy, and  the  island  being  evacuated  by  the  English,  was  re-annexed 
to  France. 

21.  At  the  conclusion  of  the  year  1,794,  though  France  had  on 
the  continent  made  surprising  acquisitions,  the  spirits  of  the  English 
were  far  from  being  shaken,  and  the  utmost  efforts  were  cheerfully 
m:ulo  for  continuing  the  contest  on  the  ocean ;  and  in  all  the  colonies 
of  the  enemy,  the  advantages  were  clearly  on  the  side  of  the  British, 
during  the  years  1,795,  1,796,  an<l  1,797,  when  negotiations  ibr 
peace  took  place,  but  without  being  brought  to  any  favourable  issue. 
At  the  close  of  1,797,  his  majesty,  attended  by  the  two  houses  of 
parliament,  and  the  great  othcers  of  state,  went  to  St.  Paul's,  to  offer 
!;p  a  public  and  national  thanksgiving  for  the  naval  victories  obtained 
in  ail  parts  of  the  world ;  upon  which  occasion,  many  flags  and 
colours  taken  from  the  French,  Spaniards,  and  Dutch,  were  borne  in 
solemn  pomp  to  the  cathedral,  and  deposited  on  the  altar.  Nothing 
could  exceed  the  enthusiasm  with  which  the  British  nation  at  this 
period  appeared  disposed  to  resist  the  threats  of  the  enemy.  The 
national  militia  liaving  offered  to  transfer  their  services  to  Ireland, 
to  suppress  a  rebellion  which  had  broken  out  there,  volunteer  corps 
were  formed  in  all  parts  of  the  kingdom  to  supply  their  place,  and 
the  people  were  readily  induced  to  submit  to  a  measure  of  finance, 
then  first  adopted,  namely,  of  raising,  by  a  triple  assessment,  (after- 
wards converted  into  an  income  and  property  tax,)  a  large  propor- 
tion of  the  supplies  wanted  for  carrying  on  the  war  within  the  year , 
so  much,  in  short,  of  the  loan,  as  should  exceed  the  sum  discharged 
by  the  operation  of  the  sinking  fund,  so  that  no  addhion  should  be 
made  to  the  permanent  debt. 

22.  In  the  year  1,798,  the  affairs  of  Ireland  occasioned  great  dif- 
ficulties. A  regularly  organized  rebellion,\  the  leaders  of  which 
were  in  Constant  communication  with  the  enemy,  threatened  to- 
tally to  dissolve  the  connexion  subsisting  between  that  country 
and  Great  Britain,  and  to  invite  the  aid  and  co-operation  of  France, 
at  the  manifest  hazard  of  rendering  Ireland  a  dependency  of  the 
latter  power,  as  had  already  been  the  case  with  Savoy,  Belgium, 
Lombardy,  and  Venice.  Ireland  had  but  lately  obtained  concessions 
from  England  of  no  inconsiderable  importance,  a  free  trade,  and  the 
recognition  of  her  political  independence  ;  but  the  catholics  were  dis- 
eatisned  with  the  national  representation,  to  the  defects  in  which 
they  attributed  the  continuance  of  the  penal  statutes  still  directed 
against  them.  The  French  revolution  led  to  the  formation  of  the 
society  of  United  Irishmen,  in  1,791,  which  had  many  reforms  and 
changes  in  view,  though  short  perhaps  of  an  entire  revolution.  In 
1,795,  from  representations  made  to  it  of  the  oppressed  state  of  Ire- 
land, the  French  government  regularly  profft-red  its  assistance  to 
subvert  the  monarchy,  and  separate  Ireland  from  Britiiin.  Fortunate- 
iy  the  plans  of  the  traitors  were  timely  discovered,  and  though  it 
was  not  possible  to  prevent  a  recourse  to  arms,  which  afflicted  many 
parts  of  the  kingdom  between  April  and  Octoner,  yel  the  principal 
ringleaders  were  for  the  most  part  seized,  executed,  or  compelled  to 
fly,  aQd  under  the  able  government  pf  lord  Cornwallis,  tranquillity 

Ee2  40 


350  MODERN  HISTORY. 

was  happily  restored,  with  less  ditliculty  and  damage  than  had  been 
expected. 

23.  The  situation  of  affairs  in  Ireland  during  1,798,  led  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  to  the  project  of  an  union  between  the  two  countries, 
which  Mr.  Pitt  submitted  to  the  British  parliament  in  the  form  of  a 
message  from  the  king,  January  22,  1 ,799.  The  Irish  legislature 
having  been  declared  indepencfent  in  1,782,  it  was  obvious  that  no 
8uch  measure  could  be  carried  into  execution  without  the  free  con- 
sent and  acquiescence  of  the  Irish  parliament.  Many  circumstan- 
ces seemed  to  conduce  to  render  the  proposed  union  desirable  and 
beneficial  to  both  nations,  and  at  this  particular  moment,  to  recon- 
cile most  people  to  it.  The  catholics  of  Ireland  had  become  dis- 
satisfied with  the  parliament  of  that  country,  while  the  protestants, 
who  were  greatly  outnumbered  by  the  catholics,  though  they  pos- 
sessed four  fifths  of  the  property  of  tiie  kingdom,  had  good  reason 
to  suppose  their  interests  and  ascendency  would  be  best  secured 
in  one  united  and  imperial  parliament,  than  in  a  distinct  legisla- 
ture, in  a  countiy  where  the  catholics  had  already  obtained  their 
elective  franchise,  and  composed  the  bulk  of  the  population.  They 
might  also  reasonably  apprehend  the  consequences  of  the  overtures 
that  had  been  made  to  France,  and  the  alarming  progress  of  revolu- 
tionary principles.  In  the  case  of  the  regency,  the  dangers  incident 
to  two  distinct  legislatures,  had  been  rendered  sufficiently  apparent. 
On  all  these  accounts,  though  the  measure  was  at  first  very  coldly 
entertained,  and  even  rejected  by  the  Irish  house  of  commons ;  the 
minister  was  greatly  encouraged  to  proceed,  by  the  strong  suppott 
he  received  in  both  countries,  from  persons  of  all  ranks  and  parties. 
A  series  of  resolutions  was  proposed  to  the  house,  to  be  laid  before 
his  majesty,  recommendatory  of  the  proposed  union,  which,  after 
some  opposition,  was  sent  to  a  committee  by  a  majority  of  140  to 
1 6.  In  the  lords,  the  address  passed  without  a  division ;  a  protest, 
however,  being  entered  on  the  books,  signed  by  three  lords,  Hol- 
land, Thanet,  and  King. 

24.  The  last  year  of  the  eighteenth  century  was  distinguished 
by  the  most  important  events  in  India,  where  the  English,  under  the 
government  of  the  earl  of  Mornington,  totally  defeatea  the  most 
insidious,  and  powerful  enemy,  the  forces  in  that  remote  country 
ever  had  to  contend  with  ;  Tippoo  Saib,  the  sultan  of  Mysore,  son 
of  the  celebrated  Hyder  Ally  Khan,  who  had  usurped  those  domin- 
ions in  1,761.  In  the  years  1,784,  and  1,792,  treaties  of  peace  had 
been  concluded  between  the  sultan  and  the  English,  which,  howeveij 
had  had  very  little  effect  on  the  former,  who  had  shown  himself 
constantly  attached  to  the  French  interests ;  and  having  been  com- 
pelled by  the  last  treaty  to  cede  one  half  of  his  dominions  to  the 
conquerors,  and  to  deliver  two  of  his  sons  as  hostages  into  the  hands 
«f  lord  Cornwallis,  the  governor-general,  appears  to  have  harboured 
the  most  inveterate  hatred  against  the  English  from  that  moment, 
and  to  have  meditated,  by  the  aid  of  the  French,  and  certain  of  the 
native  powers,  nothing  less  than  their  total  extirpation.  It  would  be 
impossible,  perhaps,  to  find  in  history  stronger  instances  of  duplicity 
and  treachery,  than  were  practised  by  this  celebrated  potentate 
against  the  British  interests,  during  the  years  1,797  and  1,798,  in 
the  spring  of  the  latter  of  which,  lord  Mornington  arrived  in  India. 
With  the  French  directory,  with  the  French  colonial  government  in 
Mauritius,  with  the  king  of  Candahar,  with  the  courts  of  Poonah 
and  Hyderabad,  with  Buonaparte  io  Egypt}  aikl  even  with  the  Otto- 


MODERN  HISTORY.  331 

man  Porte,  at  the  same  time,  the  wily  sultan  managed  to  carry  on 
secret  negotiations,  amidsL  the  strongest  proteasions  o(  amity  :ind 
attachment  towards  the  English  government.  It  has  been  conjectur- 
ed, thiat  had  he  obtained  effectual  aid  from  tlie  French,  in  extirpating 
the  English,  he  would  as  willingly  h,ive  turned  agains^t  his  European 
abettoi-s;  'the  purport  ot"  all  his  n  gotiations  Svith  the  7iative  powers, 
being  to  stir  ttiem  up  to  a  gener  il  combination  against  tiie  inJitkU 
and  enemies  of  the  prophet^  without  any  distinction  ot'  the  two 
nations. 

25.  By  the  extreme  vigilance  and  cautious  proceedings  of  the 
new  governor-general,  the  intrigues  of  the  sultan,  notwithstanding 
his  reiterated  assurances  of  lideliiy,  were  so  amply  discovered  and 
exposed,  as  to  vindicate,  in  the  fullest  manner,  the  declaratiun  of 
war  which  took  place  in  February,  1,799,  au'i  which  was  speedily 
followed  up  by  the  most  vigorous  proceedings  on  the  part  of  the 
army,  terminating  in  the  capture  of  Serin^;:p;(tam,  the  capital  of 
the  Mysorean  dominions.  May  4,  and  tlie  deal?;  of  the  sultan,  whose 
body  was  found,  after  the  action,  covered  witli  iieaps  of  dead,  ilis 
immense  territories  were  divided  amongst  the  allied  powers,  the 
remains  of  his  family  provided  for  in  the  Carnatic,  and  a  hoy  or  hve 
years  old,  the  surviving  representative  of  the  Hindoo  dynasty,  restor- 
ed to  the  throne  of  his  ancestors. 

26.  hi  the  tirst  year  of  the  new  century,  the  projected  union  and 
incorporation  of  the  two  legislatures  and  kingdoms  of  Great  Britun 
and  Ireland,  was  brought  to  a  conclusion.  Doubts  were  expressed 
in  the  Irish  house  of  commons,  and  supported  by  great  strength  of 
argument,  whether,  as  a  delegated  body,  and  wiUiout  a  fresh  ap- 
peal to  their  constituents,  they  could  formally  consent  to  their  own 
annihilation.  Strong  suspicions  also  were  thrown  out,  that  the  plan 
had  no  other  object  in  view  than  that  of  recovering  to  England  the 
domination  she  had  surrendered  in  1,782,  when  the  independency  of 
the  Irish  legislature  had  been  t'ully,  and,  as  it  was  alleged,  finally 
acknowledged  and  established;  but  these  objections  were  over- 
ruled. It  was  no  surrender,  it  was  urged,  of  their  legislative  rights, 
to  consent  to  be  incorporated  with  the  parliament  of  Great  Britain, 
but  a  consolidation  of  them ;  and  tlieir  consent  would  acquire  a 
character  from  the  regulations  of  1,782,  highly  honourable  to  the 
nation ;  she  could  now  treat  as  an  independent  state,  and  upon  a 
footing  of  equality,  instead  of  being  in  any  respect  compelled,  as 
might  otherwise  have  been  tlie  case,  to  an  union  of  subjection. 
Early  in  the  year  1,8U0,  the  assent  of  tlie  two  houses  of  parliament, 
in  Ireland,  was  sigrtitied  in  addresses  to  his  majesty,  transmitted 
through  the  lord  lieutenant,  which  being  submitted  to  the  British 
parliament,  after  much  discussion  and  debate  on  the  bill  in  gen- 
eral, as  well  as  its  several  provisions,  the  union  of  the  two  king- 
doms was  finally  arranged  to  take  place  ivoax  the  first  of  January, 
1,801. 

27.  The  act  of  incorporation  contained  eight  articles :  the  first 
three  decreed  the  union  of  the  two  kingdoms,  the  maintenance  of 
the  protestant  succession,  and  consolidation  of  the  parliament  By 
the  fourth,  it  was  settled  that  four  prelates  should  sit  alternately  in 
each  session,  and  twenty-eight  lay  peers  be  elected  for  life,  while 
two  meinbers  for  each  county,  (thirty-two  in  all)  and  thirty-six  citi- 
zens and  burgesses,  should  represent  the  commons.  The  fit"th  article 
united  the  cuurches  of  England  and  Ireland ;  the  sixth  and  seventh 
^ovided  for  the  commercial  aod  doaucial  arrangemente  of  the  two 


332  MOBERN  HISTORT. 

countries,  and  the  eighth  for  the  maintenance  of  laws  then  in  force, 
and  continuance  of  the  courts  of  judicature. 

28.  On  the  first  of  January,  1,801,  a  royal  declaration  was  issued, 
regulating  the  style  and  titles  appertaining  to  the  imperial  crown  of 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  with  the  arms.  Hags,  and  ensigns  thereof 
In  these  arrangements,  the  opportunity  was  judiciously  taken  of 
laying  aside  the  title  of  king  ol  France,  and  the  French  arms;  the 
title  m  English  was  confined  to  Great  Britain  and  Ireland;  in  Latin, 
'''■  Bntanmarum  Rex,''''  and  the  quar:edng  of  the  ^'-Jieurs  de  lis,''''  omit- 
ted in  the  blazonry. 

29.  A  fresh  revolution  in  the  government  of  France,  about  this 
time,  having  thrown  the  executive  power,  in  a  great  measure, 
into  the  hands  of  a  supreme  magish-ate,  the  first  consul,  and  over- 
tures for  peace  having  been  made  by  Buonaparte  in  that  capacity, 
much  discussion  upon  the  subject  took  place  between  the  ministers 
oi  the  two  countries,  but  without  eflect.  The  Austrians  having 
sustained  a  defeat  in  Italy,  had  solicited  and  obtained  a  suspension  of 
hosiiiilies,  and  entered  upon  some  negotiations  for  peace,  to  which 
England  was  invited  to  become  a  party,  upon  consenting  to  a  naval 
armistice,  but  her  maritime  power  stood  so  high,  that  while  Malta 
continued  subject  to  France,  and  the  French  army  unsubdued  in 
Egypt,  she  could  not  reasonably  be  expected  to  forego  such  advan- 
tages, and  to  place  herself  upon  a  footing  with  her  continental  ally, 
whose  situation  was  so  different.  Her  determination  to  continue  the 
war,  was  soon  followed  by  the  surrender  of  Malta,  on  the  5th  of  Sep- 
tember, 1,800,  and  in  the  course  of  the  next  year,  the  French  troops 
were  compelled  finally  to  abandon  Egypt;  thus  terminating  an  ex- 

E edition,  in  a  great  degree  mysterious,  but  which,  no  doubt,  might 
ave  led  to  the  disturbance  ot  our  power  in  India,  had  it  not  been  for 
the  interruption  it  met  with  on  its  way  thither,  and  the  overthrow  of 
Tippoo  Saib. 

iiO.  In  the  course  of  the  year  1,800,  the  enemies  of  England  were 
greatly  increased  by  the  revival  amongst  the  northern  powers,  of 
the  armed  neutrality,  originally  devised  and  adopted  in  1,780.  As 
this  dispute  involved  a  veiy  curious  point  of  international  law,  it 
would  have  been  well,  if  it  could  have  been  brought  to  such  an 
issue  as  might  have  settled  the  question  for  ever ;  but,  after  much 
negotiation,  and  some  very  unpleasant  conflicts  at  sea,  (particularly 
with  the  Danes,)  seizures  and  embargoes,  the  matter  terminated 
rather  in  an  uncertain  compromise,  than  any  positive  adjustment. 
The  right  ol  search  by  belligerents,  however  inconvenient  to  neu- 
trals, seemed  to  have  been  acknowledged  for  many  centuries,  as  a 
principle  of  maritime  law  ;  upon  the  system  of  the  armed  neutrality, 
It  was  contended  that  ship  under  convoy  should  pass  free,  the  flag 
of  the  neutral  power  l^eing  suSicient  pledge  and  security  that  the 
cargoes  were  not  contralMmd  of  war.  The  claim  in  this  case  being 
evidently  directed  against  England,  then,  and  at  all  times  mistress 
of  the  sea,  rendered  it  a  paint  of  extreme  importance ;  one  which 
she  could  not  surrender  wWiout  a  contest,  or  armed  negotiation; 
otherwise,  and  it  it  had  not  been  decidedly  in  favour  of  her  oppo- 
nents, the  countenance  given  to  the  new  system  by  so  many  states  of 
Euroi>e,  Russia,  Denmark,  Sweden,  Prussia,  Naples,  France,  Spain, 
Holland,  Austria,  Portugal,  Venice,  and  Tuscany,  (for  by  some  steps 
or  other  they  all  seemed  disposed  to  adopt  the  spirit  of  it,)  might  hav« 
been  expected  to  amount  to  a  formal  recognition  of  its  principle,  as 
a  proper  law  of  nations ;  the  dispute,  however,  upon  this  o<xaaion. 


MODERN  HISTORY.  333 

was  settled  at  Petersburg,  by  negotiation,  after  the  accession  of  the 
emperor  Alexander,  and  attended  with  concessions  on  the  part  of  the 
Baltic  powers,  of  singular  importance,  though  less  complete  than 
they  might  have  been,  owing  to  the  counter  concessions  of  Britain. 
Thus,  though  it  was  decided  that  enemy's  property  embarked  on 
board  neutral  ships,  should  be  liable  to  confiscation,  and  that  the 
right  of  searching  merchant  ships,  even  under  convoy  of  a  ship  of 
war,  should  be  recognized,  yet,  it  was  at  the  same  time  determined 
that  arms  and  ammunition  only  should  be  considered  as  contraband, 
and  that  the  right  of  searching  merchant  ships  under  convoy  should 
appertain  exclusively  to  vessels  belonging  to  the  royal  navy.  If  not 
entirely  decisive,  however,  the  stipulations  of  this  celebrated  con- 
rention  highly  deserve  to  be  looked  up  to  as  a  proper  standard  of 
the  rights  of  neutrality. 

31.  TOuring  the  contest  that  arose  with  England,  out  of  this  con- 
federacy of  the  nothern  powers,  the  king  of  Prussia,  one  of  the  con- 
tracting parties,  saw  fit  to  take  possession  of  the  king  of  Great  Brit- 
ain's electoral  states  of  Hanover,  but  on  the  change  of  affairs  in 
Russia,  was  speedily  induced  to  restore  them. 

32.  By  the  treaty  of  peace  concluded  at  Luneville,  between  the 
emperor  of  Germany  and  France,  February  9,  1801,  England  was 
left  without  an  ally,  and  a  change  of  ministry  having  taken  place 
about  the  same  time,  may  be  said  to  have  laid  the  foundation  for 
more  serious  negotiations  for  peace,  on  the  part  of  England  and 
France,  than  had  hitherto  taken  place  since  tiie  commencement  of 
the  revolution.  Nothing,  however,  seemed  to  hasten  it  so  much 
as  the  defeat  of  the  French  army  in  Egypt,  and  the  settlement  of 
the  diflferences  between  England  and  the  Baltic  powei-s,  which 
enabled  her  to  negotiate  with  more  advantage,  and  greatly  lower- 
ed the  spirit  of  the  French  government.  Preliminaries  were  signed 
on  the  first  of  October,  1,801,  and  a  definitive  treaty  concluded  at 
Amiens,  between  Great  Britain  and  the  French  republic,  Spain  and 
Holland,  on  the  25th  of  March,  1,802.  By  this  treaty,  England 
obtained  Ceylon  from  the  Dutch,  and  Trinidad  from  the  Spaniards, 
relinquishing  all  her  other  conquests;  Malta  being  given  back  to 
the  knights  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem,  under  the  guarantee  of  the 
principal  powers  of  Europe. 


SECTION  XIV. 

FRANCE,  FROM  THE  DEATH  OF  THE  KING  AND  QUEEN, 
AND  OVERTHROW  OF  THE  GIRONDIST  OR  BRISSOTINE 
PARTY,  1,793,  TO  THE  ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  DIREC- 
TORY, 1,795. 

1.  The  situation  of  France,  towards  the  close  of  the  year  1,795, 
was  deplorable  in  the  extreme.  It  lay  at  the  mercy  of  a  taction, 
not  merely  blood-thirsty,  but  which  nothing  but  blood  would  satis- 
fy. The  jacobins,  or  Robes.pierrean  party,  determined  to  root  out 
every  tiling  that  could,  by  the  remotest  implication,  be  denounced 
as  adverse  to  their  plans,  procured  a  decree  to  be  passed,  exceed- 
ing every  thing  that  can  be  conceived  in  atrocity.  Such  was  the 
*'  Loi  sur  lea  suspects,''''  passed  in  September,  by  which  their  agents 


334  MODERN  HISTORY. 

in  all  parts  of  the  country,  were  empowered  to  arrest,  imprison, 
and  thereby  doom  to  destruction,  whomsoever  suspicion  in  any 
manner  attached  to,  not  merely  as  principals,  but  as  connected  ivith 
priiiCipals,  however  unavoidably,  naturally,  or  accidentally.  One 
article  alone  will  explain  the  rest.  The  following  are  the  persons 
denounced  in  the  5th  : — All  of  the  ancient  class  of  nobility  ;  all  hus- 
bands, wives,  fathers,  mothers,  sons,  or  daughters,  brothers,  sisters, 
or  agents  of  emigrants,  who  shall  not  have  constantly  manifested 
an  attachment  to  the  revolution.  The  queen,  the  twenty-two  victims 
of  the  Girondist  party,  and  general  Custine,  may  be  considered  as 
among  the  earliest  and  most  distinguished  persons  that  iVll  under 
the  power  of  this  horrible  faction.  The  due  d'Orieans,  thougli  not 
belonging  to  the  Girondist  party,  was  denounced  by  Robespierre 
himself,  as  conriected  with  them,  and  publicly  executed  on  the  0th 
of  November ;  but  his  life  and  condtjct,  botli  public  and  private,  had 
been  such,  that  he  fell  totally  unregretted.  It  would  be  vain  to 
attempt  to  relate  the  many  dreadful  events  which  marked  this  bloody 
period.  It  is  to  be  hoped  history  will  never  again  have  to  record 
such  complicated  cruelties  and  miseries,  such  premeditated  murders, 
sucli  studied  torments,  mental  and  bodily. 

2.  On  the  17th  of  November,  of  this  memorable  year,  the  cath- 
olic religion,  (at  the  instance  of  an  archbishop  of  Paris.,  Gobet !) 
was  publicly  abjured  by  the  convention,  and  decrees  past,  amidst 
the  most  tumultuous  acclamations,  for  substituting  a  religion  of  reascn 
in  lis  room.  The  churches  were  quickly  despoiled  of  their  ornaments, 
the  altars  destroyed,  civic  feasts  instituted  instead  of  religious  festi- 
vals, and  Liberty.,  Equality.,  he.  consecrated  as  objects  of  worship. 
These  revolutionary  and  anti-cathoiic  decrees  were  moreover 
orderi^d  to  be  translated  into  /fa/«m,  on  purpose  that  they  might  be 
transmitted  in  that  most  intelligible,  and  therefore  most  ofic-nsive 
shape,  to  the  pope.  The  calendar  underwent  also  a  correction.  A 
new  republican  ibrm  and  era  being  adopted  and  established,  to  com- 
mence from  the  22(1  of  Septeniber,  1,792,  the  day  on  which  the  na- 
tional convention  began  il^i  sittings,  and  royalty  was  abolished.  The 
year  was  divided  into  twelve  part;?,  of  thirty  days  each,  distinguished 
according  to  the  prevalent  seasons,  Veiuhumire.,  September  and  Oc- 
tober; fintmaire,  October  and  November ;  Friinaire,  November  and 
December;  .Yi-cosc.,  December  and  January;  Fluviose.,  January  and 
February;  Fentose.,  Febru.iry  and  March;  Genninal,  March  and 
April;  Fbreal,  April  and  May;  Fruiriul.,  May  and  June;  Messidor.^ 
June  and  July;  Thermiilor,  July  and  August ;  Fmctidor,  August  and 
September.  The  Sabbath  was  abolished,  and  live  complimentary 
days  added,  all  commemorative  of  the  revolution.  Each  month  was 
divided  into  three  decades,  and  a  respite  from  labour  allowed  on 
every  tenth  day. 

3.  It  was  not  possible  to  suppose  that  those  who  ruled  during 
this  dark  "  reign  of  terror^''  could  long  be  suffered  to  retain  their 
power  and  station  in  the  republic.  Fortunately  for  the  good  of 
human  society,  their  very  crimes  rendered  them  jealous  and  sus- 
picious of  each  other,  so  that  before  many  months  had  passed, 
after  the  execution  of  the  queen  and  the  Brissotines,  the  earth  was 
rid  of  such  monsters,  proscribed  and  driven  to  the  scaffold  by  their 
own  friends  aiid  associates  in  wickedness ;  Robespierre,  from  whom 
the  faction  chiefly  took  its  denominatioii,^  being  at  length  accused, 
condemned,  and  executed,  in  the  course  of  a  lew  hours  in  the  montlv 
of  July,  1,794,  to  the  satisfaction  of  tlie  whole  civilized  world.    Be- 


MODERN  HISTORY.  336 

fore  this  great  day  of  retribution,  horvever,  one  more  victim  of  roy- 
alty was  brought  to  the  scaffold,  whose  sole  offence  must  have  l»een 
the  heroic  display  she  had  made,  in  her  constant  attendance  upon 
the  king,  her  brother,  and  his  most  unhappy  family,  of  every  amia- 
ble virtue  that  could  adorn  a  woman.  The  princess  Elizabeth,  who 
had  continued  iii  the  temple,  with  the  two  children  of  the  unhappy 
Lewis  XV'l.,  from  the  period  of  his  execution,  was  brought  before 
the  revolutionary  tribunal,  accused  of  "  accompanying  the  late  king 
when  he  attempted  his  escape  ;"  of  having  "  attended  upon  and  ad- 
ministered help  to  the  wounded  in  the  contlict  with  the  guards ;" 
and  of  "■  having  encouraged  her  infant  nephew,  ticwis  XVfi.,  to  en- 
tertain hopes  of  ascending  the  throne  of  his  father;"  and  upon  these 
charges  sentenced  to  die,  May  10,  1,794,  and  executed  without  pity 
or  remorse. 

4.  It  was  during  the  year  1,793,  that  Napoleon  Buonaparte,  a  na- 
tive of  Corsica,  had  first  an  opportunity  of  distinguishing  himself  in 
the  French  army,  being  employed  in  the  direction  of  the  artillery  at 
the  siege  of  Toulon,  which  had  fallen  for  a  short  time  into  the  hands 
of  the  English.  Hitherto  the  war  against  the  powers  in  opposition 
to  France,  had  been  carried  on  in  a  most  desultory  and  extraordinary 
manner,  \vith  more  success  certainly  on  the  part  of  the  French  than 
could  have  been  expected,  from  the  extraordinary  condition  and  cir- 
cumstances of  their  armies,  and  the  strange  state  of  responsibility  in 
which  their  commanders  were  placed  by  their  rulers  at  home. 
Some  of  their  generals  were  compelled  to  desert,  many  were  pro- 
scribed, and  many,  alter  displaying  the  utmost  valour  in  the  field, 
were  actually  brought  to  the  scaffold.  Nevertheless,  the  impulse 
given  to  the  revolutionary  army,  by  the  circumstances  of  their  coun- 
try, aided  by  mistakes  and  jealousies  on  the  part  of  their  opponents, 
enabled  it  to  combat  effectually  against  much  better  organizea 
troops,  and  to  resist  the  attacks  that  were  made  upon  it  in  all  quar- 
ters; for  in  addition  to  the  Austrians  and  Prussians,  Sardinians,  Eng- 
lish and  Spanish,  in  La  V^endee  and  other  departments,  a  civil  war 
prevailed,  where  many  acts  of  heroism,  indeed,  were  displayed 
by  a  brave,  but  unsuccessful  band  of  royalists,  who  ultimately 
paid  dear  for  their  revolt,  by  the  most  horrid  and  disgraceful  punish- 
ments. 

5.  The  French  revolution  had  now  attained  that  pitch  of  extrav- 
agance and  disorder,  which  left  no  hopes  of  any  ^heck  or  termir 
nation,  but  that  which  actually  ensued,  namely,  a  military  despo- 
tism. According  to  the  remarks  of  one  of  the  ablest  members  of  the 
tirst  national  assembly,  one  who  was  sacrificed  at  the  period  we 
have  been  treating  oC,  in  a  way  the  most  treacherous  and  revolting 
to  every  feeling  mind,  the  French  revolution  being  undertaken,  not 
for  the  sake  of  men^  but  for  the  sake  of  opinion,  had  no  distinct 
leader,  no  Cromwell  or  Fairfax.  All  were  leaders,  all  institutors, 
all  equally  interested  in  the  course  of  affairs.  Such  a  revolution, 
he  observes,  must  be  commenced  bv  all,  but  he  was  sagacious 
enough  to  foresee  that  it  would  probably  be  terminated  by  one.  All, 
however,  for  a  certain  time,  being  leaders  and  institutors,  nothing 
could  ensue  from  such  a  state  of  things,  but  continual  straggles  to  be 
uppermost ;  continual  denunciations  and  proscriptions  of  rival  parties , 
and  a  strange  succession  of  new  constitutions,  and  new  forms  of  gov- 
ernment, as  any  opening  seemed  to  occur  for  bringing  things  to  a 
settlement. 

6;  The  death  of  Robespierre,  and  of  many  of  his  accomplices. 


33G  MODERN  HISTORY. 

clearly  afforded  such  an  opening,  if  not  for  settling,  at  least  for 
ameliorating  things ;  but  for  some  time  the  convention  and  the  na- 
tion seemed  to  be  in  too  great  a  surprise  and  consternation  to  pro- 
ceed with  any  method  to  so  desirable  an  end.  The  Ibrmer  having 
had  its  origin  in  the  days  of  anarchy  and  confusion,  seemed  little 
prepared  to  defend  or  support  its  own  dignity,  but  the  cry  of  hu- 
manity began  again  to  be  raised,  and  to  be  heard,  and  in  no  long 
course  of  time  after  the  defeat  of  Robespierre,  the  jacobin  club, 
from  which  had  emanated  all  the  previous  acts  and  decrees,  so 
disgraceful  to  France,  was  abolished  and  dissolved,  by  a  decree  of 
the  convention.  The  reformation  of  the  laws  and  government 
gave  greater  trouble.  The  pain  of  death  had  been  decreed  against 
any  who  should  propose  to  set  aside  the  constitution  of  1,793,  and 
with  this  sentence  hanging  over  them,  all  the  people  had  sworn  to 
uphold  and  maintain  it  Tired,  however,  of  the  absolute  and^  un- 
controllable power  they  had  exercised,  many  members,  even  of  the 
conAenlion,  sincerely  wished  for  more  limited  authority.  A  com- 
mittee was  appointed  to  prepare  a  new  code  of  laws,  and,  in  the 
mean  time,  processes  were  carried  against  some  of  the  most  violent 
of  the  abettors  of  the  late  tumults  and  disorders,  particularly  the 
coni:nissioners  who  had  sanctioned  the  most  dreadful  proceedings 
at  Lyons,  Nantes,  Orange,  and  Arras.  The  execrable  law  under 
w  hich  thoy  had  acted,  "  Loi  des  suspects,"  was  repealed,  and  a  just 
vengeance  directed  against  those  who  had  been  most  forward  to  car- 
ry it  into  execution. 

7.  At  length  a  new  constitution  was  framed,  presented  to  the 
convention,  and  approved.  Two  legislative  councils,  one  of  five 
hundred  members,  and  the  other  of  two  hundred  and  fifty,  were 
to  enact  the  laws ;  the  former  to  propose,  the  latter  to  sanction  or 
reject  them.  The  executive  government  was  committed  to  five 
directors,  chosen  by  the  legislature,  but  whose  responsibility  was 
ill-detined,  and  their  connexion  with  the  legislative  bodies  not  suffi- 
ciently provided  lor,  either  as  a  balance,  or  controlling  power.  It 
was  not  without  other  faults  and  blemishes,  hut  it  may  undoubtedly 
be  regarded  as  making  a  much  nearer  approach  to  order  and  reg- 
ularity, than  the  one  which  it  was  intended  to  supersede.  It  was 
formally  accepted  and  proclaimed,  September  23,  1,795.* 

8.  This  may  be  considered  as  the  third  constitution  established 
since  the  first  meeting  of  the  states-general,  in  1,789;  great  objec- 
tions were  made  to  one  article,  w  hich  secured  the  return  of  a  very 
large  proportion  of  the  members  of  the  convention,  to  serve  in  the 
new  legislature.  Tumults  were  raised  in  the  sections  of  Paris,  and 
an  attack  made  upon  the  convention,  which,  however,  was  at  last 
rescued  from  the  violence  of  the  mob.  Buonaparte,  who  was  then 
at  Paris,  was  appointed  to  act  upon  this  occasion  in  defence  of  the 
assembly. 

9.  Externally,  the  affairs  of  France  may  be  said  to  have  been  at 
this  moment  in  a  high  and  extraordinary  degree  of  prospex'ity.  The 
campaigns  of  1,794  and  1,795,  committed  to  the  charge  of  very  able 
generals,  Pichegru,  Souham,  Jourdan,  Kleber,  Moreau,  and  Du- 
gommier,  had  hitherto  succeeded  beyond  their  utmost  expectations. 
The  Belgian  states,  and  the  united  provinces,  had  not  only  beea 

'  *  The  directors  being  Reubel,  Letourncur,  Lareveillere-Lepanx,  Bar- 
ras,  and  Sieyes  ;  but  the  latter  declining  tlie  honour,  Carnot  »npplied  his 
place. 


MODERN  HISTORY.  337 

wrested  from  the  hands  of  their  defenders,  the  Austrians,  Prussians, 
and  British,  but  associated  with  the  French  repubUc  in  a  close  con- 
federacy. The  stadtholdership  was  again  abolished,  and  the  stadt- 
holder  and  his  family  obUged  to  take  refuge  in  England.  In  the 
mean  time,  peace  had  been  conchided  witb  many  of  the  belhgerent 

{jovvr^i-s,  hignly  advantageous  to  France ;  with  Prussia,  Spain,  the 
andgrave  of  Hesse,  the  grand  duke  of  Tuscany,  and  others;  while 
the  navigation  of  the  rivers  Rhine,  Meuse,  and  Scheldt,  had  been 
rendered  free,  in  all  their  courses  and  branches,  to  the  people  of 
France.  These  proceedings,  with  regard  to  the  Belgian  states  and 
Holland,  were  the  commencement  of  a  system  pursued  from  that 
thne  on  all  the  frontiers  of  the  new  republic.  By  a  decree  of  the 
national  assembly,  the  Frencii  generals  were  directed  to  proclaim 
every  where  the  sovereignty  of  the  people^  to  suppress  all  authorities 
and  privileges,  to  repeal  a!l  taxes,  and  establish  provisional  govern- 
ments on  democratic  principles.  By  this  system  of  '"'' fraternization^''' 
as  it  was  called,  the  subduod  countries  being  formed  into  republics, 
"  republiques  satellites,'''^  as  tliey  were  sigHiticantly  denominated  by  the 
French  themselves,  were  associated  with  France  as  subordinate 
states^  Of  the  stales  first  revolutionized  in  this  manner,  the  Batavian 
republic  took  the  lead,  surrendering  to  Fr;<nce,  Ivithout  hesitation, 
the  chief  of  her  fortresses,  and  thus  extending,  and  at  the  same  time 
protecting  her  frontier.  The  mistake  she  made  in  thus  welcoming 
the  French,  was  but  too  soon  discovered.  I'he  French  levied  heavy 
contributions ;  the  English  took  from  tnem  many  of  their  foreign 
settlements,  and  particularly  the  d'.pe  of  Good  Hope,  and  the  island 
of  Ceylon. 

10.  In  the  month  of  June,  1,795,  Louis  XVII.,  the  unfortunate  son 
of  Louis  XVI.,  died  in  the  temple,  under  circumstances  extremely 
sospicious,  and  very  deplorable,  having  been  some  time  in  the  cus- 
tody of  a  low-born  drunken  wretch,  who  did  every  thing  he  could 
to  insult  and  torment  him,  and  undermine  his  health.  He  was  in  the 
eleventh  year  of  his  age  at  the  limo  of  his  death.  His  sister,  the 
princess  royal,  (the  present  duchess  of  Angouleme)  was  soon  after 
wards  most  happily  released  from  her  miserable  prison,  whence  a 
father,  mother,  and  aunt,  had  been  successively  led  to  execution, 
and  where  an  only  brother  had  died  a  victim  to  cruelty,  and  perhaps 
poison.  Her  royal  highness  was  exchanged  for  certain  members  of 
the  late  convention,  who  had  been  delivered  up  to  the  allies,  by  the 
generals  who  had  incurred  the  displeasure  of  their  rulers  at  Paris, 
or  had  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy  by  other  accidents. 


SECTION  XV. 

FRANCE,  FROM  THE  ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  DIRECTORY, 
1,795,  TO  THE  PEACE  OF  AMIENS. 

1 .  The  appointment  of  the  five  directors,  was  an  act  of  policy 
on  the  part  of  the  ruling  members  of  the  convention,  who  thought 
it  better  to  hazard  such  a  division  of  the  executive  power,  than  to 
give  umbrage  to  the  people,  by  the  renewal  of  a  first  magistrate, 
though  an  elective  one.  As  these  new  officers,  however,  owed 
their  nomination  to  the  influence  of  those  members  of  the  late  coft- 
Teotion  who  were  chosen  to  form  a  part  of  the  legislative  bodj ;  a 


338  MODERN  HISTORY. 

close  union  was  soon  found  to  subsist  between  the  directors  and  the 
majority  of  the  council. 

2.  The  council  of  ancients,  consisting  of  two  hundred  and  tifty 
members,  at  first  appeared  to  form  the  bulwark  of  the  new  consti- 
tution ;  having  no  share  in  the  framing  of  the  laws,  they  were  able 
to  interpose  with  the  greater  dignity  in  pronouncing  their  judgment 
npon  such  as  were  referred  to  them,  and  ol'ten  exercised  the  re- 
stored privilege  of  the  veto  beneficially  for  the  public.  The  judi- 
cial murders  of  the  reign  of  terror  were  terminated,  and  the  gov- 
ernment displayed,  in  many  instances,  a  return  to  moderation  and 
humanity,  extremely  desirable  and  praiseworthy,  but  in  the  south- 
ern de^partment,  a  system  of  reaction  and  retaliation  prevailed,  which 
it  was  beyond  their  power  to  control.  An  organized  body  of  assassins 
kept  all  those  parts  of  the  nation  in  a  state  of  incessant  alarm.  The 
metropolis  was  in  some  degree  restored  to  its  wonted  gayety,  but 
every  thing  bespoke,  as  might  reasonably  be  expected,  a  most  de- 
moralized state  of  society.  The  stage  became  intolerably  licentious, 
and  the  public  amusements  were  disgraced,  by  a  freedom  of  man- 
ners, and  indelicacy  of  dress  on  the  part  of  tlie  females,  beyond  mea- 
sure offensive.  Those  whose  nearest  connexions  had  been  doomed 
to  the  scaffold,  could  tind  no  better  mode  of  commemorating  their 
loss,  than  by  festive  meetings,  called  "  Bals  a  la  Victime^'''  to  which 
no  one  could  be  admitted  but  such  as  had  lost  a  father,  a  mother,  a 
tiusband,  a  wife,  a  brother,  or  a  sister,  by  the  guillotine  ! 

3.  Hitherto  the  prowess  of  the  French  armies  had  been  mani- 
fested much  more  in  the  north,  and  on  the  Rhine,  than  in  the 
southern  parts  of  the  continent ;  towards  Italy,  the  Austrians  and 
Piedmontese  seemed  to  hold  the  French  in  check.  Dugommier  had 
indeed  invaded  Spain  with  effect;  and  by  his  attacks  contributed 
to  bring  about  a  peace  with  that  country ;  but  now  a  new  scene 
was  about  to  open,  leading  to  such  a  succession  of  victories  and 
revolutions  as  it  would  be  impossible  fully  to  descril>e  in  such  a  work 
as  the  present. 

4.  Early  in  the  year  1,796,  general  Buonaparte  obtained  (being 
then  twenty-six  years  of  age,)  the  chief  command  of  the  army  of 
Italy,  as  it  was  called.  His  eagerness  to  commence  operations 
drv.w  upon  him  some  remonstrances.  It  was  suggested  to  him  that 
m^tny  things  were  wanting  in  his  army  necessary  to  the  campaign. 
"  I  h;»ve  enough,"  said  he,  "  if  1  conquer,  and  too  many  if  I  should 
he  braten."  The  Austrian  army  in  those  parts  was  commanded 
by  general  Beaulieu,  an  officer  peculiarly  active  and  enterprising. 
Gfieral  Buonaparte  took  the  command  of  the  French  army  on  the 
30th  of  March,  and  between  the  12lh  and  15th  of  April,  beat  the 
Au:*trian  troops  in  three  distinct  engagements,  at  Montenotte,  Mil- 
lesimo  (or  Monte lezino,)  and  Dego.  In  the  space  of  four  days,  it 
has  been  computed,  that  the  Austrian  army  was  diminished  to  the 
amount  of  15,000  men,  being  separated  at  the  same  time  from  their 
Piedmontese  allies.  After  the  battle  of  Dego,  Buonaparte  advanced 
rapidly  into  Piedmont,  nor  did  he  stop  till  he  had  arrived  at  the 
very  gates  of  Turin.  There  he  agreed  to  an  armistice  solicited  by 
the  kmg,  who  was  ignominiously  compelled  to  submit  to  his  occu- 
pying with  French  troops  all  the  principal  fortresses  of  his  coun- 
try. Happy  to  be  allowed  to  retain  the  capital,  he  was  also  obliged 
to  cede  Savoy,  Nice,  Tende,  and  Beuil.  From  Turin,  Buona- 
parte pursued  his  course  into  Lombardy,  and  by  the  celebrated 


MODERN  HISTORY.  339 

fcatlle  of  Lodi,  on  the  10th  of  May,  obtained  complete  possession  of 
the  Milanese. 

5.  Unwilling  to  enter  immediately  into  the  narrow  parts  of  Italy 
m  this  stage  of  his  proceedings,  he  satisfied  himself  with  threaten- 
ing the  pope  and  the  king  of  Naples,  till  he  brought  them  to  terms 
of  peace  ;  the  former  surrendering  to  the  French  republic,  Bologna, 
Ferrara,  and  the  coasts  of  the  Adriatic,  from  the  mouths  of  the  Po, 
to  Ancona ;  and  the  latter  consenting  to  contribute  largely  to  the 
maintenance  of  the  French  army,  and  to  close  his  ports  against 
the  enemies  of  France.  The  dukes  of  Parma  and  Modena,  made 
submission  in  time  to  save  their  countries.  The  grand  duke  of 
Tuscany  had  previously  acknowledged  the  French  republic,  but 
was  bidden  very  peremptorily  to  exclude  the  English  from  the 
port  of  Leghorn.  The  subn)ission  of  all  these  princes  and  states 
to  the  overwhelming  force  ol  the  army  under  the  command  of  Buo- 
naparte, was  but  part  of  the  victory  he  obtained  over  them.  In 
every  step  he  took,  he  was  careful,  by  new  laws,  treaties,  and  po- 
litical arrangements,  to  '•'' revolutionize?'^  the  countries  over  which 
he  obtained  an  ascendency  by  arms,  and  to  incorporate  them  with 
the  French  republic.  Savoy,  Nice,  and  the  Milanese,  were  thus 
brought  under  his  dominion,  and  ultimately  erected  into  distinct, 
though  subordinate  republics. 

6.  It  was  at  the  vei-y  commencement  of  the  military  career  of 
this  extraordinary  man,  that  he  adopted  a  system  of  plunder,  which, 
for  a  long  time,  engaged  the  attention  of  the  whole  civilized  world. 
In  all  the  treaties  concluded  with  the  Italian  princes,  he  stipulated 
that  French  artists  should  be  admitted  into  their  public  galleries, 
museums,  and  palaces,  to  select  as  many  as  they  might  choose,  of 
the  choicest  performances  of  the  celebrated  painters  and  sculptore 
of  all  ages,  and  cause  them  to  be  conveyed  to  Paris.  French  sentiment 
has  dwelt  upon  the  circumstance  of  the  immortal  Raphael,  Titian, 
and  Domenichino,  having  thys  had  it  in  their  power,  and  in  such 
critical  moments,  to  pay  the  ransom  of  their  native  countries,  over- 
looking the  sad  violation  of  sentiment  occasioned  by  the  removal  of 
these  precious  pledges  of  their  stupendous  talents  from  the  hands 
which  had  so  long  preserved  them,  and  from  places  of  which  they 
had  been  so  justly  regarded  as  the  choicest  and  most  valuable 
ornaments. 

7.  The  siege  of  Mantua  was  attended  with  many  severe  conflicts. 
On  the  reduction  of  that  important  place,  Buonaparte  is  stated  to 
have  thus  addressed  his  soldiers  :  "  The  capture  of  Mantua  termi- 
nates a  campaign  which  has  justly  entitled  you  to  the  everlasting 
gratitude  of  your  country.  You  have  triumphed  over  the  enemy  in 
three  pitched  battles,  and  seventy  inferior  engagements ;  you  have 
taken  a  hundred  thousand  prisoners,  fifty  field-pieces,  two  thousand 
battering  cannons.  The  country  you  have  subdued  has  nourished, 
maintained,  and  paid  the  army  during  the  whole  campaign,  and  you 
have  remitted  thirty  millions  to  the  minister  of  finance,  in  aid  of  the 
public  treasury.  You  have  enriched  the  museum  at  Paris,  with 
more  than  three  hundred  of  the  choicest  and  most  valuable  works  of 
art,  both  of  ancient  and  modern  Italy,  and  which  it  had  taken  thirty 
ages  to  produce." 

8.  Though  we  know  from  subsequent  accounts  of  French  victo- 
ries, that  they  are  not  always  to  be  depended  upon,  yet  there  can 
be  no  doubt,  that  the  above  address  does  pretty  fairly  describe  the 
extraordinary  rapidity  and  extent  of  Buonaparte^s  tirst  operatioM 


340  MODERN  HISTORY. 

in  the  field.  The  years  1,796  and  1,797,  were  indeed  marked  by 
6uch  stirprising  instances  of  this  nature,  that  they  deserve  a  place 
in  history,  though  the  prudence  and  good  generalship  of  such  pre- 
cipitate steps  has  been  reasonably  questioned.  Mantua  capitulated 
on  the  2d  of  February,  1,797,  and  Buonaparte  pursued  his  course 
in  the  direction  of  the  Austrian  capital,  leaving  Italy  behind  him, 
with  a  view  of  penetrating  to  Vienna.  Though  obliged  to  fight  his 
way,  he  succeeded,  March  2,  1,797,  in  taking  possession  of  Gradis- 
ca,  which  laid  open  to  him  the  provinces  ot  Goritz,  Carniola,  and 
Carintbia. 

9.  The  Austrian  grand  army  was  commanded  by  the  emperor's 
brother,  the  archduke  Charles,  an  able  general,  a  great  favourite 
with  the  soldiers,  and  who  had  combated  the  French  on  the  Rhine 
with  signal  succe-s.  He  was  not,  however,  strong  enough  to  await 
the  approach  of  the  French,  who  soon  reached  Leoben,  only  thirty 
miles  from  Vienna,  where  great  constemalion  was  excited,  and  the 
imperial  family  compelled  to  retire.  As  both  armies,  however, 
were  brought  into  a  very  criticid  position,  negotiations  were  en- 
tered into  ut  this  place,  an  aimistice  concluded  on  the  8th  of  April, 
and  preliminaries  of  peace  signed  on  the  15th  of  the  same  month, 
1,797. 

10.  Before  we  notice  the  celebrated  treaty  of  Campo-Formio, 
by  which  the  peace  was  settled  and  contirmed,  it  may  be  lit  to  con- 
sider the  state  of  those  countries  which  Buonaparte  had  left  behind 
on  his  march  upon  V  ienna.  He  had  made  peace  on  his  own  terms 
(most  advantageous  ones  for  France)  with  Parma,  Modena,  Rome, 
and  Naples.  He  had  overrun  Savoy,  obtained  possession  of  tke 
Milanese,  and  reduced  Mantua.  He  had  erected  Genoa  inte  the 
Ligurian  republic,  and  the  Milanese  he  converted  into  the  Cisalpine 
republic,  after  having  first  given  it  the  name  of  Transpadane,  in 
reference  to  the  river  Po,  and  in  contradistinction  to  the  Cispadane 
republic,  consisting  of  Modena,  Bologna,  Reggio,  and  Ferrara,  con- 
federated in  1,796.  He  had  passed  Venice  on  his  way  to  Trieste,  of 
which  he  took  possession  on  the  3d  of  April,  1,797.  The  Venetians 
had  afforded  an  asylum  to  Lewis  XVIII.,  and  wavered  greatly  in 
taking  part  either  with  the  Austrians  or  the  French,  not  being  able 
to  calculate  upon  the  issue  of  the  contest.  They  had  also  fallen 
into  domestic  broils  and  dissensions,  which  gave  the  Fsench  command- 
er the  opportunity  he  always  sought,  of  introducing  a  French  army 
to  allay  their  differences.  The  consequences  were,  that  they  im- 
mediately seized  upon  the  fleet,  the  Ionian  islands,  and,  in  fact,  all 
the  Venetian  states,  which  enabled  Buonaparte  greatly  to  improve 
the  peace  he  was  making  with  the  Austrians.  Albania  and  the  Ioni- 
an islands  he  kept  to  himself;  to  the  Cisalpine  republic  he  assigned 
the  western  dependencies  of  Venice,  reserving  for  Austria, -the  capi- 
tal, Istria,  Dalmatia,  and  the  island  of  the  Adriatic,  in  exchange  for 
the  Netherlands  and  the  duchy  of  Luxemburg.  He  had  profess- 
ed to  enter  upon  the  Venetian  states,  merely  to  rescue  them  from 
the  hands  of  Austria,  but  by  this  extraordinary  manoeuvre,  he  not 
only  delivered  them  over  to  the  very  power  from  whom  he  under- 
took to  save  them,  but  he  obtained  from  Austria  the  very  object  for 
the  sake  of  which  her  English  allies  had  refused  to  make  peace  in 
1,796.  Such  appears  to  have  been  the  chief  foundation  of  the  cele- 
brated treaty  of  Campo-Formio,  concluded  between  the  emperor  and 
the  French  republic,  October,  17,  1,797. 

U-  Previously  to  the  conclusion  of  the  treaty  of  Campo^Fonnio, 


MODERN  HISTORY.  341 

tiie  alliea  had  lost  three  of  their  confederates,  the  dukes  of  Wir- 
temburg  and  Bavaria,  and  the  Margrave  of  Baden,  all  of  whom 
had  found  it  necessary  to  purchase  peace  of  the  directory  by  heavy 
contributions.  Such  great  advantages  in  its  external  relations 
were,  however,  far  from  contributing  to  the  internal  tranquillity  of 
the  republic.  The  tii'st  live  directors,  as  might  naturally  have  been 
expected,  were  by  no  means  accordant  in  their  views,  or  of  equal 
talents  and  abilities;  and  provision  seemed  to  have  been  made 
for  tresh  revolutions,  by  the  continual  recurrence  of  new  elections, 
both  in  the  legislative  assemblies  and  directory.  One  of  the  live 
directors  was  annuall}'  to  go  out,  and  one  third  of  each  of  the  le- 
gislative bodies  to  be  renewed.  The  lirst  event  of  this  kind,  as 
might  be  expected,  revived  all  the  jealousies  of  rival  parties,  and 
produced  an  explosion  almost  as  violent  as  any  that  had  yet  occur- 
red ;  the  explosion  of  the  18th  of  Fructidor,  as  marked  in  the  short- 
lived republican  calendar.  Le  Tourneur  quitted  the  directory  by 
lot,  and  was  succeeded  by  Burthelemi,  who  soon  apj>eared  inclined 
to  join  Carnot  against  Keubel,  Barras,  and  Larevilliere-Lepaux. 
The  three  latter  were  for  assuming  a  despotic  power;  their  oppo- 
nents were  divided,  some  inclined  to  the  lestoiation  of  royalty, 
otiiers  to  the  emancipation  of  the  councils  from  the  sway  of  the 
directors,  Heubel  and  his  two  associates ;  but  as  they  formed  a  mi- 
nority, and  their  enemies  were  prompt  in  their  measures  of  revenge, 
and  had  moreover  the  command  of  tlie  military,  it  was  not  long  be- 
fore the  latter  obtained  the  victory  they  sought.  On  the  4th  of 
September,  1,797,  the  legislative  assemblies  were  surrounded  with 
troops,  and  at  the  instance  of  the  three  ruling  directoi's,  two  of  their 
colleagues,  (Carnot  and  Bartheiemi)  several  members  of  the  two 
councils,  many  public  ministers,  and  many  men  of  letters,  declared 
guilty  of  anti-republican  measures  and  principles,  arrcsled  and  in)pri- 
soned  ;  and,  on  the  5th,  sentenced  to  deportation  to  the  unhealthy 
and  remote  settlement  of  Guiana,  in  South  America.  The  authors, 
editors,  directors,  and  proprietors,  of  no  less  tiian  forty-two  public 
journals  were  included  in  the  sentence.  Some  of  tiie  proscribed 
members  found  means  to  escape ;  but  those  who  were  conveyed  to 
Guiana,  suffered  dreadfully  from  the  voyage;  many  died  from  the 
unwholesomeness  of  the  place,  some  found  means  to  return  to  Lurope, 
particularly  general  Pichegru  and  the  ex-director,  Barlhelemi,  who 
were  conveyed  to  England  from  the  Dutch  settlement  of  Surinam. 

12.  Buonaparte  returned  to  i^iris  not  long  after  these  disturban- 
ces, and  was  received  with  peculiar  honours.  The  people  began 
to  look  up  to  him  for  deliverance  from  the  tyranny  of  three  direct- 
ors; and  the  latter  were  as  eager  to  remove  him  from  the  metropo- 
lis. In  the  midst  of  the  honours  paid  to  him,  on  account  of  his  vic- 
tories in  Italy  and  Germany,  Barras,  with  great  emphasis,  nominat- 
ed him  as  the  hero  destined  to  place  the  tri-coloured  flag  on  the 
tower  o[  London.  Troops  were  actually  assembled  on  the  coasts 
of  Flanders  and  Normandy  for  the  purpose ;  but  Buonaparte  him- 
selfi  seeing  the  impracticabUlity  of  such  an  attempt,  meditated  a 
more  distant  expedition. 

13.  In  the  course  of  the  year  1,798,  the  system,  1:)egar}.  so  suc- 
cessfully in  Flanders  and  Holland,  of  revolutio.iizing  the  countries 
into  which  the  French  armies  should  penetrate,  was  carried  to  a 
great  extent.  WatchtuI  to  seize  upon  every  opportunity  afforded 
them  by  internal  dissensions,  the  French  this  year  obtained  posses- 
npD  of  liome,  Switzerland,  the  Fays  de  Vaud,  the  Grisons,  aod 

Ff2 


342  MODERN  HISTORY. 

Geneva,  under  circumstances  peculiarly  distressing  to  the  existing 
governments,  and  commonly  attended  with  heavy  exactions,  and 
ihe  plunder  of  their  churches,  palaces,  and  museums.  The  pope 
was  driven  from  Rome,  partly  by  his  own  subjects,  and  partly 
through  an  overweening  confidence  in  his  own  power  and  intlu- 
ence.  The  Roman  republic  was  proclaimed  February  15,  1,798; 
and  the  finances  being  found  in  a  bad  state,  the  Vatican  and  other 
public  buildings  stripped  of  their  contents.  The  Pays  de  V^aud, 
whither  the  French  had  been  invited,  to  protect  them  against  the 
aristocratic  despotism  of  the  Bernese,  was  formed  into  the  Lemariy 
and  Swit2ierland,  after  many  cruel  sacrifices,  into  the  Helvetic  re- 
public, or  rather  into  three  republics,  for  that  was  ultimately  the 
arrangement  adopted ;  provisional  governments  being  in  all  places 
appointed,  conformably,  in  a  great  degree,  to  the  principles  of  the 
French  constitution.  No  remonstrances  on  the  part  of  the  free  can- 
tons could  save  them  from  the  directorial  decrees.  An  address  to 
this  efJ'ect,  peculiarly  pathetic  and  eloquent,  from  the  cantons  of 
Schwitz,  Uri,  Appenzel,  Glaris,  Zug,  and  Underwalden,  had  no 
effect  whatever  in  preserving  them  from  a  change  of  constitution, 
forced  upon  them  by  democratic  France.  The  degenerate  Romans 
had  appeared  to  pride  themselves  upon  emulating  their  heroic  an- 
cestors, in  re-establishing  the  republic,  under  the  auspices  of  Gallio 
invaders.  But  the  brave  Swiss  resisted  to  the  utmost  the  rude  dis- 
turbers of  their  ancient  freedom.  The  modern  republicans  of  Rome 
chanted  a  Te  Deum,  to  hallow  their  deliverance.  The  Swiss  sung 
their  antiquated  songs  of  patriotism  and  freedom,  till  the  most  dire 
necessity  compelled  them  to  surrender  their  established  constitution 
to  the  dictates  of  a  French  directory. 

14.  On  the  6th  of  May,  Buonaparte  lef\  Paris  for  Toulon,  to  take 
the  command  of  an  expedition,  the  real  object  of  which  has  scarce- 
ly been  ascertained  to  this  day,  though  it  appears  most  probable, 
that  he  designed  to  join  Tippoo  Saib  in  India,  and  to  subvert  the 
British  empire  there.  He  was  accompanied  by  many  artists,  natu- 
ralists, and  antiquarians,  and  a  large  proportion  of  the  army  which 
had  served  under  him  in  Italy.  Malta  lying  in  his  way  to  Egypt, 
he  failed  not  to  take  possesision  of  it,  partly  by  force,  and  partly  by 
intrigue,  subjecting  that  island  and  its  dependeacies,  Gozu  and  Cumj- 
no,  to  the  Irench  republic,  June  12,  1,798.  Its  conquest  had  for 
some  time  previously  been  meditated,  but  it  had  lately  been  put 
under  the  protection  of  the  emperor  of  Russia,  Paul  I. :  it  was  treated 
by  the  French  as  ill  as  other  places,  notwithstanding  the  utmost 
assurances  to  the  contrary.  1  he  knights  were  driven  from  the 
island,  many  of  the  people  compelled  to  join  the  French  army, 
and  new  laws  imposed  under  the  authority  of  the  directory.  In  the 
month  of  July,  this  year,  1798,  a  triumphant  entry  into  Paris,  of 
all  the  works  of  art  collected  in  the  several  places  subdued  by  the 
French  arms,  took  place  amid  the  acclamations  of  the  people.  The 
Frenc-h  fleet  had  narrowly  escaped  at  Malta  the  pursuit  of  an  Eng- 
lish one,  under  the  command  of  Nelson ;  and  after  the  subduction 
of  the  island,  it  was  able  to  proceed,  still  undiscovered,  to  Egypt, 
where  the  English  had  already  been  to  look  for  them  in  vain.  On 
the  2d  of  July,  Buonaparte  took  possession  of  Alexandria,  mooring 
his  fleet  in  the  bay  of  Aboukir.  In  less  than  three  weeks  from  his 
landing,  and  after  a  severe  action  with  the  Mamelukes,  called  the 
battle  of  the  pyramids,  Cairo,  and  the  whole  of  the  Delta  fell  into 
\m  power  j  but  his  triumph  was  k^eeoed  by  the  loss  of  his  fleet,  on 


MODERN  HISTORY.  343 

the  Ist  of  August,  which,  being  attacked  in  the  bay  by  Nelson,  was 
ainjost  totally  destroyed  or  taken,  the  French  admiral  Bru.  js  bting 
killed  and  his  ship  burnt ;  four  ships  only,  (wo  of  ihem  frigaiei^,  \v<'re 
all  that  escaped..  When  Buonaparte  lel'l  Toulon,  his  fleet  consisted 
of  400  sail,  including  thirteen  ships  of  the  line,  and  it  was  rather 
increased  than  otherwise  by  his  enterprise  at  Maha. 

15.  The  victory  of  Nelson  gave  a  new  turu  to  the  war  against 
the  French.  On  his  quitting  Egypt,  he  carried  his  lleet  to  Naples^ 
where  the  utmost  joy  was  manifested  by  the  court  at  the  blow  which 
had  been  given  to  the  French  preponderance.  The  queen  invoked 
the  Austrians  to  renew  the  war  against  France ;  and  the  expedition 
to  Egypt  and  attack  upon  Malta  having  excited  the  czar,  and  even 
the  grand  seignior,  to  resist  aggressions  so  unpi'Ovoked  ana  alarming, 
Francis  II.  was  not  insensible  to  the  call  made  upon  him.  England 
was  not  backward  to  encourage  and  aid  such  movements,  in  every 
part  of  Europe.  The  king  of  Sardinia,  and  the  grand  duke  of  Tus- 
cany showed  themselves  willing  to  join  the  new  confederacy  ;  but 
the  king  of  Prussia  was  not  to  be  prevailed  on  to  abandon  his  neu- 
trality. 

16.  The  Neapolitan  court,  which  had  been  the  foremost  to  ex- 
cite this  new  war,  were  the  first  sufferers  from  it.  Having  invaded 
the  territories  of  the  church,  and  even  obtained  possession  of  Rome, 
they  were  suddenly  driven  back  by  the  French,  the  capital  taken, 
and  the  royal  family  compelled  to  retire  to  Palermo,  in  Sicily.  Na- 
ples was  not  taken  possession  of  without  a  formidable  insurrection 
of  that  extraordinary  portion  of  its  population,  the  Lazzuroni,  with 
whom  the  king,  whose  amusements  were  often  unbecoming  his  high 
rank,  happened  to  be  popular.  This  resistance  provoked  reprisals 
exceedingly  distressing  to  the  inhabitants,  and  almost  ruinous  to 
the  city;  the  tumult,  however,  was  at  length  appeased,  and  the 
kingdom  of  Naples  converted  into  the  Fartlienopean^  or  Neapolitan 
republic. 

17.  The  king  of  Sardinia,  and  the  grand  duke  of  Tuscany  were 
also  made  to  pay  dear  for  the  renewal  of  hostilities,  both  being  de- 
prived of  their  dominions,  as  allies  of  the  Neapolitans,  and  com* 

lelied  to  abandon  their  capitals.  The  aged  pope,  who  had  indeed, 
y  many  unwise  provocations,  irritated  the  French,  a  refugee  in 
the  Tuscan  territories,  unwilling  to  accompany  the  deposed  princes 
in  their  retreat  from  Florence,  and  too  contidently  relying  on  the 
reverence  that  would  be  paid  to  his  years  and  station,  was  actually 
arrested  in  his  monastic  retirement,  and  conveyed  to  Valence,  in 
Dauphiny,  a  prisoner,  where  he  died  broken  hearted,  August  29, 
1,799.  On  the  establishment  of  the  consular  government,  his  body 
was  honourably  interred,  and  a  monument  erected  over  him. 

18.  But  the  directory,  in  the  midst  of  these  arbitrary  seizures  of 
states  and  kingdoms,  acted  with  too  little  foresight,  as  to  the  eflects 
of  the  formidable  confederacy  of  Russid  and  Austria.  The  French 
armies  were  widely  separated,  and  many  of  the  oiost  successful 
generals,  through  a  pernicious  jealousy,  disgraced  and  removed 
from  their  command.  This  disheartened  the  soidiers;  and  reverses 
were  preparing  for  them,  both  in  Germany  and  Italy.  The  Russian 
army,  under  Souvaroff,  entered  the  latter  country  eariy  in  the  spiing 
of  the  year  1,799,  and  on  the  iBilj  of  April  was  at  Verona.  The 
character  and  manners  of  this  northern  general,  made  a  great  im- 
pression both  upon  the  allied  armies,  and  upon  the  inhabitants  of  the 
couutries  he  invaded.    The  French,  under  the  celebrated  Moreaa, 


I 


344  MODERN  HISTORY.  \ 

were  obliged  to  fall  back,  leaving  the  Milanese  exposed  to  the  com-  j 
bined  forces.    Alter  various  actions,  Milan  was  invested  ;  and,  after  i 
a  nineteen  days'  siege,  taken  May  24.    Turin,  Aiessandria,  Mantua,  ] 
and  Tortona,  were  reduced  in  the  months  of  June  and  July  ;  and  j 
in  most  of  these  places,  as  well  as  in  other  parts  of  Italy,  Tuscany,  .' 
Naples,  and  Rome,  great  indignation   was  manifested  against  tlie  , 
Frencu,  of  whose  tyranny  they  had  all  tasted,  and  of  whose  friend- 
ship they  were  already  become  weary.    In  a  short  time  the  French  ; 
retained,  of  all  their  conquests  in  those  parts,  only  Genoa  and  Savoy.  ■ 
19.  VViiile  these  things  were  going  on,  the  councils  at  Paris  be-  'j 
gan  to  distrust  the  govenimont  of  the  directors,  and  to  ask  why  i 
Buonaparte  was  at  such  a  distance.     Inquiries  of  this  kind  were  ; 
often  put  to  his  hroiner  Lucien,  who  had  a  seat  in  the  council  of  ] 
five  hundred.     A  party  was  formed  against  the  most  obnoxious  of 
the  directors,  and  three  found  it  necessary  to  retire.     Another  revo-  i 
luiion  in  the  government  was  evidently  preparing.      Buonaparte's 
absence  and  object  seemed  equally  mysterious.      It  was  supposed 
that  he  meant  to  opf^n  the  old  channel  of  trade  between  the  East 
Indies  and  the  Mediterranean.      After  the  destruction  of  his  tleet,  : 
as  though  banished  Irom  France,  he  appeared  eager  to  establish  a  ] 
colony   in  Egypt,  which,   perliaps,   was  originally  in  his  view,  in  ; 
carrying  lliifi.er  all  that  the  arts  and  sciences  of  Europe  could  con- 
tribute of  utility  or  beauty.     Alibis  works  were  superintended  by 
persons  of  known  celebrity  for  talent  and  knowledge  of  every  de-  i 
scription;  but  he  vyas  turned  from  this  object  by   the  jealousy  of  ; 
the  Turks,  who,  alter  the  battle  of  Aboukir,  (or  of  the  Nile,  as  it  ] 
is  generally  called  in  England,)    were   ready    enough  to  join  the  | 
English  in  attacking  the  French,  confined,  as  it  were,  within  their  , 
territories.     Buonaparte,  to  be  beforehand  with  them,  marctied  into  1 
Syria,  where  the  pacha  of  Acre,  a  man  of  most  ferocious  character,  ' 
commanded.      He   succeeded   in   taking   many    fortresses,   and   for  ' 
three    months  maintained  a  war  in  the  very  heart  of  the  country,  i 
but  his  artillery   having  been  intercepted  by  the  English,  who  had  j 
also  been  admitted  into  Acre,  his  attempts  upon  the  latter  place 
were  frustrated,  and,  being  threatened  on  all  sides,  he  resolved  to 
return  to  Egypt;  there  he  received  lettei-s  to  inform  him  of  the  < 
reverses  in  Italy,  and  the  disorders  at  Paris,  and  to  press  his  return  ;  ' 
but  the  Turks  had  landed  at  \ljoukir,  and  taken  possession  of  the  ; 
fort,  and  it  was  judged  necessary  for  his  fame,  that  he  should  not  j 
quit  Egypt  without  beating  them.      He  hastened  to  attack  them,  I 
and  succeeded ;  but  not  without  many  severe  conliictSj  and  an  eight  ^ 
days'  siege  of  the  fortress  of  Ai>oukir.     Soon  after  this  success,  he 
embarked  clandestinely  for  France,  leaving  the  army  under  the  com-  ; 
mand  of  general  Kleber,  (who  complained  greatly  of  being  so  duped  ^ 
and  abandoned,)  and  in  a  very  extraordinary  manner  escaped  all  the  ' 
English  ships  cruising  in  the  Mediterranean.  j 
20.    Buonaparte  arrived  just  in  time  to  take  advantage  of  the  ; 
<listracted  state  of  the  governmenL    The  legislature  was  a  prey  to  - 
faction  ;  the  directors  divided  in  opinion  ;  the  jacobins  and  anarchists  ; 
extremely  troublesome,  and  not  unlikely  to  recover  their  sway;  ] 
while  many  departments  were  in  a  state  of  insurrection  and  civil  i 
war.    Sieyes,  the  most  wise  and  politic  of  all  that  had  yet  been  in  j 
the  directory,  foresaw-  the  necessity  of  a  change,  and  wanted  only 
some   military  genius  to  support  his   measures,  and  to  whom  he  ] 
could  confide  his  designs.    Tiiree  other  impertant  characters  ap-  ' 
peared  to  rest  their  hopes  oa  the  iuterfereoce  of  Buonaparte,  i 


MODERN  HISTORY.  S45 

Fouche,  minister  of  police;  Cambaceres,  minister  of  justice;  and 
the  ex-minister  for  foreign  affairs,  Talleyrand  Perigord. 

21.  Within  a  month  after  the  arrival  of  Buonaparte,  a  proposal 
was  made  in  the  council  of  ancients,  to  remove  the  legislative  bod- 
ies to  St.  Cloud,  and  to  confer  on  Buonaparte  the  command  of  the 
troops  at  Paris.  At  the  moment  the  decree  was  passed,  Buonaparte, 
accompanied  by  many  of  the  generals  who  had  distinguished  them- 
selves under  him,  appeared  at  the  bar,  denouncinj;  threats  against  all 
who  should  traverse  the  decree  just  passed.  The  council  of  five 
hundred,  taken  by  surprise,  made  some  show  of  resistance  ;  and  Buo- 
naparte appearing  amongst  them,  gave  such  offence,  that  he  was  in 
danger  of  assassination,  amidst  the  cries  of  "Down  with  the  tyrant !" 
"No  dictator!"  His  brother  Lucien,  at  that  time  president,  was 
loudly  called  upon  to  pronounce  a  decree  of  outlawry  against  him, 
%vhich  he  evaded  by  throwing  aside  his  ol^icial  dress,  and  renouncing 
his  seat  in  the  assembly ;  alter  which,  Buonaparte,  in  some  alarm, 
having  joined  his  troops,  the  meeting  was  dissolved,  and  violently  dis- 
persed by  the  soldiery.  It  was  allowed  however  to  assemble  agaia 
under  the  former  presidency,  the  Jacobinical  members  being  excluded, 
when  a  new  order  of  things,  approved  by  the  council  of  elders,  was 
brought  forward,  decreed,  and  proclaimetl.  The  directory  was  abol- 
ished, and  three  new  chief  magistrates  appointed  under  the  name  of 
consuls,  while  committees  were  formed  to  prepare  a  new  constitu- 
tion. Eighty  persons  were  to  compose  a  senate,  one  hundred  a 
tribunate,  and  three  hundred  a  legislative  body. 

22.  The  time  seemed  now  to  be  arrived  when  the  excesses  of  the 
revolutionary  movement  had  prepared  men's  minds  for  a  transitioa 
from  a  state  of  anarchy  to  one  of  despotism.  Popular  liberty  liad 
fallen  into  disrepute,  t'rom  the  violences  of  the  jacobins;  and  a 
strong  executive  government  seemed  indispensably  necessary  to  re- 
store things  to  any  degree  of  order  and  consistency.  Though  the 
five  directors  appeared  to  be  exchanged  for  three  consuls,  there 
was,  in  the  last  instance,  no  correspondent  division  of  power  and 
authority.  To  the  first  consul  were  assigned  functions  and  pre- 
rogatives exceedingly  distinct  jrom  those  of  his  colleagues.  "Unity 
of  thought  and  action  was  declared  to  be  a  fundamental  quality  in 
the  executive  power."  So  far  they  were  evidently  going  back  to 
the  first  and  best  principles  of  monarchy.  Hitherto,  however,  an 
elective  and  limited  consulate  was  all  that  was  contemplated.  Gen 
eral  Buonaparte  was  appointed  first  consul,  Cambaceres  the  second, 
and  Le  Brun  the  third ,  the  first  two  lor  ten,  the  last  for  only  five 
years;  Buonaparte,  to  say  the  least,  having  all  the  power  of  a  Uing, 
though  not  the  name,  assigned  to  him, — a  power  approaching  too 
near  to  at)Sohite  and  uncontrollable  despotism. 

23.  in  the  first  discharge  ot  his  new  functions,  however,  he  was 
careful  to  display  a  spirit  of  moderation,  forbearance,  and  conciliation, 
in  many  popular  acts  at  home,  and  overtures  of  peace  to  EnglMsd. 
The  latter  were  without  effect,  and  a  large  subsidy  being  granted  by 
the  British  parliament,  to  enable  the  emppror  to  continue  the  war, 
no  time  was  lost  by  the  French  in  endeavouring  to  recover  their 
footing  in  Italy.  In  the  month  of  May,  1,800,  the  fii"st  consul  left 
Paris,  to  take  the  conunand  of  the  army  in  thoso  parts  ;  and  after  a 
most  surprising  passage  through  the  niountainous  parts  of  Switzer- 
land, and  ihe  capture  of  the  town  of  Costa,  vvilh  the  celebrated  fort 
of  Bard,  succeeded  so  far  as  to  be  able  to  enter  Milan  once  more  in 
triumph,  the  Austrians  retiring  belbre  bim,  little  expecting  tiiat  he 

44 


346  MODERN  HISTORY. 

could  find  a  way  into  Lombardy  by  the  road  he  had  chosen.  The 
Russian  army  had  been  withdrawn  in  disgust,  after  the  proceedings  in 
Switzerland,  which  had  greatly  offended  the  czar.  Previously  to 
the  entrance  of  the  first  consul  into  Milan,  the  FVench,  under  Masse- 
na,  had  been  compelled  to  evacuate  Genoa  :  but  the  Austrians  were 
doomed  to  suffer  a  reverse ;  and  though  in  the  famous  battle  of 
Marengo,  which  took  place  on  the  14th  of  June,  they  fought  with 
the  most  desperate  courage,  and  sustained  an  action  of  fourteen 
houi-s  with  great  heroism,  and  the  fairest  prospects  of  success,  the 
enemy  received  reinforcements  at  so  critical  a  moment  as  to  enable 
them  to  obtiiin  a  complete  victory,  which  was  soon  followed  by  a  sus- 
pension of  hostilities^  solicited  by  the  Austrian  general. 

24.  Negotiations  tor  peace  were  entered  into  at  Paris,  and  the 
preliminaries  were  signed;  but,  through  the  remonstrances  of  the 
English  government,  (as  it  is  supposed,)  the  emperor  refused  his 
ratiticatioi),  and  the  war  was  continued,  both  in  Germany  and  Italy, 
till  the  25th  of  December,  1,800,  when  another  suspension  of  hostil- 
ilies  being  agreed  to,  at  Steyen,  a  town  in  Upper  Austria,  soon  led 
to  the  treaty  of  Luaeville^  between  the  French  republic  am!  the  empire^ 
signed  February  9,  1801 ;  by  which  the  Rhine  was  made  the  boun- 
dary of  the  French  republic,  leaving  the  several  princes  dispossessed, 
in  part  or  in  whole,  of  their  territories  on  the  left  side  of  the  river, 
to  be  indemnitied  in  tlie  bosom  of  the  empire  ;  the  Adige,  in  the 
same  manner,  being  fixed  to  be  the  boundary  between  the  Austriau 
teriitories  in  Italy  and  the  Cisalpine  republic.  The  Grand  duke  of 
Tuscany  renounced  his  dukedom  in  favour  of  the  infant  duke  of 
Parma,  created  king  of  Etruria ;  and  the  independence  of  the  Bata- 
vian,  Helvetic,  and  Cisalpine  republics,  was  recognised  and  guai"an- 
tied  by  both  parties. 

25.  The  English  government  had  refused  to  enter  into  a  naval 
armistice,  though  in  danger  of  being  deserted  by  the  emperors  of 
Germimy  and  Russia,  and  had  declined  every  offer  of  peace  upon 
euch  terms,  while  Malta  and  Egypt  continued  in  the  hands  of  France. 
But  after  the  re-capture  of  the  former,  and  the  defeat  of  the  French 
under  Menou,  at  Alexandria,  in  September,  1,801,  both  parties  seem- 
ed more  disposed  than  before  to  enter  into  negotiation,  with  serious 
views  of  bringing  things  to  an  accommodation.  On  March  27th, 
1,802,  a  deriiiiuve  treaty  was  signed  at  Amiens,  more  favourable  to 
France  that  to  England,  though  notliing  could  exceed  the  joy  ex- 
pressed in  the  latter  country,  on  the  termination  of  hostilities  with 
the  French  republic.  It  was  soon  found  to  be  no  better  than  a  truce 
of  verv  short  duration. 

26.  The  power  of  the  French  repubUc  at  this  moment  was  enor- 
mously great.  In  addition  to  the  former  possessions  of  France,  it 
had  gained  the  Netherlands,  and  a  considerable  portion  of  Germany ; 
Geneva,  Piedmont,  and  Savoy  had  been  incorporated  with  it ;  Hol- 
land and  Switzerland  were  rendered  effectually  dependent  upon  it. 
The  Cisalphie  republic,  including  the  Milanese,  the  duchies  of  Mo- 
dgna,  Mantua,  and  Parma,  and  part  of  the  Venetian  and  Roman  ter- 
ritories, was  placed  under  the  presidency  of  the  first  consul,  for  a 
term  of  ten  years.  Genoa,  or  the  Ligurian  republic,  had  been  re- 
covered by  the  treaty  of  Luneville ;  Spain  was  entirely  at  the  com- 
mand of  France,  as  well  as  Tuscany,  under  its  new  possessor,  the 
vassal  king  of  Etruria.  It  had  recovered  also  its  West  Indian  settle- 
ments, and  acquired  a  considerable  footing  in  South  America. 


MODERN  HISTORY.  341 


^      SECTION  XVI. 

FRANCE,  FROM  THE  PEACE  OF  AMIENS  TO  THE  TREATY 
OF  TILSIT,  1,807. 

1.  It  has  already  been  observed,  that  the  first  steps  of  the  con- 
sulate were  of  a  conciliatory  nature.      Endeavours  were  made  to 


pacify  the  rebellious  departments ;  the  law  of  hostage,  which  had 
been  in  its  operation  extremely  vexations,  was  repealed ;  and  the 
list  of  emigrants  closed.    On  the  first  change  of  the  government. 


measures  were  taken  to  repress  the  violence  of  the  jacobins,  and 
awe  the  fiictious ;  but  the  sentences  passed  on  the  most  obnoxious 
were  afterwards  mitigated. 

2.  Soon  after  the  conclusion  of  the  peace  of  Amiens,  the  first 
consul  gave  great  satisfaction  to  the  bulk  of  the  nation,  by  restoring 
the  catholic  religion.  On  Easter-day.  1,802,  the  peace  was  ratified 
in  the  metropolitan  church,  with  all  the  sanctions  of  the  ancient 
religious  forms,  and  a  large  attendance  of  new  prelates.  The  basis 
of  the  convention  with  the  pope  had  been  settled  and  arranged  in 
the  preceding  year,  upon  the  tbiiovving  principles : — That  a  new 
division  of  the  French  dioceses  should  be  made,  suited  to  the  re- 
publican division  of  the  country  ;  and  that  the  first  consul  should 
nominate  the  new  archbishops  and  bishops,  leaving  it  to  the  pope, 
as  a  matter  of  course,  to  confer  canonical  institutions.  The  bishops 
to  appoint  the  parish  priests,  subject  to  the  approbation  of  govern- 
ment. The  pope  to  procure  the  ancient  bishops  to  resign,  and  to 
engage  not  to  disturb  the  alienated  property  of  the  church.  No 
bull,  rescript,  &c.,  from  the  court  of  Rome,  no  decrees  of  synods,  or 
general  councils,  to  be  received,  or  promulgated,  without  the  consent 
of  government.  No  national  or  diocesan  meeting  to  take  place  with- 
out the  same  authority  ;  or  any  nuncio,  legate,  or  vicar,  to  be  allow- 
ed to  exercise  his  functions. 

3.  Such  were  some  of  the  principal  articles  of  the  concordatum 
of  1,801.  The  pope  seemed  to  be  glad  to  make  any  concessions 
that  might  recover  France  Irom  the  depths  of  infidelity ;  while  the 
articles  themselves  plainly  show  that  the  first  consul,  in  restoring 
Catholicism,  had  no  intention  to  subject  the  nation,  as  heretofore,  to  the 
dominion  of  the  Roman  see,  even  in  spiritual  matters.  A  still  strong- 
er proofi  however,  of  which,  appears  in  the  Hberty  afforded,  at  the 
same  time,  to  the  Lutherans  and  Calvinists,  who  were  placed  nearly 
upon  the  same  footing  with  the  catholics ;  and  were  even  allowed  to 
liave  three  seminaries  of  educivtion ;  two  in  the  eastern  parts  of  France, 
for  the  Lutherans,  and  one  at  Geneva,  for  the  Calvinists.  Provision 
was  aiiio  made  in  the  new  concordatum  for  the  supposed  Ceise  of  a 
protestant  being  chosen  chief  magistrate  of  the  republic. 

4.  On  the  second  of  August,  1,802,  by  an  extraordinary  expres- 
sion of  the  public  will,  the  consulate,  the  term  of  which,  in  the  case 
of  Buonaparte  and  Cambaceres,  had  been  limited  to  ten  years,  was 
conferred  on  the  former  for  life.  The  original  proposal  had  been 
only  to  extend  the  term ;  but  the  people  in  the  diflerent  communes 
being  called  upon  to  give  their  opinion,  voted,  almost  unanimous- 
ly, lor  its  being  continued  to  the  first  consul  for  life,  which  was 
readily  saactioued  by  the  senate. 


348                             MODERN  HISTORY.  | 

5.  This  appointment  was  soon  followed  by  a  new  form  of  cou« 
stitution,  calculated  to  throw  greater  power  into  the  hands  of  the  I 
first  magistrate,  who  was  permitted,  not  only  to  nominate  his  col-  ! 
leagues,  but  to  make  war,  form  alliances,  conclude  peace,  pardon  ' 
criminals,  and  virtually  to  choose  the  members  of  the  legislative  ^ 
b®dy,  by  means  of  the  senate,  which  was  almost  entirely  under  ] 
his  inlluence.  He  was  careful,  at  the  same  time,  to  put  the  govern- 
ments of  the  Cisalpine  and  Ligurian  republics,  and  other  newly  ac-  \ 
quired  states,  upon  a  similar  fooling,  reserving  to  himself,  in  ail  cases,  , 
the  supreme  power  as  tirst  magistrate.  All  these  steps  were  so  art-  I 
fully  taken,  as  to  appear  to  be  the  regular  result  of  popular  choice  ' 
and  deliberation.  Liberty,  equality  of  civil  rights,  and  national  j 
representation,  were  proiessed  to  be  the  objects  in  view  ;  but  care  ; 
was  taken  to  reiidt'r  each  dependent  on  the  domineering  influence 
and  directions  of  the  first  consul.  It  was  at  this  period  that  the  Cisal-  '■ 
pine  was  converted  into  the  Italian  republic.  ' 

6.  Switzerland  was  not  so  easily  to  be  broug!--t  under  the  French  j 
yoke,  though  its  struggles  tor  liberty  and  independence  were  finally 
unavailing.  Many  of  the  cantons  displayed  an  almost  in\incible  at-  • 
tachment  to  their  ancient  com  stitution,  and  resisted,  in  ever-y  way  , 
they  could,  the  menar.ed  invasion  of  their  rights  and  privileges;  but  I 
tiie  more  tiiey  were  divided  amongst  themselves,  which  uahap{)ily  i 
proved  to  up  the  case  to  a  high  degree,  the  greater  opportunity  was  \ 
afforded  to  tiie  despotic  ruler  of  France  to  inloupose  his  othces  to  i 
restore  peace,  nomiaaliy  as  a  mcuiator,  but  really  and  effectually  to  ; 
the  subjugation  of  the  country,  wiiicli,  when  reduced,  was  in  mockeiy  i 
declared  to  be  free  and  indcipc-nilent.  Remonstrances  on  the  part  of  I 
the  English  court,  are  supposed  to  have  had  some  effect  in  mitigating  j 
the  rigour  of  his  exactions,  and  rendering  the  new  constitution  pre- 
pared for  them,  more  congenial  to  their  feelings  than  might  other-  i 
wise  have  been  the  case,  t 

7.  In  1,802,  by  the  death  of  the  duke  of  Parma,  and  in  virtue  of  : 
H  previous  convention  uith  Spain,  the  first  consul,  in  the  name  of  the  ( 
French  republic,  took  possession  of  the  duchies  of  Parma,  Placentia,  '■, 
and  Guastaila,  and  incorporated  them  soon  after  with  i  ranee.  The  J 
only  son  of  the  deceased  duke  of  Parma,  by  a  Spanish  princess,  J 
having  assigned  to  him  by  the  treaty  of  Luneville,  the  Tuscan  states,  J 
under  the  title  of  the  kingdom  of  Etruria. 

8.  Though,  by  the  above  treaty,  the  indemnification  of  those  i 
princes,  whose  rights  and  property  had  suffered  from  the  progress  v| 
of  the  French,  seemed  to  be  left  cliief^y  to  the  decision  of  the  diet  j 
of  the  empire,  Buonaparte  found  means  to  interfere  to  his  own  ad-  I 
Tantage,  favouring  those  most  from  whom  he  had  the  most  to  fear,  or  | 
who  were  most  likely  to  be  subservient  to  his  views.  For  the  duke  ; 
of  Wirtemburgh,  the  landgrave  of  Hesse  Cassel,  and  the  margrave  } 
of  Baden,  he  secured  the  electoral  dignity ;  while  the  indemnifica-  : 
tions  were  provided  for  by  the  secularization  of  many  eccles»ia»<tical  | 
•tates  on  the  right  side  ot  the  Rhine. 

9.  It  was  soon  found  that,  by  the  peace  of  Amiens,  little  cordiality  j 
was  produced  between  the  two  nations.  The  first  consul  professed  i 
to  be  bound  by  that  treaty  only  to  particular,  specified  points,  and  | 
appeared  through  his  agents,  secret  or  avowed,  to  be  preparing  for  | 
a  renewal  of  hostilities.  He  had  some  re;ison,  it  must  be  confessed,  * 
to  be  offended  with  the  liberties  taken  with  him  in  some  of  the  pub-  i 
lie  journals  of  England  at  this  time  ;  and  though  it  can  scarcely  be  i 
wpposed  that  peace  could  be  his  otjject,  yet  he  appears  to  have  I 


MODERN  HISTORY.  349 

been  provoked  and  irritated  by  the  distrust  of  the  British  govern- 
ment and  nation.  So  early  us  the  month  of  May,  1,8U3,  the  tno 
countries  may  be  said  to  have  been  again  in  a  state  of  war  with 
each  other. 

10.  On  this  quick  renewal  of  hostilities,  the  first  consul  had  re- 
course to  a  most  extraordinary  measure,  in  detaining  all  the  Eng- 
lish who  happened  to  have  come  over  to  France  during  the  peace, 
for  business  or  pleasure,  as  a  sort  of  hostages  for  the  lutiire  conduct 
of  their  country.  He  also  projected  a  powerful  invasion  of  Eng- 
land, which  had  only  the  effect  of  rousing  the  latter  country  to  such 
vigorous  and  patriotic  exertions  as  entirely  to  frustrate  all  his 
schemes  and  intentions.  A  levy  en  inasxe  was  proposetl,  subject 
to  the  regulations  of  parliament.  As  another  act  of  vengeance 
against  England,  an  army  was  sent  to  occupy  Hanover,  though  the 
king,  in  his  electoral  capacity,  had  determined  to  remain  neuter. 

11.  The  first  consul  had  now,  for  some  time,  exercised  not  only 
kingly,  but  almost  despotic  power,  and  artfu'iy  placed  hin)self  in 
such  a  situation  of  control  and  influence,  with  regard  to  all  the 
public  bodies,  assemblies,  and  councils  of  the  nation,  that  it  is  not 
to  be  wondered  that  he  should  have  aspired  to,  and  obtained,  the 
highest  dignities  it  is  in  the  power  of  a  nation  to  bestow  ;  though. 
had  he  acted  with  less  prudence  and  policy,  nothing  certainly  could 
have  occurred  more  surprising  than  the  undistvubed  elevation  of  a 
Corsican  adventurer  to  one  of  the  most  splendid  thrones  of  Europe. 
By  an  organic  senatus  consultum  of  the  18th  of  May  1,804,  Buona- 
parte was  declared  Emperor  of  the  French.  The  title  to  be  he- 
reditary, as  to  his  immediate  descendants,  and,  in  case  of  failure  of 
male  issue,  granting  him  a  further  pow  er  to  adopt  the  children,  or 
grand-cliildren,  of  his  brothers.  All  laws  were  to  originate  with 
the  sovereign,  or  to  be  proposed  in  his  name ;  and  due  care  was 
taken,  by  renJering  the  legislative  body  and  tribunate  dependent  on 
the  senate,  in  the  appointment  of  which  the  emperor  was  to  have 
almost  the  whole  pow  er,  to  prevent  the  passing  of  any  laws  contraiy 
to  his  will.  The  imperial  title  thus  conferred  on  him,  was  acknowi- 
edged  by  most  of  the  states  of  Europe,  though  not  by  England. 

12.  This  assumption  of  the  imperial  title,  by  Napoleon  Buona- 
parte, and  the  subsequent  confederation  of  the  Rhine,  led  the  em- 
peror of  Germany,  Francis  II.,  to  abdicate  the  Germanic  empire,  and 
to  change  his  title  to  that  of^  emperor  of  Austria,  thereby  securing 
the  same  hereditary  honour  to  tlie  house  of  Hapsburg,  and  at  tlie 
same  time,  not  entirely  resigning  his  political  relationship  to  the 

lates  and  empire  of  Germany. 

13.  On  the  2d  of  December,  1,804,  Napoleon  was  crowned,  in 
the  church  of  Notre  Dame,  with  extraordinary  pomp  and  splendourj 
having  previously  invited,  or  rather  compelled  the  humbled  ponlifi 
of  Rome  to  be  present  at  the  ceremony,  and  to  anoint  him.  His 
empress,  Josephine  Beauharnois,  to  whom  he  had  been  some  time 
married,  was  crowned  at  the  same  time. 

1 4.  One  of  the  first*  acts  of  the  new  emperor  was  to  change  the 
name  of  the  Code  civil  des  Fraacais^  introduced  under  the  consular 
government,  for  that  of  the  Code  JVapoiwn.  His  two  brotiiers, 
Joseph  and  Lewis, and  his  two  colleagues,  Le  Brun  and  Cambaceres, 
>vere  declared  grand  elector,  constable,  arch-cJumcelbr,  and  arch-tnus- 
xirer,  of  the  empire ;  and  the  dignity  of  mareschai  was  conferred  on 
the  most  distinguished  of  his  generals,  But,  in  order  to  give  more 
Stability  to  his  throne,  or  intimidate  his  enemies,  under  pretence  of  a 

Cr  g 


350  MODERN  HISTORY. 

royalist  conspiracy,  he  had  many  eminent  persons  brought  to' trial 
among  others,  the  two  celebrated  generals,  Picbegru  and  Moreau. 
The  former  was,  soon  after,  found  dead  in  his  prison,  under  circum 
stances  implying  httle  less  than  a  most  deliberate  murder;  the  latter, 
an  equal  object  of  dread  and  alarm,  and  whose  death  was  probably 
contemplated,  was  permitted,  however,  to  retire  to  North  America. 
It  is  scarcely  credible,  though  it  certainly  appears  upon  record,  that 
the  French  minister  at  Berlin  was  directed  to  move  the  king  of  Prus- 
sia to  deliver  up  (he  unfbrtuniite  Lewis  XVIIl.,  then  at  Warsaw,  and 
to  send  him  to  France,  to  answer  for  the  concern  he  was  stated  to 
have  had  in  this  conspiracy. 

15.  Having  obtained  the  imperial  dignity  in  France,  Napoleon  ap- 
peared dissatisfied  to  be  only  president  of  a  republic  with  regard  to 
his  Cisalpine  conquests.  Means  were  found  to  induce  the  constituted 
authorities  of  the  new  Italian  republic  to  ofier  to  him  the  crown  of 
Italy,  an  offer  he  was  quite  prepared  to  accept,  as  though  the  whole 
of  that  devoted  country  had  been  already  subdued.  On  the  26th  of 
May,  1,805,  he  repaired  to  Milan,  and  taking  the  famous  iron  crown 
from  the  altar  of  the  cathedral,  placed  it  on  his  own  head,  denouncing 
vengeance  agninst  all  who  should  dispute  his  right  to  it.  Having 
done  this„he  appointed  the  son  of  the  empress  Josephine,  Beauhar- 
nois,  to  be  his  viceroy,  and  agreed,  that  upon  his  death  the  two 
crowns  should  be  separated.  Soon  after  he  seized  upon  Genoa,  dis- 
possessed the  doge  and  senators  of  their  power,  and  decreed,  that 
henceforth  the  territories  of  the  Ligurian  republic,  as  it  was  called, 
should  be  annexed  to  France.  Tbese  rapacious^proceedings  at  length 
provoked  a  fresh  confederacy  against  him,  so  that  before  the  year 
was  passed,  not  only  England,  but  Russia,  Prussia,  and  Austria,  were 
in  arms  to  resist  his  encroachments.  Sweden  had  joined  the  confed- 
eracy, but  retired  in  disgust.  Such,  however,  was  the  dread  of  the 
power  or  vengeance  of  France,  that  several  of  the  German  princes, 
particularly  the  elector  of  Bavaria,  sided  with  Napoleon,  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  emperor  Francis. 

16.  By  sea,  the  power  of  the  French  and  Spaniards  combined  failed 
of  gaining  any  advantages  over  the  allies.  On  the  21st  of  October, 
1,805,  in  the  battle  of '1  rafalgar,  a  complete  victory  was  obtained  by 
the  British  fleet,  under  lord  Nelson,  who  perished  in  the  action. 
There  was  a  disparity  ki  the  number  of  ships,  in  favour  of  the  French 
and  Spaniards,  of  tliirty-three  to  twenty-seven.  On  the  continent, 
the  course  of  the  war  was  very  diflerent.  The  king  of  Prussia  was 
dilatory  in  his  proceedings,  and  even  treacherous.  Sweden  had 
withdrawn.  The  emperor  Francis  employed  an  inefficient  com- 
mander, if  not  worse,  (general  Mack,)  and  the  Russians,  who^  were 
more  in  earnest,  were  baffled  by  the  unsteady  proceedings  of  tiieir 
allies,  and  distressed  by  want  of  provisions,  sickness,  and  fatigue 
After  the  battle  of  Austeriitz,  in  December,  the  emperor  of  Austria, 
whose  capibil  had  been  in  the  hands  of  the  enemy,  solicited  peace, 
submitting  to  surrender  what  had  been  allotted  to  him  of  the  Venetian 
territories,  together  with  the  princij^alities  of  Lucca  and  Piom.bino  ; 
and  to  acknowledge  Buonaparte  as  king  of  Italy.  Bavaria  acqui.'-ed 
a  part  of  the  Brisgaw  and  I'yrol.  Such  were  the  terms  of  the  peace 
of  Fresburgh,  October,  1,804. 

17.  The  succession  of  some  of  the  German  states  from  the  empe- 
ror of  Austria,  had,  in  the  mean  time,  produced  changes  that  require 
to  be  noticed.  Tlie  elnctors  of  Bavaria  and  VVirtemburgh  were 
elevaied  to  the  raok  of  kings  of  their  respective  countries ;  and 


MODERN  HISTORY.  351 

Eugene  Beauharnois,  viceroy  of  Itiily,  son  of  the  French  empress 
Josephine,  obtained  in  marriage  the  daughter  of  the  new  king  of 
Kavaria,  though  she  had  been  previously  betrothed  to  the  prince  of 
Baden. 

18.  The  court  of  Naples,  during  this  war,  through  the  injudi- 
cious, but  natural,  resentment  of  the  aueen,  sister  to  the  late  un- 
fortunate queen  of  France,  had  the  misfortune  to  incur  the  high  dis- 

{)leasure  of  Napoleon,  by  admitting  a  British  and  Russian  army  to 
and  on  its  territories.  The  French  despot  lost  no  time  in  pronounc- 
ing sentence  on  the  rebellious  neutnd.  He  quickly  made  it  known 
tiiat  the  Bourbon  dynasty  had  ceased  to  reign  at  Naples.  The  royal 
family  was  compelled  to  retire  to  Palermo,  and  in  a  short  time  after, 
Napoleon  conferred  the  Neapolitan  crown  on  his  brother  Joseph, 
much  to  the  discontent,  however,  of  the  people,  who  for  some  time 
gave  him  great  disturbance.  Joseph  was  proclaimed  king,  March 
30,  1,806. 

19.  The  emperor  of  the  French  had  another  kingdom  in  view  for 
his  brother  Lewis,  constable  of  France.  Holland  had  submitted  to 
several  forms  of  government,  Avithout  obtaining  that  order  and  tran- 
quillity which  was  supposed  to  be  in  the  contemplation  of  those 
who  directed  her  affairs.  It  was  suggested  that  a  monarchy  would 
remedy  all  the  disorders  to  which  she  was  exposed;  and  it  was  hint- 
ed, too  plainly  to  be  misunderstood,  that  it  would  be  agreeable  to  the 
emperor,  if  the  leading  persons  of  the  state,  not  the  community  at 
large,  would  give  countenance  to  such  a  change.  So  ^reat  was  the 
infatuation,  or  timi<lity,  of  the  persons  to  whom  these  suggestions 
were  made,  that  they  did  not  scruple  to  solicit  the  appointment  of 
the  emperor's  brother,  who  declared  himself  king  of  Holland  ac- 
cordingly, June  5,  1,806.  To  the  credit  of  the  new  king,  it  should 
be  observed,  that  he  soon  fell  into  disgrace  with  his  imperial  brother, 
by  being  too  lenient  to  his  subjects,  and  by  endeavouring  to  mitigate 
the  rigour  of  the  French  decrees, 

20.  In  the  year  1,806,  Napoleon  succeeded  in  subverting  the 
constitution  ot  the  German  empire,  by  detaching  many  of  the  prin.- 
cipal  states,  chiefly  of  tlie  western  and  scitliem  divisions  of  Ger- 
m;iny,  to  form  what  was  denominated  "•  T/ie  Confederation  of  the 
Rhine,''''  by  which  the  several  princes  consented  lo  renounce  the 
lasv.s  of  the  empire,  to  contract  a  federative  alliance  with  the 
French  emperor,  and  to  supply  him  with  troops  whenever  he  should 
dem;md  them.  In  consequence  of  this  gross  defection  of  so  many 
members,  the  emperor,  by  a  solemn  edict,  abdicated  the  govern- 
ment of  the  Germanic  empire,  absolving  all  the  electors,  princes, 
and  states,  from  the  obligations  by  which  they  stood  bound  to  him, 
as  their  legitimate  head ;  thereby  terminating,  as  it  were,  a  gov- 
ernment which  had  subsisted  for  a  thousand  years,  and  been  un- 
interruptedly confided  to  the  house  of  Hapsburgh  from  the  year 
1,458. 

21.  It  seemed  as  if  every  thing,  at  this  time,  was  doomed  to  fall 
Defore  the  power  of  the  Corsican.  Prussia,  which  had  hitherto 
acted  a  most  unwise  part,  in  neglecting  to  add  its  weight  to  the 
confederacy  of  1,804,  and  even  submitting  to  be  cajoled  into  ao 
alliance  with  France,  became,  in  the  course  of  the  year  1,806,  sen- 
sible of  her  error;  but  to  no  good  purpose.  She  now  precipitately 
entered  into  a  war  for  which  she  was  ill-prepared;  with  no  sup- 
port but  that  of  Saxony;  and  having  put  her  army  under  the  com- 
mand of  the  duke  of  Brunswick,  sustained  two  signal  and  almost 


362  MODERN  HISTORY. 

fatal  defeats,  at  Jena  and  Averstadt,  laying  the  capital  open  to  the 
advance  of  the  euemj,  Avho  entered  it  in  triumph;  and,  being  too 
well  received  and  entertained  by  the  people,  did  not  fail,  as  in  all 
other  cases,  to  take  due  advantage  of  their  willing  submission.  In 
the  course  of  the  content,  the  Saxons  were  detached  from  Prussia, 
and  the  duke  of  Brunswick  being  wounded,  iind  obliged  to  quit  his 
domiuious  on  the  ;;'Jvance  of  tlie  French,  died  miserably  at  Allona: 
Isapojeon,  in  resentment,  meanly  refusing  to  suffer  his  body  lo  be 
buried  amongst  his  ancestoi-s. 

22.  It  was  during  bis  sojournment  in  Berlin,  November,  1,806, 
that  the  French  emperor  dictated  that  extraordinary  decree,  de- 
claring the  Britisii  islands  to  be  in  a  state  of  blockade,  though  he 
had  no  naval  force  capable  of  interrupting  their  commerce  in  any 
part  of  the  vvorul.  By  this  decree,  the  wtiole  trade  of  Britain  was 
proscribed ;  no  intercourse  of  any  sort  was  allowed  to  take  place  ; 
all  British  subjects  on  the  coiiuneat  were  threatened  with  arrest  and 
confiscation  of  property,  and  every  port  shut  against  English  ves- 
sels, in  Fru!-sia,  Denmark,  the  ilanse  towns,  Holland,  Flanders, 
France,  Spain,  Italy,  iic. 

23.  The  pi'ogress  of  the  French,  in  the  territories  of  tlie  king  of 
Prussia,  occasioned  fresh  alarm  to  the  emperor  of  Russia,  and  to 
the  British  government,  and  procured  for  Irederick  that  assistance 
which  his  former  supineness  and  intrusion  on  the  Hanoverian  states 
might  very  reasonably  have  rendered  hopeless.  The  king  of  Swe- 
den was  also  subsidized  by  England,  to  send  an  army  into  Pome- 
rania ;  but  all  the  eiforts  of  the  allies  were  insufficient  to  stop  the 
career  of  the  French.  The  Russians  fought  many  severe  battles, 
at  Eylau,  Friediand,  &ic.,  but  were  unable  to  prevent  the  French 
getting  possession^  of  Dantzic  and  Konigsberg ;  losses  so  severely 
lelt  by  the  king  of  Prussia,  as  to  compel  him  to  conclude  a  separate 
peace,  as  a  conquered  enemy  ;  while  Napoleon,  with  consummate  art, 
not  only  persuaded  Alexander  to  abandon  the  king  of  Prussia  to  his 
fate,  but  to  form  an  alliance  wHh  himself,  for  the  further  spoliation 
cf  the  Prussian  dominions,  and  to  concur  in  arrangements  very 
adverse  to  the  general  interests  of  Europe,  and  serviceable  only  to 
his  own  fanwJy.  By  the  treaty  of  Tilsit,  July,  1,807,  the  emperor 
of  Russia  agreed  lo  acknowledge  the  Rhenish  confederacy,  now 
consisimg  of  many  states,  and  Joseph  and  Lewis  Buonaparte,  as  kings 
of  Naples  and  Holland.  He  suffered  the  Fi-ench  emperor  to  conler 
on  his  youngest  brother,  Jerome^  with  the  title  of  king  of  Westpha- 
Ua,  the  Prussian  provinces  between  the  Elbe  and  the  Rhine,  the 
states  of  Hanover,  and  the  territories  of  the  duke  of  Brunswick,  and 
landgrave  of  Hesse  Cassel,  while  the  greater  part  of  Prussian  Poland 
was  given  to  the  elector  (now  king)  ol  Saxony,  with  the  title  of  duke 
of  Warsaw;  and  by  secret  articles,  as  it  has  been  alleged,  most  of 
the  usurpations  of  the  French,  in  all  parts  of  Europe,  were  sanc- 
tioned and  confirmed.  During  the  whole  of  the  years  1,806  and 
1,807,  the  German  states  were  undergoing  continual  changes, 
through  the  overbearing  tyranny  of  Napoleon.  All  the  princes  who 
joined  the  Rhenish  conlederation  were  rewarded  with  titles  or  ter- 
ritorial possessions;  all  who  favoured  the  allies,  dispossessed  of 
their  dominions,  and  declared  enemies  of  France.  To  particularize 
all  these  revolutions,  few  of  which  were  pennanent,  would  exceed 
the  limits  of  the  present  work. 

24.  Among  other  acquisitions  resulting  from  the  treaty  of  Tilsit, 
Napoleon  recovered  the  Ionian  islands.    These  islands,  subsequent 


MODERN  HISTORY.  353 

to  the  treaty  of  Campo-Formio,  had  been  greatly  agitated  and  dis- 
turbed, and  it  seemed  difficult  to  know  what  lo  do  with  them.  In 
March,  1,800,  however,  by  a  convention  between  Rusisia  and  the 
Porte,  it  WHS  settled  that  Corfu,  Cephalonia,  Zante,  Ithaca,  Cerigo, 
St.  Mauro,  and  Paxo,  should  be  formed  into  one  state,  under  Uie 
guarantee  of  the  contracting  parties,  by  the  name  of  the  Ionian 
republic.  By  the  treaty  of  Amiens,  1,802,  Napoleon  engaged  to 
acknowledge  the  Septinsular  republic;  but,  by  the  treaty  of  Tilsit, 
it  was  restored  to  him  again  by  Russia.  This  treaty,  in  short,  a{>- 
peared  to  be  dictated  entirely  by  the  despot  of  France.  Prussia^ 
abandoned  by  her  Russian  ally,  suffered  dreadfully.  The  king  ol 
Sweden  refused  to  become  a  parly  to  this  memorable  convention, 
and  manifested  a  determination  to  resist,  to  the  utmost,  the  en- 
croachments of  the  French  ;  but  he  had  little  judgment  or  prudence 
to  direct  him  ;  and  he  had  not  the  means  to  contend  against  such  an 
adversary  as  Buonaparte.  After  many  inefl'ectual  attempts  to  save 
Stralsund,  and  keep  his  army  in  Pomerania,  he  was  at  length 
Compelled  to  retire,  with  the  loss  both  of  Stralsund  and  the  isle  of 
Rugen. 


SECTION  XVII. 

SPAIN  AND  PORTUGAL  FROM  1,788  TO  1,814. 

1.  These  two  countries  are  by  nature  so  connected,  that  though 
their  interests  are,  and  generally  have  been,  very  different,  and 
the  people  little  disposed  lo  frienclly  associations,  yet,  with  regard 
to  the  affairs  of  Europe,  they  have  vei^  commonly  been  involved 
in  the  same  troubles,  and  never  long  permitted  to  enjoy  tranquillity, 
while  the  leading  powei'sof  the  continent  have  been  engaged  in  war. 
This  has  been  already  sufficiently  manifested  in  liie  history  of  these 
two  contiguous  kingdoms,  during  the  former  part  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  but  has  been  rendered  stiil  more  conspicuous  by  the  events 
of  the  subsequent  years. 

2.  Charles  I\'.  of  Spain,  came  to  the  crown  in  December,  1,788, 
when  the  French  revolution  was  just  beginning ;  and  it  was  not  till 
some  few  years  after,  and  in  the  midst  of  the  reign  of  tec^r,  that 
his  kingdom  became  involved  in  the  disturbances  of  that  great  catas- 
trophe. The  Spaniards,  in  the  year  1,793,  offended  with  the  vio- 
lence offered  to  the  royal  family  of  France,  had  invaded  the  latter 
country,  and  taken  the  town  of  Bellg-arde,  little  foreseeing  the 
speedy  and  severe  reprisals  to  which  they  were  exposing  them- 
selves. Early  in  the  year  1,794,  the  French,  under  general  I)ugon>- 
niier,  invaded  Spain,  and  succeeded,  not  only  in  beating  the  Spanish 
army,  but  in  securing  the  occupation  of  many  places  of  importance. 
These  successes  were  not  only  available  to  the  restoration  of  peace 
with  Spain,  but  procured  for  the  French,  by  the  treaty  of  1,795,  the 
Spanish  portion  of  tlie  valuable  island  ot  St.  Domingo,  in  the  West 
Indies,  and,  iu  1,796,  an  alliance  with  the  Spanish  monarch  against 
England, — an  alliance  fatal  to  Spain  in  many  respects;  her  fleet  be- 
ing beaten  by  tho  English  in  battle,  oft'  the  ca{)e  of  St.  Vincent,  the 
isl.ind  of  Trinidad  taken  from  her,  and  ret:ar.«d  by  Great  Britain 
at  the  peace  of  Amiens,  and  her  commerce  crippled  and  impeded 
in  ail  parts  of  the  world. 

3.  Though  she  sought,  by  a  large  subsidy  to  France,  to  be  per- 

Gg2  45 


354  MODERN  HISTORY. 

mitted  to  remain  neuter,  after  the  renewal  of  the  war  in  1,803,  yet 
she  was  not  long  allowed  to  be  at  peace.  Id  1,804,  the  English,  su9- 
picious  of  her  close  connexion  with  France,  seized  upon  some  of  her 
treasure  ships,  coming  froni  South  America,  with  a  suddenness  judg- 
ed by  many  to  be  not  strictly  justitiable  ;  and,  in  1,805,  war  was  form- 
ally dpcksred  against  Great  Britain.  I3ut  in  this  new  war  she  was 
agiiin  doomed  to  suffer  misfortune,  her  fleet  being  totally  beaten  by 
lord  Nelson,  on  the  1st  of  October,  1,805,  in  the  celebrated  battle  off 
cape  Trahdgar.     (See  Sect.  XVI.,  §  16.) 

4.  During  the  year  1,8U6,  S^ain  appeared  disposed  to  break  with 
France,  had  any  misfortune  befallen  the  latter  power;  but  her  suc- 
cesses in  Prussia  seem  to  have  intimidated  Spain,  and  to  have  in- 
duced her,  in  1,807,  through  the  manoeuvres  of  Godoy,  the  Spanish 
minister,  who  had  a  view  to  the  principality  of  Al^arves,  to  enter 
into  H  regular  treaty  with  France,  for  the  partition  ot  Portugal. 

5.  Hitherto  the  latter  country,  since  the  elevation  of  Buonaparte 
to  the  chief  m.agistracy,  had  been  suffered  to  remain  neuter.  Ihe 
reigning  queen  having  been  declared  insane,  the  power  had  devolved 
to  the  prince  of  Brazil,  crown  prince,  in  1,799,  who,  in  virtue  of  his 
purchased  neutrality,  had  been  able  to  keep  his  commercial  relations 
with  England,  unmolested  by  the  French,  till  the  treaty  just  mention- 
ed between  the  latter  power  and  Spain. 

6.  France  was  not  long  in  availing  herself  of  the  permission  she 
had  obtained  to  march  an  army  through  Spain,  for  the  subjugation  of 
Portugal.  Having  made  demands  on  the  regent  of  Portugal,  with 
which  he  could  not,  in  honour,  comply,  it  was  declared  that  the  house 
of  Braganza  had  ceased  to  reign  ;  and,  shortly  afterwards,  the  French 
army,  under  general  Junot,  passed  the  frontiers.  In  these  extremi- 
ties, instigated  by  the  English,  flie  royal  family  determined  to  embark 
for  America.  They  set  sail  on  the  21st  of  November,  1,807  ;  and, 
on  the  30ih,  Junot,  with  his  army  entered  Lisbon. 

7.  The  state  of  Spain,  at  this  period,  was  undoubtedly  such 
as  to  encourage  the  most  ambitious  views  of  the  French  empe.or. 
Nothing  could  exceed  the  weakness  of  the  court  of  Madrid,  or  the 
confusion  of  the  national  affairs.  At  the  very  moment  of  the  parti- 
tion treaty,  the  hereditary  prince,  Ferdinand,  who  had  refused  t(? 
marry  the  minister's  sister-in-law,  on  the  suggestion  of  the  court, 
was  arrested,  imprisoned,  and  threatened  with  a  criminal  prosecution, 
for  having  secretly  sought  a  matrimonial  alliance  with  Buonaparte's 
family.  This  was  followed  by  disturbances,  and  the  imprisonment 
of  the  obnoxious  minister,  Godoy,  duke  of  Alcudia,  and,  since  the 
convention  of  1,795,  generally  called  the  "prince  of  peace.'' 
Charles  IV.,  harassed  and  distressed  by  tliese  tumults,  was  induced, 
on  the  19th  of  March,  1,808,  to  resign  his  crown  in  favour  of  his 
son,  now  become  Ferdinand  VII. ;  but  he  soon  after tvards  revoked 
his  abdication,  as  forced  upon  him,  and  extorted  by  the  dread  of 
personal  violence.  Nothing  could  be  more  directly  calculated  to 
promote  the  views  of  Buonaparte  than  these  divisions,  whose  con- 
stant policy  it  was,  in  all  cases  of  premeditated  conquest,  to  promote 
dissension,  in  order  to  be  called  in  as  an  arbitrator  or  mediator, 
which  was  the  case  in  this  instance.  After  Buonaparte  had  beea 
baffled  in  his  hopes  of  compelling  the  king  and  queen  to  emigrate, 
through  the  resistance  of  the  people  of  Spain  to  such  a  measure, 
the  wnole  royal  family  were  invited  to  repair  to  Bayonue,  to  confer 
on  the  state  of  affairs ;  an  invitation  the  most  insidious,  but  which 
had  hs  effect.    On  the  14th  of  April  Buonaparte  arrived  there  \  Foe 


MODERN  HISTORY.  355 

dinand  on  the  20th,  and  on  the  1st  of  May,  Charles  IV.  and  his  queen, 
after  the  favourite,  Godoy,  had  been  released,  on  their  application  to 
Buonaparte. 

8,  The  transactions  at  Bayonne  sxceeded  almost  every  thing  to 
be  met  with  in  any  preceding  history.  The  pereons  invited  were 
exactly  those  vfhom  Buonaparte  would  have  been  glad  to  have  seen 
driven  into  his  toils :  in  this  case  they  were  weak  enough  to  go 
thither  of  their  own  accord.  Haying  the  two  kiugs  completely  in 
his  power,  and  beyond  the  frontier  of  Spain,  he  compelled  Ch;u  !es 
to  resume  his  authority,  on  purpose  that  he  might  resign  it  into  the 
hands  of  the  French,  proposing,  on  the  terms  of  nn  equivalent  else- 
where, a  similar  act  of  renunciation  on  t'ne  part  of  Ferdinand; 
which  the  latter  indignantly  refusing,  was  at  once  declared  to  be 
excluded  from  all  he  had,  and  all  he  might  have  haii,  and  even 
threatened  with  the  loss  of  libei'ty.  This  so  intimidated  the  degrad- 
ed prince,  that  at  length  he  unconditionally  resigned  his  royal  digni- 
ty, first  into  the  hands  of  his  father,  and  through  him,  into  those  of 
Buonaparte,  who  soon  obtained,  though  in  a  manner  the  most  extra- 
ordinary, the  consent  of  most  of  the  principal  personages  of  the  state, 
as  well  as  of  the  constituted  authorities,  to  the  appointment  of  his 
brother  Joseph,  then  king  of  Naples,  to  the  vacant  Spanish  throne, 
and  to  render  it  hereditary  in  the  family  of  the  usurper.  In  the 
mean  while,  Ferdinand  was  sent  to  Valancey,  and  afterwards  to  Foi>- 
tainebleau,  as  a  prisoner,  and  Charles  and  his  queen  to  Compiegne : 
their  joint  abdication  of  the  Spanish  crown  was  publicly  announced 
at  Madrid  on  the  :^Oth  of  May,  to  the  great  disgust  of  the  Spanish 
people  in  general,  who  soon  resolved  to  be  revenged  for  the  horrid 
indignities  they  were  made  to  undergo. 

9.  In  the  course  of  t.'ie  very  month  in  which  all  the  transactions 
at  Bayonne  took  place,  and  .Joseph  Buonaparte  entered  the  capital 
of  Spain  as  king,  the  national  resentment  was  manifested  by  a  gen- 
eral rising,  and  insurrection  in  all  the  principal  provinces ;  but  it 
was  first  in  Andalusia  that  any  thing  like  an  organized  government 
was  formed  for  the  conduct  of  the  war,  on  the  part  of  the  patriots  ; 
there,  a  provincial  junto,  or  council  ©f  miisfi-tnites,  inhabitants, 
and  constituted  authorities,  was  formed,  at  Seville,  which  led  to 
other  conventions  of  the  same  nature,  in  places  least  molested  by 
the  French,  and  in  all  of  these  Ferdinand  Vil.  was  proclaimed  king, 
and  war  openly  denounced  against  the  French,  accompanied  with 
proclamations  and  manifestoes,  highly  creditable  to  the  good  sense, 
spirit,  ardour,  and  patriotism  of  the  Spanish  nation,  and  expressed 
in  terms  very  different  from  the  language  to  wiiich  the  French  ty- 
rant had  been  accustomed.  Joseph  Buonaparte  entered  Spain  on 
the  9th  of  July,  1,8U8,  escorted  by  four  thousand  Italian  troops,  and 
followed  by  upwards  of  one  hundred  carriages,  conveying  his  suite 
and  the  members  of  the  junta  assembled  at  Bayonne,  to  assist  at  his 
inauguration.  He  was  iU  received,  or  rather  sullerdy  treated  by  the 
Inhabitants,  on  his  passage  to  the  capital.  Joseph  entered  Madrid 
on  the  20th  of  July ;  at  which  very  time  the  Spaniards  obtained  an 
important  victory  over  a  PYench  army  marching  upon  Cadiz,  which 
were  compelled  to  capitulate  to  the  amount  of  fourteen  thousand 
men,  while  the  French  fleet  at  Cadiz  was  seized  by  the  vigilance 
and  activity  of  don  Thomas  Morla.  These  successes  on  the  part 
of  the  Spaniards,  compelled  the  new  king  to  retire  from  the  capital 
to  Burgos,  after  pluDderiog  the  treasury  and  securing  the  crown 
jewels. 


366  Modern  history. 

10.  In  the  mean  while,  it  was  soon  discovered  that  the  aid  of 
other  powers  would  be  wanted,  in  order  to  rescue  the  kingdom  and 
peninsula  from  the  grasp  of  Napoleon.  Application  was  accordingly 
made  to  the  court  of  London,  to  the  Swedes,  and  to  the  Portuguese 
and  Austrians.  The  former  paid  a  ready  and  willing  attention  to 
the  call ;  and  the  whole  British  nation  evinced,  in  an  eKtraordinary 
manner,  the  utmost  desire  to  render  effectual  assistance  to  Spain, 
wJiose  cause  seemed  to  be  justly  interesting  to  every  friend  of  treedom. 

11.  While  tliese  things  wei'e  passing  in  Spain,  a  similar  spirit 
had  arisen  in  Portugal,  against  the  tyranny  and  usurpations  of  the 
Fiench  ;  and  the  ariival  of  a  British  army,  in  the  month  of  August, 
under  sir  Arthur  Wellesiey,  (afterwards  duke  of  Wellington,)  gave 
timely  effect  to  these  patriotic  movements.  The  relief  of  Portugal 
was  sooner  accomplisiied  than  proved  to  be  the  case  afterwards 
with  Spain.  On  the  21st  of  August  a  decisive  battle  took  place  at 
Vimiera,  between  the  French  and  combined  armies  of  English  and 
I'ortuguese  ;  in  which  the  former  were  so  entirely  beaten  as  to  be 
obliged  to  evacuate  the  country ;  and  which  they  were  enabled  to 
do,  by  a  convention  concluded  at  Ciiitra,  under  circumstances  consid- 
ered far  too  favourable,  by  Euiope  in  general,  and  which  was  re- 
sented by  the  people  of  f^ngland. 

12.  Ttie  evacuation  of  Portugal,  however,  at  all  events,  set  an 
army  free  for  the  use  of  Spain,  which,  at  the  latter  end  of  the 
month  ol"  October,  to  the  amount  of  twenty  thousand  men,  entered 
that  country,  under  tlie  command  of  sir  John  Moore;  the  emperor 
Napoleon  having  quitted  Paris  just  about  the  same  time,  to  take 
the  command  of  the  French  army  there.  Unfortunately,  the  stale 
of  Spain  at  the  moment  of  this  tii-st  attempt  on  the  part  of  England,  to 
give  aid  to  the  patiiots,  was  such  as  greatly  to  embarrass  the  British 
commander :  he  had  been  tiiughl  (or  rather,  the  government  at  home 
had  been  so)  to  expect  a  strenuous  co-operation  on  the  part  of  the 
Spaniards;  in  which  he  was  exceedingly  disappointed,  while  he 
continually  received  advice  of  tbe  augmentation  of  tlie  French 
forces,  lo  an  amount  far  exceeding  all  his  calculations :  nor  did  he 
consider  even  his  own  army  so  well-appointed  as  to  enable  him 
to  contend,  in  the  heart  of  the  kingdom,  whither  he  was  directed  to 
proceed,  with  any  fair  probability  of  success.  He  was  evitlently 
dispirited  with  the  prospect  before  him ;  and  though  a  perfectly 
brave  otficer,  Mt  himseii  so  ill-supported  by  the  Spaniards,  at  least. 
by  those  who  directed  the  public  affairs,  (^ii  not  even  deceived  ana 
betrayed.)  and  so  embarrassed  by  want  of  money  and  other  supplies, 
as  to  be  compelled  to  retire.  1  he  retreat  of  his  army,  though  un- 
happily disgraced  by  many  irregularities  and  disorders  amongst  the 
soldiery,  was  conducted,  in  the  face  of  the  enemy,  (iiuonaparle  him- 
self being  sometimes  present,)  with  singular  courage  and  dexterity, 
till  they  reached  Corunna,  where,  at  last,  the  transports  not  being 
arrived,  an  action  with  the  pursuing  army  took  place,  which 
terminated  in  favour  of  the  English,  though  with  the  loss  of  the  gal- 
lant, but  unfortunate,  commander,  whose  death  was  greatly  lamented. 
After  this  action,  on  the  arrival  of  the  transports,  the  English  troops 
embarked  without  molestation,  and  on  the  1 8th  of  January,  1,809, 
set  sail  for  England. 

13.  Before  sir  John  Moore  finally  determined  upon  retiring,  he 
had  learned  that  Buonaparte  had  recovered  possession  of  the  capi- 
tal, which,  after  the  departure  of  Joseph,  the  patriots  had  endeav- 
oured to  fortify  and  deiend ;  but  it  was  eurrendered  to  the  enemy 


MODERN  HISTORY.          '  357 

early  in  the  month  of  December,  1 ,808,  by  the  temporary  governor, 
Don  Thomas  Morla.  Spain  was  far  from  being  siibtlued  at  the  close 
of  the  year  1,808,  though  the  aspect  of  things  was  alarming,  and 
the  French  extremely  confident  of  success.  Joseph  re-entered 
Madrid,  in  great  pomp,  in  January,  1,809.  In  the  mean  time,  Napo- 
leon had  decreed  that  tlie  inquisition  should  be  abolished,  many  mon- 
asteries suppressed,  and  the  feudal  privileges  abrogated. 

14.  After  the  .iffair  of  Corunna,  the  French' army  under  general 
Soult,  (duke  of  Dalmaliii,)  invaded  Portugal  again,  and  was  able 
to  get  possession  of  Oporto;  while  another  army,  under  general 
N'ictor,  threatened  Lisbon.  It  was  at  this  moment  that  fiesh  troops 
arrived  from  England,  under  the  command  of  sir  Arthur  Wellesley, 
who  quickly  recovered  Oporto,  and  then  turning  against  Victor, 
once  more  relieved  Portugal  from  the  presence  of  the  French,  la 
June  he  entered  Spain,  and  by  the  20th  of  July  was  in  a  situation 
to  threaten  Madrid ;  on  the  27th  and  28tb,  at  Talavera  del  Reyna, 
he  was  attacked  by  the  French  under  Josoph  Buonaparte,  assisted 
by  four  marshals ;  but  was  able,  in  conjunction  with  the  Spaniards, 
after  a  very  hard  fought  battle,  to  repel  them  with  great  loss. 
Tjiough  this  victory  was  not  attended  with  any  immediate  advan- 
tiiges,  and  would  appear  to  have  been  rather  rashly  hazarded,  the 
British  general,  for  his  great  skill  and  conduct  during  the  action, 
was  raised  to  the  peerage  by  the  title  of  viscount  Wellington  of 
Talavera. 

15.  Though  a  central  junta  had  been  appointed  in  1,808,  to  give 
consistency  and  strength  to  the  proceedings  of  the  patriots,  tliey 
*vere  still  ill-prepared  cither  to  contend  against  the  enemy  alone, 
or  conjointly  with  the  British.  In  the  battle  of  Talavera,  and  after-'*; 
wards,  their  movements  had  rather  euiharrassed  than  assisted  the 
operations. of  the  latter.  It  would  have  been  well  if  the  Spaniards, 
from  the  first,  could  have  been  prevailed  upon  to  appoint  lord  Wel- 
lington generalissimo  of.  all  the  forces  acting  against  the  French. 
The  latter,  however,  were  much  harassed  by  a  sort  of  desultory 
war,  carried  on  by  guerilla  parties,  who  intercepted  their  supplies, 
and  without  attempting  any  regular  engagement,  (for  which,  indeed, 
tliey  were  unfit,)  were  continually  attacking  tliem  in  the  way  of 
ambuscade  and  surprise  ;  for  which  their  superior  knowledge  of  the 
country  evidently  gave  tliem  great  advantages. 

16.  It  is  not  to  be  wondered  that  the  extraordinary  situation  of 
Spain  should  occasion  great  embarrassment  in  the  management  of 
the  war.  In  the  place  of  the  supreme  central  junta  of  1,808,  a 
regency  had  been  appointed,  and  the  cortes  assembled,  but  without 
suthcient  effect.  The  Spanish  armies  acted  without  system,  and  tl)e 
nation  at  large  manifested  a  jealousy  of  their  English  allies,  which 
prevented  such  a  co-operation  as  might  have  brought  the  whole  under 
one  command,  to  the  evident  advantage  of  the  cause,  in  which  they 
must  have  been,  though  with  different  degrees  of  zeal  and  judgment, 
equally  interested.  This  distrust  on  the  part  of  the  Spaniards  ex- 
posed them  also,  it  is  to  be  feared,  to  treatment  tar  from  conciliatory 
on  the  part  of  the  English.  The  war  rvhich  was  renewed  between 
France  and  Austria,  in  1,809,  drew  the  attention  of  Napoleon  in 
some  degree  from  Spain :  but  those  differences  being  soon  adjusted, 
early  in  the  year  1,810,  powerful  reinforcements  were  sent  from 
France  to  the  Peninsula,  to  reconquer  Portugal,  and  "  drive  the  Eng- 
lish into  the  sea."  What  has  been  said  of  Spain  is  by  no  means  ap- 
plicable to  Portugal-  in  the  latter  country,  not  only  a  better  epLrit 


358  MODERN  HISTORY. 

was  manifePted,  but  the  army  being  placed  under  British  command, 
and  regularly  organized,  by  general  lord  Beresford,  was  sood  render- 
ed capable  of  affording  very  effectual  aid  and  assistance. 

17.  During  the  whole  of  the  years  1,810  and  1,811,  the  contend- 
ing armies  were  occupied  in  striving  to  gain  advantages  Qj?er  each 
other,  which  called  fortli  all  the  skill  and  judgment  appertiiining 
to  the  science  of  war.  The  detail,  however,  of  the  several  actions 
which  took  place,  of  the  investment  and  capture  of  the  strong  holde 
of  the  two  portions  of  the  Peninsula,  do  not  belong  to  such  a  work 
as  the  present  It  was  not  till  the  summer  of  1,812,  and  after  the 
victory  gained  by  lord  Wellington  over  the  French  under  marshal 
Alarmont,  in  the  battle  of  Salamanca,  that  the  total  expulsion  of  the 
French,  and  overthrow  of  the  throne  of  .Joseph,  became  a  matter  of 
little  doubt.  The  battle  of  Salamanca  may  be  said  to  have  opened 
the  gates  of  Madrid  once  more  to  the  patriots  and  allied  army,  and 
restored  the  Spanish  crown  to  Ferdinand.  The  battle  was  fought  on 
the  22d  of  July.  On  the  30th,  lord  Wellington  entered  Valladolid. 
the  enemy  retiring  before  him;  and  on  the  12th  of  August,  Madrid 
surrendered  to  the  British  arms.  Joseph  and  bis  suite  having  pre- 
viously quitted  it.  Lord  Wellington  was  received  in  the  capital  with 
the  acclamations  justly  due  to  the  liberator  of  Spain ;  but  had  the 
Spaniards  themselves  used  the  exertions  they  might  have  dhne, 
(Napoleon  being  at  this  time  engaged  in  Russia,)  the  Peninsula 
might  probably  nave  been  sooner  delivered  from  the  French,  after 
the  recovery  of  the  capital,  than  prpved  to  be  the  case. 

18.  The  latter  made  a  stand  at  ^lir/^os,  which  was  invested  by 
the  English,  but  after  a  siege  of  more  than  a  month,  abandoned  with 
considerable  loss ;  the  British  force?  being  once  more  obliged  to  re- 
tire as  far  as  Ciudad  Rodrigo,  on  the  frontiers  of  Portugal.  The 
Spaniards,  howeve:',  at  length  appeared  to  be  roused  to  a  proper 
sense  of  their  situation,  and  wisely  conhded  to  lord  Wellington  the 
termination  of  this  protracted  war.  In  December,  1,812,  he  was 
appointed  generalissimo,  and  distinguished  by  extraordinary  powers. 

19.  It  seemed  now  to  be  practicable  to  end,  by  a  decisive  ac- 
tion, the  contest  for  the  possession  of  Spain ;  and  lord  Weliington 
lost  no  time  in  seeking  the  opportunity.  He  took  the  field  in  ihe 
middle  of  the  month  of  May,  1,813,  and  on  the  21st  of  June,  brought 
the  enemy  to  action  on  the  plains  of  Vittoria.  Never  was  a  vic- 
tory more  decisive  than  the  one  obtained  at  this  time  by  the  com- 
bined British,  Portuguese,  and' Spanish  armies.  Joseph  and  his 
troops  were  compelled  to  quit  the  tield  with  such  extreme  precipi- 
tation, as  to  leave  behind  them  fifty  pieces  of  artillery,  two  thousand 
carriages  of  different  descriptions,  stores,  provisions,  and  an  immense 
booty,  consisting  chiefly  of  the  plunder  of  Madrid,  fortunately  rescued 
upon  this  occasion  from  the  usurper,  who  was  present,  and  very 
narrowly  escaped. 

20.  After  the  battle  of  Vittoria,  and  the  fall  of  the  strong  towns 
©f  St.  Sebastian  and  Pampeluua,  the  British,  Portuguese,  and  Span- 
ish troops  crossed  the  Bidassoa,  and  entered  France.  Early  in 
March,  the  city  of  Bordeaux  freely  opened  her  gates  to  general 
Beresford,  in  the  name  of  Lewis  XVIU.^t  the  same  time  admitting 
the  king's  nephew,  the  duke  of  Angouleme.  On  the  10th  of  April, 
the  British  stormed  the  French  entrenchments  near  Thoulouse.  On 
the  12th,  general  Soult  filed  out  of  the  town,  under  the  muzzles  of 
the  British  guns.  On  the  13th,  news  arrived  of  the  abdication  of 
Buonaparte,  and  the  entrance  of  the  allied  sovereigns  into  Paris. 


MODERN  HISTORY.  359 

It  is  conjectured  that  the  French  commander  knew  of  these  things 
before,  but  in  the  hope  of  gaining  some  advantage  over  the  invaders 
of  France,  concealed  it. 

21.  Before  the  allies  reached  Paris,  Napoleon  had  released  Fer- 
dinand VII.,  whose  return  to  Spain  was,  however,  rendered  very 
unacceptable  to  many  who  had  espoused  his  cause  in  his  absence, 
particularly  the  members  of  the  regency  and  existing  cortes,  with 
whose  proceedings,  in  regard  to  the  new  constitution  proposed  for 
his  acceptance,  he  expressed  himself  extremely  displeased;  they 
had  previously  refused  to  acknowledge  a  treaty  concluded  by  Ferdi- 
nand with  Buonaparte.  He  threw  himself  also  into  the  hands  of 
those  who  were  fiiends  to  the  ancient  system,  which,  with  extreme 
bigotry,  he  endeavoured  to  re-establish  in  its  worst  forms.  From 
that  time  to  the  present  the  nation  has  been  kept  in  a  state  of  con- 
siderable ferment  and  confusion.  By  a  revolution  in  March,  1,820, 
the  cortes  were  restored,  and  the  free  constitution  of  1,812  pro- 
claimed and  sworn  to  by  tne  king.  The  inquisition  also  was  finally 
abolished:  but  the  effects  of  these  last  movements  remain  to  be 
proved. 

22.  The  old  king,  Charles  IV.,  died  at  Rome,  in  1,819.  The  bat- 
tle of  Vittoria,  which  relieved  Spain  from  the  presence  of  the 
French  armies,  restored  Portugal  to  her  former  independence.  On 
the  20th  of  March,  1,816,  the  queen,  Maria  Isabella,  died  ;  and  was 
succeeded  by  the  present  king,  John  VI.,  who  had  been  regent 
since  1,799,  the  seat  of  government  being  still  at  Rio  de  Janeiro,  in 
Brazil. 


SECTION  XVIII. 

FRANCE,  FROM  THE  PEACE  OF  TILSIT,  TO  THE  ABDICATION 
OF  NAPOLEON  1,814. 

1.  The  treaty  of  Tilsit  left  Napoleon  at  liberty  to  pursue  his  career 
of  vengeance  and  usurpation  in  other  countries.  He  obtained  by  it 
such  an  influence  over  Russia,  Austria,  and  Prussia,  as  to  induce 
them  to  break  with  England,  without  any  other  reason;  and  as  soon 
as  he  had  thus  disposed  of  matters  in  those  quarters,  he  turned  liis 
views  to  the  Spanish  peninsula,  where  a  Bourbon  dynasty  still  ex- 
isted. In  three  months  after  the  signing  of  tiie  treaty  of  Tilsit,  he 
concluded  the  famous  partition-treaty  witli  Spain,  already  spoken  of, 
in  virtue  of"  which,  French  troops  were  to  be  allowed  to  pass  into 
Portugal,  for  the  sacrifice  of  that  ancient  kingdom ;  and  afterwards, 
no  doubt,  in  the  views  and  designs  of  the  French  emperor,  of  Spain 
itself. 

2.  Of  his  subsequent  invasion  and  occupation  of  both  coimtries, 
and  of  the  wa^  for  several  years  carried  rn,  before  he  couid  be 
compelled  to  renounce  his  usr.rped  dominion  in  Spain,  an  account 
is  given  in  the  preceding  section.  On  the  17th  of  December,  l,o07, 
in  the  same  spirit  of  resentment  against  Great  Britain,  which  had 
dictated  the  celebrated  decree  of  L'crlin^  declnred  the  British  isles 
to  be  in  a  st;ite  of  blockade,  the  French  emperor  issued  another 
decree,  at  Alilaji,  (in  cons?qur'nce  of  the  British  retaliatory  orders 
of  co;;ucil,  November  21  st,)  by  which  every  ship  whict.  should 
submit  to  be  visited  by  the  English,  or  consent  to  any  pecuniary 


360  MODERN  HISTOUY. 

exactions  whatsoever,  should  be  hable  to  confiscation  as  a  lawful 
prize;  but  his  vengeance  tell  hardest  upon  Portugal,  whose  com- 
mercial  and  political  relations   with   England  so  exasperated   him,  ' 
that,  in  an  audience  given  to  the  foreign  ministers  at  Fontainebleau,  ' 
he  openly  declared,  that  if  the  regent  of  Portugal  did  not  within  ' 
two  months  conform  to  the  contineiitiil  system,  and  totally  renounce 
his  connexions  with  England,  the  house  of  Braganza  should  cease  to  ' 
reign.     Such  ^^as  the  haughty  language  of  this  extraordinary  man,  j 
in  the  face  of  Europe,  after  the  convention  at  Tilsit !  ■ 

3.  In  a  few  days  after  this  denunciation  of  the  Portuguese  dy-  ' 
nasty,  the  regent  closed  his  ports  against  English  ships  of  all  descrip-  ' 
tions,  but  not  in  time  to  stop  the  French  armies,  who  pressed  so  j 
closely  upon  him,  tliat  on  the  29th  of  November,  (see  the  preceding  .! 
section,)  he  was  obliged  to  quit  his  European  dominions  for  Rio  Ja-  I 
neiro,  in  the  Brazils,  and  on  the  very  next  day  Lisbon  was  occupied  j 
by  French  troops  under  general  Junot. 

4.  The  short-lived  kingdom  of  Etruria  was  brought  to  an  end  ,; 
about  this  time ;    and    the  qusen-regent,   late   duchess   of   Parma, 
with   the   king,  her  son,  ooliged  to  depart  for  Spain,  her  native 
country.  ] 

5.  hi  Mirch,  1 ,808,  a  decree  was  passed  in  France,  ordaining  the 
renewal  of  titles  of  honour,  princes,  dukes,  counts,  &.c.,  and  cre- 
ating a  new  order  of  hereditary  nobility,  as  essential  to  an  heredi- 
tary monarch.  About  the  same  time,  Joseph  Buonaparte  was  re- 
moved from  Naples,  and  made  king  of  Spain;  and  Joachim  Murat, 
grand  duke  of  Berg,  married  to  the  sister  of  Napoleon,  was  declared 
king  of  Naples. 

6.  The  kingdoms  of  Naples  and  Italy  being  thus  entirely  in  th.? 
hands  of  Buonaparte,  in  order  to  prevent  their  communication  from 
being  interrupted  by  any  hostile  power,  he  seized  upon  the  pope's 
temporalities,  for  which  Pius  V'l.  ventured  to  excommunicate  him. 
He  had  the  audacity  to  remind  the  pope,  in  thus  despoiling  him 
that  the  kingdom  of  Christ  was  not  of  this  world  ;  though  the  only 
reason  alleged  for  what  he  had  done,  was,  that  Pius  had  refused  to 
declare  war  against  England ;  a  friendly  power,  and  one  from  which 
the  pope  declared  he  had  never  received  the  smallest  injury. 

7.  On  the  9th  of  April,   1,809,  war  was  renewed  with  .\ustria, 
nnd  so  rapid  was  the  progress  of  the  French,  that  after  three  severe 
actions  at  Abensberg,  Eckmuld,  and  Ratisbon,  Vienna  »vas  compelled  \ 
to  capitulate  on  the  12th  of  May.     The  Austii<ins,  afterwards,  under 
the  archduke  Charles,  gained  some  advantages  over  Buonaparte  j 
but,  before  the  autumn  was  passed,  a  peace  was  concluded,  at  \  ien-  1 
na,  extremely  humilitating  to  Francis  II.    To  France  he  was  obliged  j 
to  cede  the  Illy rian  provinces;  to  Bavaria,  Saltzburg;  to  Saxony, 
the  wliole  of  West  Gallicia;  and  to  Russia,  East  Gallicia;  he  was, 
moreover,  compelled  to  accede  to  the  continental  system  against 
England,  and  to  acknowledge  Joseph  Buonaparte  as  king  of  Spain. 

8.  But  as  if  these  concessions  were  not  sufficient  to  mortify  the 
pride  of  the  head  of  the  empire,  and  representative  of  the  house  of 
Hapsburgh  and  Lorraine,  the  French  emperor,  to  the  surprise  of 
Europe,  demanded  and  obtained  in  marriage  the  daughter  of  Fran- 
cis II.,  the  archduchess  Maria  Louisa,  having  previously  been,  with 
great  form,  divorced  from,  the  empress  Josephine,  with  her  own 
consent,  for  the  express  purpose  ol  forming  a  connexion  of  higher 
hopes,  and  afi'ording  a  prospect  of  an  heir  to  his  newly  acquired  im- 
perial domiflJons.    The  marriage  took  place  at  Paris,  April  2,  1,810 


MODERN  HISTORY.  36\ 

9.  Intent  upon  providing  for  every  branch  of  his  family,  the 
grand  duchy  of  Tuscany  was  revived  by  INapoleou,  in  l,f;v/J,  ;!nd 
conferred  on  his  sister  Eliza,  princess  of  Lncca  and  I'lcnsltino. 
The  grand  duchy  of  Berg,  vacated  by  the  removal  of  hi?  brother- 
in-iavv,  Joachim  Murat,  to.the  throne  of  Napies,  was  given  to  Linii?, 
his  nephew,  son  of  the  king  of  Holland  ;  and  on  the  17th  of  Miij 
the  pope's  temporalities  were  declared  to  be  incorporated  with  the 
French  dominions,  and  the  title  of  king  of  Rome  appropriated  to  the 
imperial  prince,  heir  to  the  French  empire.  The  siitiation  of  the 
papal  territories,  between  the  kingdoms  of  Italy  and  Naples,  was 
such  as  in  hostile  hands  might  be  made  use  of  to  intercept  the  com- 
munication between  the  two  ;  and  therefore  the  pope,  who  apje-ired 
friendly  to  England,  was  of  necessity  to  be  des}_;oiled  of  bis  doniin- 
ions,  but  to  receive  a  revenue  of  two  millions  ot  francs,  'i'ht!  new 
constitutional  government  was  to  be  in  full  activity  and  force  on  the 
1st  of  January,  1,810.  On  tlie  14th  of  January,  1,810,  the  elector- 
ate of  Hanover  was  annexed  to  the  dominion  of  the  emperor's 
brother,  Jerome,  king  of  Westphalia;  and  on  the  20th  of  March, 
1,811,  Napoleon  was  gratified  with  the  birth  of  a  son,  who,  accord- 
ing to  the  arrangements  already  spoken  of,  was  immediately  digni- 
fied with  the  title  of  king  of  Rome. 

10.  In  June,  1,812,  Napoleon,  offended  with  some  parts  of  (he 
conduct  of  the  emperor  of  Russia,  who  had  begun  to  appreciate 
more  justly  the  cnaracter  of  the  artful  and  ambitious  Coi-sican, 
once  more  declared  war  against  him,  having  influence,  besides,  to 
prevail  upon  Prussia  and  Austria  to  join  him.  His  advance  towards 
the  Russian  dominions  was  most  rapid  ;  but,  considering  the  distance 
to  which  he  was  carrying  his  army,  and  the  inveterate  hatred  avid 
indignation  he  had  excited  by  his  bold  threats  against  his  imperial 
adversary,  his  subjects,  and  his  empire,  extremely  rash.  His  power, 
it  is  true,  was  immense,  400,000,  infantry,  60,000  cavalry,  and  1,20() 
pieces  of  artillery ;  Germans,  Polanders,  J3utch,  Swiss,  Italians, 
Spaniards,  and  Portuguese,  being  numbered  amongst  his  troops  ; 
but  nothing  could  exceed  the  anger  and  resentment  of  the  Rus- 
sians. 

11.  On  the  Oth^of  May  the  French  ruler  left  St.  Cloud;  on  the 
24th  of  June  he  crossed  the  Niemen,  and  on  the  14lh  of  September 
atl.dned  his  grand  object  of  entering  the  capital  of  the  Muscovite 
dominions.  But  his  reception  was  iar  from  being  such  aS  he  ex- 
pected, or  such  as  he  had  met  with  in  other  capitals.  The  C'ty  vvas 
tired  by  order  of  the  governor,  and  by  the  hands  of  the  enraged  in- 
habitants ;  and  the  French  had  only  ruins  to  occupy,  in  a  latitude  to 
which  they  were  totally  unaccustomed,  and  with  all  the  horrors  of 

Siberian  winter  betbre  them. 

12.  On  the  10th  of  October,  after  having  solicited  an  armistice, 
and  proposed  peace,  both  of  which  were  peremi'torily  retused. 
Buonaparte  and  his  disappohited  army  began  their  dreary  aiKj 
perilous  march  back  to  France.  Nothing  could  exceed  the  dith- 
culties  and  distresses  to  which  they  were  exposed,  Irom  the  sevvri- 
ties  of  the  weather  and  climate,  and  the  attac  ks  of  the  Rusf-iiuis, 
from  Moscow  to  the  capital  of  Lithuania,  where  they  arriveci  on 
the  10th  of  December.  On  the  6lh,  the  emperor  Napoleon  totally 
abandoned  his  harassed  army  to  its  fate,  having  quitted  ii  at  Smor- 
gonie  in  disguise ;  destroyed  the  bridges  by  which  he  passed,  regard- 
less of  those  he  left  behind;  and  traversing  Poland  and  Germany, 
made  the  best  of  his  way  to  Paris,  where  he  arrived  at  miduight, 

H  h  46 


362  MODERN  HISTORY. 

December  18,  having  lost,  or  rather  sacriticed,  upwards  of  150,000 
men,  including  prisoners,  167,500. 

13.  It  was  naturally   expected   that  this  total  defeat  of  all   his 

Erojects  in  regard  to  Russia,  together  with  tlie  miserable  condition  of 
is  army  when  it  readied  the  confines  of  France,  would  have  termi- 
nated his  giddy  career  of  pride  and  ambition  •  but  in  this  the  world 
was  deceived.  In  the  following  year,  he  eagerly  resumed  hostilities, 
but  manitestly  to  great  disadvantage.  Though  he  was  readily  fur- 
nished with  a  fresh  army,  amounting  to  350,000  men,  he  had  soon 
opposed  to  him  not  only  Russia,  but  Austria,  Prussia,  and  Sweden, 
subsidized  by  England.  Several  of  the  confederates  of  the  Rhine 
ventured  te  abandon  his  cause ;  and  it  became  very  apparent  that 
the  allied  powers  were  more  in  earnest  and  more  united  now  than 
on  any  former  occasion.  Many  battles  were  fought  in  the  course  of 
the  summer,  with  doubtful  success,  till,  at  last,  the  great  "  Battle  of 
Nations,"  as  it  has  fitly  enough  been  called,  took  place  at  Leipzig, 
in  which  the  French  sustained  so  signal  a  defeat,  as  seemed  evidentljr 
to  prognosticate  the  ruin  and  disco;  .filure  of  the  great  disturber  of 
Europe.  This  celebrated  battle,  or  succession  of  engagements, 
took  place  on  the  16th,  18th,  and  19th  days  of  October.  Leipzig 
was  taken  only  two  hours  af  er  Buonaparte  had  effected  his  escape. 
The  king  of  baxony  and  all  his  court  were  captured  by  the  allies; 
ti  French  garrison  of  30,000  men,  besides  22,000  sick  and  wounded^ 
with  the  trench  magazines,  artiiiery,  and  stores.  The  emperor  ot 
Russia,  the  king  of  Prussia,  and  crown  prince  of  Sweden,  each  at 
the  head  of  their  respective  troops,  made  their  entry  into  the  town 
at  different  points,  after  the  engagement  of  the  19th,  and  met  in  the 

freat  square,  amidst  the  universal  acclamations  of  the  people, 
ust  before  the  battle  of  Leipzig,  the  allies  derived  great  advantage 
from  the  defection  of  the  kings  of  Bavaria  and  Wirtemberg^  and  the 
grand  duke  of  Baden,  from  the  cause  of  France,  and  the  consequent 
junction  of  55,000  of  the  Bavarian  troops;  and  during  the  action  of 
the  18th,  a  party  of  the  Saxons,  bringing  with  them  22  guns,  desert- 
ed to  the  crown  prince  of  Sweden,  and  desired  to  be  led  directly 
agaitist  the  French.  So  much  was  the  aspect  of  things  changed  with 
regard  to  the  destinies  of  Buonaparte,  who,  on  his  return  to  Paris, 
had  but  too  much  reason  to  declare,  (as  he  did  in  his  speech  to  the 
senate  on  the  14th  of  November,)  "All  Europe  was  with  us  a  year 
ago, — all  Europe  is  now  against  us." 

14.  The  immediate  consequences  of  the  victory  at  Leipzig  were, 
the  dissolution  of  the  new-erected  kingdom  of  VVestphalia,  and  the 
grand  duchies  of  Berg  and  Frankfort.  The  dukes  of  Brunswick 
and  Hesse  Cussel  recovered  their  dominions,  and  the  prince  of 
Orange  was  not  merely  restored  to  his  stadthoiderate  in  iloliand, 
but  proclaimed  sovereign  of  the  United  Netherlands.  On  the  2d  of 
December,  1,813,  the  allies  passed  the  Rhine;  the  southern  frontier 
of  the  Pyrenees  having  been  invaded  by  the  British  and  Portuguese 
in  October  precedi\)g. 

15.  Though  four  great  armies  of  the  aUies  were  now  within  the 
ferritoi'ies  of  France,  their  work  was  not  accomplished.  The 
French  generals,  and  Buonaparte  himself,  who,  in  a  very  affecting 
manner,  quitted  Paris  on  the  25th  of  January,  1,814,  interrupted 
the  progress  x)f  the  Russians,  Prussians,  and  Austrians,  endeavoured 
to  prevent,  in  every  way  they  couid,  tneir  advance  upon  the  cajpital ; 
but  all  their  exertions  proved  vaiii,  though  the  attainment  of  that 
great  object  was  deferred  lor  some  tiionths.    It  was  not  till  the  31st 


MODERN  HISTORY.  363 

day  of  March,  that  their  triumph  may  be  said  to  have  been  complet- 
ed :  on  that  day  the  emperor  of  Russia  and  the  king  of  Prussia,  at 
the  head  of  their  respective  armies,  entered  Paris  in  the  most  solemn 
and  imposing  manner.  On  the  2d  of  April,  Buonaparte  was  formally 
deposed  by  the  senate,  and  on  the  1 1th  he  was  permitted  to  abdicate, 
upon  terms  judged  by  many  to  be  lar  too  favourable.  He  was  al- 
lowed to  retire  to  Elba,  (a  residence  of  his  own  choice,)  retaining  his 
imperial  titles,  and  having  that  island  and  its  dependencies  assigned  to 
him  as  sovereign,  with  a  revenue  of  two  millions  of  francs.  The  duch- 
ies of  Parma,  Guastalla,  and  Placentia,  were  at  the  same  time  secured 
to  the  empress  Maria  Louisa,  and  her  descendants,  and  provision 
made  for  all  his  other  relations.  Buonaparte,  having  previously  had 
a  guard  appointed,  set  out  on  the  20th  for  the  seat  of  his  new  and 
very  reduced  dominions,  much  exposed  occasionally  on  his  passage  to 
popular  resentment 

16.  On  the  the  entrance  of  the  allies,  they  were  careful  in  their 
manifestoes  to  distinguish  between  the  French  people,  or  nation  at 
large,  and  the  tyrant  whom  they  had  conspirecf  to  overthrow ;  and 
evinced  the  strongest  disposition  to  bury  in  oblivioB,  with  becoming 
magnanimity  and  forbearance,  the  numberless  insults  and  injuries 
they  had  received  at  the  hands  of  the  French,  while  under  the  do- 
minion of  their  now  prostrate  foe.  They  took  no  steps  to  force  upon 
them  the  exiled  family,  but  left  the  settlement  of  their  government 
and  constitution  entirely  to  the  senate  and  provisional  administration. 
The  Bourbons  had  been  proclaimed  in  the  south,  and  the  count 
d'Artois  appeared  at  Paris  on  the  13th  of  April;  but  the  recal  of 
the  king  was  the  woi'k  of  the  French  themselves,  as  we  shall  have 
occasion  to  observe  in  a  subsequent  section. 


SECTION  XIX. 

POLAND,     FROM     THE     COMMENCEMENT    OF    THE    EIGH- 
TEENTH  CENTURY  TO  THE  TREATY  OF  VIENNA,  1,815. 

1 .  No  country  in  Europe  has  suffered  more  from  a  faulty  constitu 
tion  than  the  kingdom  of  Poland.  No  country  has  afforded  more 
convincing  proofs  of  the  mischiefs  appertaining  to  an  elective  raon 
aichy,  the  con>»tant  source  not  only  of  internal  commotions,  cabal, 
and  intrigue,  but  the  occasion  generally,  upon  every  vacancy,  of 
foreign  interference.  At  no  era  did  Poland  sufiler  more,  perhaps, 
from  this  combination  of  evils,  than  towards  the  commencement 
of  the  eighteenth  century  ;  nor  has  she  ever  since  been  able  to  re- 
cover her  independence.  The  arbitrary,  though  nnt  unprovoked, 
proceedings  of  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden,"in  1,704,  when  he  deposed 
Augustus,  and  insisted  upon  placing  Stanislaus  on  the  throne,  in  despite 
of  Austria  and  Russia,  plainly  showed  how  little  power  a  divided 
country  possesses  against  the  encroachments  of  an  ambitious  neigh- 
bour, and  how  naturally  the  interference  of  one  such  neighbour 
exposes  the  invaded  country  to  similar  measures  on  the  part  of 
others ;  for  Augustus  himself  had  been  previously  forced  upon  the 
Poles  by  Russia.  From  the  above  period  to  the  present  day  Poland 
has  been  exposed  to  a  continual  recurrence  of  such  events;  and  to 
promote  the  views  of  a  combination  of  foreign  potentates,  kept  in  a 
state  of  internal  disunion  and  distraction,  constantly  favourable  to 
their  ambitious  designs. 


364  MODERN  HISTORY. 

2.  Augustus,  elector  of  Saxony,  who  was  deposed  in  1 ,704,  and 
compeiled  formally  to  abdicate  the  throne  by  the  treaty  of  Alt- 
Ranstadt,  in  1,706,  was  restored  by  the  assistance  of  Russia,  after 
the  battle  of  Fultawa  in  1,709,  and  reigned  for  the  space  of  twenty- 
fqur  years,  dying  in  ],lijo.  (Sect.  1.)  His  reign  was  far  from  being 
an  happy  one :  he  offended  the  Poles  by  the  introduction  of  Saxou 
troops,  and  by  re^iiding  too  much  away  from  them  in  his  electoral 
dominions :  he  lived  in  the  midst  of  factions  and  conspiracies,  being 
continually  at  war  with  the  dissidents  or  anti-catJiolics^  wliile  he  totally 
failed  in  his  endeavours  to  render  himself  absolute,  or  the  crown  he- 
reditary in  his  family. 

3.  The  war  which  arose  upon  the  death  of  Augustus,  has  been 
already  noticed.  Had  the  Poles  been  wise  enough  to  remedy  that 
great  defect  in  their  constitution,  which  rendered  the  crown  elec- 
live,  they  could  not  have  done  better,  perhaps,  than  to  have  made 
It  heretfitary  in  the  person  and  family  of  Stanislaus  Lescinsky,  the 
principal  competitor  of  the  house  of  Saxony,  he  being  a  Pole  by 
oirth,  and  very  amiable  in  his  private  character:  but  they  were  no 
longer  their  own  masters;  and  they  were  divided  amongst  them- 
selves to  such  a  degree  as  to  render  the  interposition  of  some  foreign 
power  almost  necessary  to  determine  their  choice.  Upon  this  oc- 
casion the  emperor  of  Germany,  whose  niece  the  young  elector  of 
Sasony  had  married,  assisted  by  the  Russians,  overcame  the  French 
induence  which  had  been  exerted  in  favour  of  Stanislaus,  and,  by 
effectually  removing  the  latter,  procured  the  election  to  fall  on  the 
son  of  the  late  king.  Augustus  III.* 

4.  This  king  of  Poland,  oh  the  death  of  the  emperor  Charles  VI., 
1,740,  laid  claim  to  the  whole  Austrian  succession ;  and  not  altogether 
wittiout  reason,  had  not  the  Pragmatic  Sanction  stood  in  his  way, 
his  wife  being  the  eldest  daughter  of  the  emperor  Joseph,  elder 
brother  of  Charles  VI.;  the  object  of  the  Pragmatic  Sanction,  being 
to  secure  the  inheritance  to  the  females,  in  default  of  male  issue;- 
and  on  the  demise  of  Charles  VI.,  his  daughter  becoming  his  immedi- 
ate heir  and  representative,  it  certainly  appeared  hard  that  the 
daughter  of  the  elder  brother,  who  had  been  emperor,  should  be  so 
entirely  excluded.  The  hope  of  succeeding  to  some  part,  at  least, 
of  the  late  emperor's  hereditary  dominions,  induced  the  king  of  Po- 
land to  enter  into  a  confederacy  with  Bavaria,  Prussia,  and  France, 
against  the  house  of  Austria;  but  he  derived  no  advantage  from  the 
alliance  :  he  afterwards  changed  sides,  and  at  the  commencement  of 
the  seven  years'  war,  cts  has  been  before  shown,  (Sect.  VI.)  suffered 
enost  severely  for  having  espoused  the  case  of  the  empress  queen, 
and  entertained  views  against  Prussia,  wliich  the  wary  sovereign  of 
the  latter  country  found  means  to  detect,  and  cruelly  to  revenge. 

5.  It  was  not  likely  that  a  king  who  owed  his  election  so  entirely 
to  the  interference  of  foreign  powers,  should  acquire  any  thing 
like  independence,  or  authority  at  home  or  abroad.  During  the 
."eign  of  Augustus  111.  great  feuds  and  animosities  prevailed  among 
tho.  Magnats,  while  the  king  himsell'  was  entirely  subject,  to  the 
influence  of  Russia ;  a  circumstance  so  resented  by  his  subjects  as 
to  induce  them  to  avail  themselves  of  the  privilege  of  the  Ldberwa 
Veto^  to  dissolve  all  the  diets  he  convoked,  and  thus  leave  the  king- 
dom almost  without  any  government.  Augustus  III.  died  in  the  year 
1,763,  at  a  period  when  the  Russian  sceptre  had  passed  into  bands 
well  fitted  to  promote,  in  every  way  possible,  (just  or  unjust.)  its 
aggrandizement  and  splendour.    Catherine  II.  is  supposed  to  nave 


MODERN  HISTORY.  366 

had  her  eyes  upon  Poland  before  the  demise  of  Augustus,  and  to 
have  been  prepared  not  only  to  set  aside  the  son  of  the  latter,  but  to 
advance  to  the  vacant  throne  some  creature  of  her  own ;  she  paid  no 
attention  therefore  to  the  solicitations  of  the  house  of  Saxony,  and  w?s 
very  shortly  relieved,  indeed,  from  all  competition  in  that  quarter, 
by  the  early  death  of  the  new  elector.  In  conjunction  with  Pcussia 
siie  succeeded,  but  not  without  a  spirited  opposition  on  the  part  of  a 
few  Polish  patriots,  in  bestowing  the  crown  of  Poland  on  count  Po- 
niatowski,  one  of  her  favourites,  and  a  Pole  by  birth  ;  a  man  of  talent, 
and  amiable  in  his  disposition,  but  likely  to  continue,  as  well  as  his 
predecessor,  entirely  under  her  control. 

6.  Nothing  could  be  a  greater  mockery  than  the  care  which  the 
czarina  and  the  king  of  Prussia  pretended  to  take  of  the  liberties  of 
Poiand,  at  the  very  moment  that  they  were  forcing  upon  the  nation 
a  king  of  their  own  choice  and  nomination.  So  far  from  tryhig 
to  amend  their  faulty  constitution,  and  eradicate  the  seeds  of  future 
animosities,  they  particularly  entered  into  an  agreement  to  prevent 
the  king  rendering  the  crown  hereditary  in  his  family,  or  becoming 
absolute  ;  that  is,  in  fact,  independc.tiL  or  powerful ;  for  this  was  their 
great  object.  And  when  it  was  to  be  submitted  to  the  diet  to  ap- 
prove their  nominee,  and  declare  count  Poniatowski  king,  a  Rus- 
sian army  was  sent  to  Warsaw,  to  support  Wxe  freedom  of  the  election. 
The  choice  of  the  diet  of  course  was  soon  decided  to  be  in  favour  of 
the  Russian  favourite,  who  became  king  accordingly,  September  7, 
1,764,  under  the  name  and  title  ol"  Stanislaus  Augustus. 

7.  From  this  period,  the  three  neighbouring  powers,  Russia, 
Prussia,  and  Austria,  the  two  former,  howi^er,  most  particularly, 
may  be  said  to  have  been  interested  in  the  internal  dissensions  of 
that  unhappy  kingdom,  which  afforded  them  plausible  grounds  of 
interference,  and  which  they  could  therefore  have  no  sincere  incli- 
nation to  allay  or  adjust  till  they  had  effectually  gained  their  own  ends : 
the  object  of  Russia  probably  was  to  maintain  her  own  power  and 
ascendancy  over  the  whole  country  ;  but  Prussia  meditated  a  p;^rti- 
tion,  which  might  put  her  into  possession  of  Polish  or  Western  Prus- 
sia, a  district  of  much  importance  in  every  point  of  view. 

8.  Whatever  may  have  been  originally  the  distinct  views  o(  the 
several  parties,  it  is  very  certain  that  they  derived  peculiar  advan- 
tages from  the  extremely  unsettled  state  of  the  country,  which  was 
at  this  time  torn  to  pieces  bv  the  contests  and  disputes  between  the 
catholics  and  dissidents^  or  dissenters  from  the  established  religion : 
the  latter,  who  since  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  had  ac- 
qui\ed  many  privileges,  were  supported  by  several  different  foreign 
powers;  those  of  the  Greek  churcli  by  Russia,  and  the  proteslants 
of  all  persuasions  by  Prussia,  Denmark,  and  Great  Britain,  all  of 
whom  were  called  upon  to  interpose  as  guarantees  of  the  famous 
treaty  of  Oliva,  1,660.  The  diet,  instigated  by  the  court  of  Rome 
and  heads  of  the  church,  judged  it  right  to  uphold  the  established 
faith,  and  Stanislaus,  though  his  principles  were  more  tolerant  and 
liberal,  appeared  to  take  the  same  side,  behig  jealous  also  of  the  too 
great  power  of  Russia,  of  which  he  could  not  fail  to  be  continually 
reminded,  not  only  by  the  open  favour  shown  to  the  dissidents  by 
Catherine,  but  by  the  insolent  superiority  assumed  by  her  general, 
conmianding  in  Poland,  prince  Repnin,  and  the  extremely  arbitrary 
and  sanguinary  manner  in  wiiich  the  empress  sought  to  maintain  her 
preponderance. 

9.  la  the  mean  while  confederacies  were  forming  in  all  parts  of 

Hh2 


5i6  MODERN  HISTORY. 

the  kingdom  to  restore,  if  possible,  the  independence  of  their 
coun'.ry,  (such  at  least  was  the  object  of  the  cotholics,)  or  to  pro- 
cure for  the  protestants  ail  the  rigtits  and  privileges  to  which  they 
laid  claim,  and  of  some  of  which  they  had  been  unjustly  deprived. 
Tlie  latter,  under  prince  Radzivil,  supported  by  Russian  troops, 
compelled  the  diet  of  Warsaw,  in  the  year  1,767,  to  accede  to 
their  demands ;  this  hastened  the  grand  confederacy  of  the  catho- 
lics at  Bar,  in  Fodolia,  in  1,768^  whose  object  was  to  throw  off  the 
Russian  yoke,  with  the  aid  ot  Turkey,  who  had  been  induced  by 
France  to  declare  war  against  the  Russians  in  that  very  year,  upon 
the  occasion  of  the  latter  having  passed  their  frontier  in  pursuing 
a  Polish  party,  and  committed  considerable  depredations, 

10.  Though  the  confederate  catholics  had  clearly  the  good  of 
their  country  in  view,  yet  sucIj  was  the  influence  of  Russia,  tiiat 
the  king  and  senate  were  compelled  by  Catherine  to  declare  war 
against  the  Porte,  and  so  far  to  counteract,  as  much  as  possible, 
the  efforts  that  were  making  to  accomplish  their  own  independence. 
In  Austria,  indeed,  during  this  stage  of  the  business,  the  coniiede-' 
nites  at  Bar  had  a  friend  in  Maria  Theresa,  who  espoused  the 
claims  of  the  Saxon'  family,  and  who  sent  them  both  arms  and 
money,  to  enable  them  to  check,  if  possible,  the  domineering  pro- 
ceedings of  the  czarina,  of  wiiich  indeed  slie  had  good  cause  to  be 
jealous.  But  the  time  was  approaching  in  which,  noiwithstaniliag 
the  most  striking  and  formal  declarations  to  the  contrary,  Polaiid 
was  to  become  a  prey  to  her  three  more  powerful  neighbours,  and 
when  ail  other  feelings  were  to  give  way  to  that  of  duly  apportion- 
ing and  dividing  the  spiyls  of  that  unhappy  country. 

11.  It  seems  now  to  be  pretty  generally  agreed,  that  the  plan 
of  dismembering  this  unfortunate  kingdom  originated  with  the  king 
of  Prussia,  or  his  brother,  prince  Henry  ;  and  that  it  was  ouing  lo 
particular  circumstances  that  they  were  able  to  Ijring  the  two  otJR^T 
parties  so  readily  to  acquiesce  in  their  measures  of  partition,  liad 
Frederick  himself  been  more  rapacious,  it  would  probably  not  have 
been  so  easily  accomplished,  but,  in  order  to  gain  what  he  must 
coveted,  for  his  own  stiare,  he  appeared  willing  to  allow  the  oilier 
two  parlitioning  power's  to  acquire  rather  mors  than  fell  to  his  iot, 
both  in  extent  of  territory  and  amount  of  population.  In  admitting 
Austria  to  any  share  at  all,  he  made  no  scruple  to  assert  that  his 
principal  motive  was,  that  she  should  bear  her  part  in  the  blame 
that  must  attach  to  so  arbitrary  and  rapacious  an  act 

12.  Though  the  Polish  king  and  nation  were  compelled  to  ac- 
quiesce in  these  proceedings  of  the  three  powers,  they  did  not  do 
so  without  remonstrating  in  terms  the  most  striking  and  dignitied ; 
accompanying  their  remonstrances  and  manifestoes  with  an  open 
appeal  to  the  several  states  which  had  guarantied  the  integrity  of 
Poland ;  but  all  in  vain.  They  obtained  no  assistance  Irom  foreign 
states,  no  abatement  of  their  demands  on  the  part  of  the  par- 
titioning powers,  and  were  at  length  obliged,  by  a  solemn  diet,  to 
sanction  this  gross  dismemberment  of  their  country.  In  two  seve- 
ral discussions  of  the  case,  however,  in  the  senate,  and  assembly 
of  Nuncios,  the  minority  on  the  division  was  most  numerous  and 
respectable.  In  the  former,  the  question  was  carried  by  a  major- 
ity of  six  only,  in  the  latter  by  one.  The  motive  alleged  by  the 
partitioning  powers,  lor  this  extraordinary  proceeding  was,  that  they 
were  anxious  to  ainend  the  constitution,  to  preserve  the  liberties 
of  Poiand,  and  to  appease  the  disorders  which  had  for  so  long  a 


MODERN  HISTORY.  387 

space  of  time  disturbed  the  country,  but  they  fulfilled  none  of  these 
pretended  purposes.  They  did  nothing  to  amend  the  constitution, 
but  imposed  a  new  one  upon  them,  fraught  with  those  very 
imperfections,  of  which  they  might  for  ever  continue  to  take  ad- 
vantage. They  perpetuated  tne  elective  n)onarchy,  abridged 
more  than  ever  the  authority  of  the  king,  and  continued  the  Hbe- 
rum  veto,  a  sort  of  tribunilial  privilege,  exceedirigly  inimical  to 
the  peace  of  the  country.  So  far  from  upholding,  they  trampled 
upon  their  liberties  in  every  way  they  could,  and  promoted  the  dis- 
orders they  pretended  to  remove,  by  encouraging,  rather  than 
checking,  the  licentious  conduct  of  their  soldiery.  In  fact,  a 
greater  act  of  atrocity,  or  a  more  barefaced  mockery  of  national 
feelings,  never  perhaps  took  place,  or  was  even  attempted,  than  in 
the  dismemberment  of  the  kingdom  of  Poland.  Austria  and  Prus- 
sia did,  indeed,  make  an  attempt  to  vindicate  their  claims  to  the 
countries  they  took  possession  of;  but  Russia  scarcely  judged  it 
necessary  to  make  any  declaration  to  that  effect.  The  archives  of 
Prussia  and  Hungary  were  ransacked,  and  titles  revived  and  in 
sisted  upon,  which,  to  say  the  least,  had  been  in  abeyance  lor  many 
centuries.  How  far  this  measure  may  justly  be  said  to  have  afi'ected 
the  balance  of  power  in  Europe,  is  a  distinct  case.  For  a  long  series 
of  years,  iinot  of  ages,  Poland  had  been  so  ill  governed,  or  so  weak, 
as  fo  have  had  little  intluence  on  that  balance,  though  her  situation 
seemed  to  point  her  out,  and  still  appears  to  do  so,  as  capable  of  ma- 
terially intfuencing  or  counteracting  the  operations  of  her  many  pow- 
erful and  ambitious  neighboui-s,  Russia,  Prussia,  Austria,  and  Turkey. 
The  worst  consequence,  however,  arising  Irom  the  confeiieracy 
against  Poland,  seems  to  liave  been  the  countenance  thereby  given 
to  the  partitioning  system  in  general. 

\o.  It  was  in  the  year  1,773  that  the  division  was  finally  agreed 
to,,  and  settled,  and  even  sanctioned  by  the  Polish  diet.  Of  some- 
what more  than  thirteen  thousand  square  German  leagues  of  terri- 
tory, the  partitioning  powers  took  a  good  third,  taking  at  the  same 
time  no  measures  to  lessen  the  evils  arising  from  the  defective  con- 
stitution of  Poland,  in  the  portion  allotted  to  the  natives,  it  must 
be  acknowledged,  that  they  bestowed  great  pains  on  the  improve- 
ment of  their  respective  shares ;  but  no  benehls  of  *his  nature,  con- 
ierred  on  particular  parts  of  the  country,  could  compensate  lor  the 
unfeeling  depredations  committed  upon  the  whole. 

14.  Tne  following  has  been  given  as  a  fair  represenlation  of  the 
parts  allotted  to  the  several  powers,  by  the  delegates  appointed  to 
adjust  the  respective  claims.  Other  accounts,  indeed,  are  extant, 
which  it  would  be  ditficult  to  attempt  to  reconcile  with  the  one 
we  are  about  to  give ;  a  veiy  exact  statement,  however,  may  not 
be  necessary.  I'he  Russian  allotment  consisted  of  Polish  Livonia, 
parts  of  the  palatinytes  of  Witepsk,  Polotsk,  and  Minsk,  and  the 
whole  palatinate  of  Micislaw,  containing  a  population  of  1,500,000 
souls.  The  king  of  Prussia  obtained  the  district  called  Royal,  or 
Western  Prussia,  excepting  the  towns  of  Dantzic  and  Thorn,  with 
a  population  of  860,000  souls.  Austria  gained  a  large  territory  in 
the  south  of  Poland,  comprising  Red  Russia,  Gallicia,  and  parts  of 
.he  palatinates  of  Cracow,  Sandomir,  Lublin,  Bezk,  Volhynia,  and 
Podolia,  containing  a  population  of  2,500,000  souls,  and  the  valuable 
salt-woks  of  Vielitzka,  which  prodticed  an  annual  revenue  of  X90,000. 
This  district  was  annexed  to  the  Austrian  teriitories,  under  the  an- 
cient appellation  of  the  kingdoms  of  Gallicia  and  Lodomeria,    Sucb 


368                            MODERN  HISTORY.  \ 

were  the  re&ults  of  what  is  now  distinguished  by  the  name  of  the  j 

FIRST  partition  of  Poland.  j 

15.  The  hi  tie  assistance  Poland  received  to  ward  off  the  disgrace  I 
and  misery  of  this  first   partition,  the  extraordinary   apathy  with  ) 
which  it  seemed  to  be  beheld  by  the  other  powers  of  Europe,  letl  i 
little  hopes  of  her  regeneration,  or  escape  from  the  toils  into  which 
she  had  fallen ;  nor  indeed   has  she  ever  escaped  from  them,  or  ; 
recovered   the   smallest  degree  of  independence.     After  the  tirst 
partition,  the  object  she  had  most  to  dread  was  some   accidental 
disunion  of  the  partitioning  powers,  who  would  be  sure  to  wreak 
their  vengeance  upon  her;  and  an  event  of  this  very  nature  seems 
to  have  been  the  cause  of  what  has  been  called  the  second  parti- 
tion, in  1,7J.3.     Russia  and  Austria,  in  the  years  1,787  and  1,788,  by  j 
too  close  an  alliance,  having  given  umbrage  to  the  king  of  Prus-sia,  i 
he  insisted  that  the  constitution  lormed  for  Poland,  in  1,773,  was  ' 
void,  and  oiTered  to  assist  the  Poles  in  framing  a  new  one,  which  ' 
was  completed  under  his  auspices.  May  3,  1,791.     Had  this  consti-  j 
tution  been  able  to  keep  its  ground,  Poland,  so  much  of  it  at  least  i 
as  remained  to  the  natives,  might  have  recovered  some  degree  of  j 
credit  and  iVeedom;   it  was  in  a  great  measure  the  work  of  real  j 

f>atriots,  enlightened  and    moderate    reformers ;    it  abolished   the  j 
tbsriun  veto,  and  the  elective  monarchy,  except  in  the  case  of  the  ': 
extinction  of  some  hereditary  dynasty;  it  rendered  the  person  of  j 
the  king  inviolable,  but  gave  him  responsible  ministers ;  it  pro\id-  1. 
cd  a  representative  senate,  not   much  difTering  from  tlie  Lngiish  'i 
house    of  commons.      Unhappily,   this   good   ^vork   found   enemies  1 
amongst  the  ancient  nobles,  who  did  not  like  to  give  up  their  pre- 
tensions to  royalty,  and  who    had  recourse  to  the  old  and  ruinous  ; 
expedient  of  inviiing  foreign  help,  always  at  h;md  to  avail  itself 
of  the  internal  commotions  of  that  devoted  country.      Russia  was 
called  in,  by  the  confederates  of  Targovitz,  and  a  renewal  of  losses 
and  calamities  ensued  of  course.     The  king  of  Prussia,  so  far  I'rom  ' 
supporting  the  new  constitution,  the  diet,  or  the  king,  as  he  seem-  1 
ed  absolutely  bound  to  do,  by  his  own  acts,  eagerly  seized  upon  the  | 
towns  of  Dantzic  and  Tlioni,  which  had  been  specially  excepted  ■ 
in  the  last  partition,  joined  the  czarina,  in  her  efforts  against  the  i 
patriots,  under  tb?  brave  Kosciusko,  and  finally  succeeded  in  pre-  ! 
vailing  over  a  cou\itry,  which,  from  the  enthusiasm  and  spirit  dis-  ! 
played  on  this  occasion  in  her  defence,  deserved  a  better  fate.     By  | 
the  second  partition,  in  1,793,  Russia  is  said  to  have  acquired  4,U00  \ 
German  square  miles  of  territory,  in  Volhynia,  Lithuania,  Podolra,  ^ 
aud  the  Ukraine  ;   and  Prussia,  besides  the  towns  of  Dantzic   and  i 
Thorn,  1,000  square  miles  in  south  Prussia,  with  all  the  Hanseaiic  " 
towns.     A  i/imi  and  last  partition  soon  Ibllowed,  in  the  year   1.795,  ! 
between  Russia,  Prussia,  and  Austria,  which  may  be  said  to  have  ' 
put  an  end  to  the  kingdom  and  republic  of  Poland ;  Stanislaus,  its 
unhappy  monarch,  being  removed  to  Russia,  where  he  soon  after  ■;, 
died,  February  12,  1,798.    In  this  last  partition,  Cracow  was  given  ' 
to  Austria,  and   VVarsaw  to  Prussia.     From  the   resistance  of  the  j 
natives,  who  gained  greater  advantages  in  many  engagements  than  3 
could  have  been  expected  from  the  nature  of  their  force,  the  slaugh- 
ter accompanying  tnese  latter  revolutions  was  dreadful,  and  on  the 
part  of  the  Russians  attended   with  circumstances  of  cruelty  too  j 
much  resembling  what  had  taken  place  in  1,772.  i 

16.  It  would  be   dilTicuit  to  describe  the  state  of  Poland,  from  ] 
the  period  of  the  last  parhtim,  in  li,795,  to  the  treaty  of  Vienna,  in 


MODERN  HISTORY.  3C9 

1,815.  The  injuries  the  natives  had  experienced  at  the  hands  of 
the  three  partitioning  powers  very  naturally  disposed  them  to  hc- 
cept  any  offers  from  the  enemies  of  their  oppressors;  and,  as  Buo- 
naparte had  frequent  opportunities  of  making  such  ofl'ers,  it  is  not 
tooe  wondered  that  he  should  have  obtained  tlieir  assistance,  and 
subjected  them,  more  or  less,  to  his  government  and  control ;  liut 
as  he  was  only  at  times  in  opposition  to,  and  as  often  allied  with 
one  or  other  of  the  three  powers,  Russia,  Austria,  or  Prussia,  he 
was  never  able  to  propose  their  entire  emancipation,  even  if  he  had 
desired  it.  Thus  continually  deceived  and  mortified,  they  derived 
no  advantage  fi-om  the  aid  they  gave  to  France,  if  we  except  that  ten- 
dency towards  the  recovery  of  a  separate  existence,  (for  it  can 
scarcely  be  called  more,)  the  creation  of  the  grand  duchy  of  War- 
saw, in  1,807,  which,  by  the  treaty  of  Tilsit,  and  with  the  consent 
of  Buonaparte,  was  consigned  to  the  king  of  Saxony  ;  the  emperor 
of  Russia  at  the  same  time  acquiring  much  of  Poland  from  Prussia. 
In  1,812,  the  kingdom  was  declared  by  the  diet  of  Warsaw  to  be  re- 
established; and  by  the  treaty  of  Vienna,  in  1,815,  beirtg  formally 
delivered  up  by  the  king  of  Saxony,  it  became  annexed  to  Russia. 
and  was  declared  to  be, "  irrevocably  attached  to  it  by  its  constitution, 
to  be  possessed  by  his  majesty  the  emperor  of  all  the  Russias,  his 
heirs  and  successors  in  perpetuity."  The  part  assigned  to  Prussia 
took  the  name  of  the  grand  duchy  of  Posen.  The  salt-mines  of 
Vielitzka  vyere  confirmed  to  the  emperor  of  Austria,  and  such  dis- 
tricts as  had  been  acquired  by  the  treaty  of  Vienna,  in  1,809.  The 
town  of  Cracow  was  declared  to  be  for  ever  a  free,  independent,  aod 
strictly  neutral  city,  under  the  protection  of  Austria,  Russia,  and 
Prussia.  The  navigation  of  the  rivers  and  canals,  in  all  parts  of  an- 
cient Poland,  (as  it  existed  in  the  year  1,772,)  was  by  particular 
treaties,  between  Russia,  Austria,  and  Prussia,  declared  to  be  tree, 
so  as  not  to  be  interdicted  to  any  inhabitant  of  tiie  Polish  provinces, 
belonging  to  either  of  the  three  powers. 


SECTION  XX. 

GREAT    BRITAIN,   FROM  THE  PEACE  OF  AMIENS,    1,802,  TO 
THE  DEATH  OF  GEORGE  III.,  1,820. 

1 .  Before  one  year  had  passed  from  the  conclusion  of  the  peace 
of  Amiens,  circumstances  took  place  which  too  plainly  indicated  a 
strong  probability  of  the  renewal  of  hostilities,  and  so  early  as  the 
month  of  May,  1803,  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal  were  again  is- 
sued against  the  French,  by  the  British  government,  apparently 
with  the  full  consent  of  the  people  at  large,  notwithstanding  the 
enthusiastic  joy  which  had  been  expressed  on  the  termination  of 
the  war  in  the  year  preceding.  It  was  upon  this  occasion  that  the 
first  consul  had  recourse  to  a  measure,  singular  in  its  nature,  and 
which  exposed  many  persons  and  families  to  great  inconvenience. 
He  forcibly  detained  all  the  English  who  happened  to  be  in  Franco, 
not  only  for  purposes  of  business,  but  of  pleasure  or  curiosity  ;  nor, 
with  very  few  exceptions,  were  any  of  them  able  to  return  to  their 
native  country,  for  the  long  space  of  ten  or  eleven  years.  Piepa- 
rations  also  were  made  for  the  invasion  of  England,  which  only  ex- 
eited  a  stronger  disposition,  on  the  part  of  the  latter  countrv.  to  pre^ 

47 


370  MODERN  HISTORY. 

pare  agaiast  such  attempts,  in  a  way  well  calculated  to  destroy  at 

once  ail  tlie  enemy's  hopes  and  prospects  of  success;  in  Ireland,  ] 

indeed,  a  new  conspiracy  was  set  on  loot,  which  was  supposed  to  i 

rest  on  some  promised  support  from  France  ;  but  this  was  denieil  by  ; 

tha  conspirators  themselves,  and  the  disturbance  soon  quelled,  with-  • 
out  spreading,  in  fact,  beyond  the  capital. 

2.  Though  the  king  of  Great  Britain  had  declared,  that,  with  j 
regard  to  his  electoral  states,  he  should  remain  neuter,  Buonaparte  i 
did  not  neglect  such  an  opportunity  of  wounding  his  feelings,  by  \ 
the  speedy  occupation  of  Hanover,  under  circumstances  peculiarly 
aggravating  to  the  people.  Early  in  the  month  of  June,  1,803,  the  j 
Hanoverian  troops  were  made  to  lay  down  their  arms,  and  engage  ■ 
not  to  serve  against  tlie  Frf^nch  without  a  previous  exchange. 

3.  Holland  was  still  too  much  under  subjection  to  France,  to  be  1 
permitted  to  remain  at  peace ;  letters  of  marque  were,  therefore,  | 
also  issued  against  the  Batavian  republic,  on  its  refusal  to  agree  to  a  i 
perfect  neutrality. 

4.  In  1,804,  a  change  of  ministry  in  England  brought  Mr.  Pitt  ; 
again  into  power,  at  a  moment  when  the  affairs  of  the  continent^  ' 
and  the  increased  power  of  the  iirst  consul,  who,  in  the  course  ot  ^ 
the  same  month,  assumed  the  imperial  dignity,  demanded  all  his  s 
attention.  Before  the  conclusion  of  the  year,  the  aid  which  Spain  t 
was  compelled  to  render  to  the  French,  together  with  certain  ap-  ; 
pearances  of  hostile  preparations  in  her  ports,  eiuposed  her  to  an  \ 
attack  on  the  part  ot  Great  Britain,  which  soon  drew  from  her  a  , 
declaration  of  war,  very  fatal  to  her  interests,  though  scarcely  to  j 
be  avoided,  considering  the  circumstances  in  which  she  had  been  ■ 
placed  by  the  extraordinary  proceedings  and  demands  of  the  British  ; 
government,  which  was  supposed  to  have  violated  the  strict  rules  i 
of  justice,  if  not  of  international  law,  by  arbitrarily  and  prematurely  | 
seizing  her  treasure-skips,  on  their  passage  to  her  ports,  in  an  action 

{>erfectty  unforeseen  and  unexpected,  and  in  which  many  Uves  were  i 
ost. 

6.  But  if  the  character  of  the  British  nation  or  government  suf-  ^ 

fered  in  any  respect  trom  errors  or  mistakes  in  the  commencement  j 

of  the  war,  its  naval  power  and  credit  were  nighly  advanced  he-  { 

fore  a  year  had  passed,  by  the  splendid  victory  obtained  over  the  ', 

Spanish  and  French  fleets  combined,  ofl'  cape  Trafalgar,  in  Octo-  \ 

ber,  1,805;  a  victory  not  achieved,  however,  without  a  correspon-  ; 

dent  loss,  as  has  been  before  stated,  in  the  death  of  the  very  cele-  ■', 
brated  lord  Nelson,  commander  of  the  British  squadron,  who  fell 

early  in  the  action,  and  whose  body,  being  afterwards  brought  to  ^ 

England,  was  buried  with  very  unusual  honours  in  the  centre  of  i 
St.  t'aut'?  cathedral. 

6.  In  1,806  died  Mr.  Pitt;  a  minister  whose  extraordinary  talents  i 

and  integrity  of  life  attached  to  him  many  friends  and  adherents,  . 

by  whom  he  was  ably  supported  through  a  very  arduous  contest ;  \ 

a  contest  which,  though  some  thought  it  might  have  been  avoided,  i 

others  ;is  contidently  regarded  as  entirely  just  and  necessary,  and  ; 

a  tmiely  security  against  the  propagation  of  revolutionary  princi-  I 

f)les,  more  threatening  and  dangerous  than  any  aggressions  purely  .; 
lostile.     It  is  always  easy  to  say,  such  and  such  events  would  not 

have  happened,  had  a  different  course  from  the  one  actually  adopted  [ 

been  pursued ;  but  this  is  at  best  mere  matter  of  surmise.     It  is  im-  j 

possible  now  to  speak  decisively  of  what  might  or  might  not  have  j 

been  the  conBequences  of  a  longer  forbearance  from  war ;  it  is  ck-  j 


MODERN  HISTORY  37 

tremely  certain  that  many  untoward  circumstances  prevented  the 
accomplishment  of  all  that  Mr.  Pitt  had  in  view,  and  that  the  }.c>\\er 
ot'  the  French  emperor,  instead  of  being  checked,  was  advancing 
with  rapid  strides  to  a  pitch  of  uncontrollable  and  extended  domin- 
ion, when  the  former  was  seized  with  that  illness  which  terminated 
his  life,  in  the  forty-seventh  year  of  his  age.  On  his  death,  a  new 
administration  was  formed,  including  his  great  parliamentary  oppo- 
nent, Mr.  Fox,  who  survived  him  for  the  short  space  of  only  seven 
months.  It  is  highly  creditable  to  the  character  of  the  British  nation 
to  record,  that  these  two  eminent  statesmen,  who  had  been  tor  a  long 
time  so  much  opposed  to  each  other,  but  whose  abilities  and  sinceri- 
ty in  an  opposite  line  of  politics  appear  to  have  been  duly  acknowl- 
edged and  appreciated  by  all  parties  at  the  period  of  their  deaths, 
were  buried  at  the  public  expense,  in  Westminister  Abbey,  so  near 
to  each  other,  that  one  stone  might  have  covered  the  remains  of 
both. 

7.  During  the  short  time  that  Mr.  Fox  was  a  member  of  adminis- 
tration, fresh  attempts  were  made  to  terminate  the  war,  by  negotia- 
tion, but  in  vain.  1  hough  the  E'rench  emperor  would  have  agreed 
to  many  cessions  of  importance,  both  to  Great  Britain  and  her 
ally,  the  emperor  of  Russia,  it  was  I'ound  impossible  to  detach  from 
his  influence  and  usurped  authority  some  of  the  most  important 
parts  of  Europe,  particularly  Holland,  Switzerland,  Italy,  and  Ger- 
many. 

8  The  system  so  generally  adopted  by  the  tyrant  of  France,  of 
converting  to  his  own  use  the  resources  of  all  other  counti'ies, 
which  could  in  any  manner  be  rendered  subservient  to  his  purpose, 
led  the  administration  which  succeeded  that  in  which  Mr.  Fox  had 
a  share,  to  set  on  foot  an  expedition  v*hich  has  been  judged  by 
many  incapable  of  justification  on  any  principles  of  political  expe- 
diency, and  which  was  unfortunately  attended  with  more  iiital  con 
sequences  than  were  at  first  perhaps  contemplated.  Upon  what  in- 
formation the  ministry  proceeded  did  not  fully  appear  at  the  time, 
but  it  was  alleged  that  they  had  reason  to  know  that  tlie  French  ruler 
designed  to  occupy  Holstein,  and  convert  to  the  purposes  of  an  in- 
vasion of  the  British  dominions  the  Danish  marine. 

9.  It  was  determined,  in  order  to  prevent  such  an  accession  to  the 
naval  power  of  France,  to  obtain  possession  of  the  tleet  on  which  the 
enemy  had  thus  fixed  his  view,  and  though  it  might  perhaps  have 
been  both  hoped  and  expected  by  the  British  government,  that  the 
Danes  would  be  brought  peaceably  to  surrender  into  their  hands 
for  a  time  a  fleet  thus  devoted  to  the  ruin  of  a  friendly  power,  yet 
the  result  turned  out  to  be  far  otherwise.  The  Danes  resisted  the 
demand,  and  though  quite  unable  effectually  to  defend  against  the 
forces  opposed  to  them  either  their  fleet  or  their  capital,  did  not 
capitulate  till  about  two  thousand  persons  had  lost  their  lives,  and 
many  houses  been  burut  in  a  manner  that  threatened  the  entire  de 
struction  of  the  city.  The  end,  it  is  true,  was  accomplished,  ol"  get- 
ting into  the  power  of  the  English  all  the  Danish  ships  of  war.  (eigh- 
teen ships  of  the  line  and  fifteen  frigates,)  and  naval  stores ;  but  it  is 
to  be  feared  that  it  will  be  long  before  the  irritation  caused  by  this 
sudden  and  unexpected  attack  on  a  brave  people,  not  at  war  with 
England,  will  be  allayed  or  forgotten. 

10.  In  vindication  of  the  suspicions  of  the  British  ministry,  it  was 
asserted  that  the  Danish  marine  and  ai-senals  were  found  in  a  state 
which  left  no  doubt  of  the  intrigues  and  agency  of  th^  Erench,  aC' 


372  MODERN  HISTORY. 

cording  to  the  judgment  of  the  officers  and  seamen  employed  in  the 
expedition.  The  general  designs  of  France  seem,  indeed,  to  have 
been  decisively  manifested,  in  the  measures  they  now  openly  pur- 
supi],  ahout  the  same  time,  of  appropriating  to  themselves  the  fleet 
of  i^ortugal,  and  for  similar  purposes,  but  which,  fortunately  without 
so  melancholy  a  catastrophe,  was  rescued  from  the  grasp  of  the 
French  ruler,  by  its  timely  removal,  under  the  protection  of  a  Briii:<h 
armament,  to  the  ports  of  Brazil.  The  difierence  between  tlit-.  two 
cases  seemed  to  be  this ;  that  in  getting  possession  of  the  latter  tieet 
we  were  actually  assisting  an  ally;  in  the  former,  we  were  c«im- 
pelling  a  neutral  to  adopt  a  measure  judged  to  be  unnecessary  on  her 
part,  and  on  suspicions,  the  grounds  ol  which  she  disavow'ed;  but  tSie 
state  of  Europe,  at  that  period,  appears  to  have  been  such,  especially 
with  regard  to  the  minor  states,  as  to  justify  precautions  against 
French  power  and  French  intrigue,  seldom,  if  ever,  resorted  to  in 
other  instances:  it  may  also  be  added,  that  Portugal  unreservedly 
communicated  to  England  the  avowed  designs  of  France  ;  Denmark, 
to  Siiy  the  least,  acted  with  a  reserve  far  from  friendly,  and  resisted 
all  negotiation ;  the  consequences  to  the  latter,  however,  were  cer- 
tainly deplorable. 

11.  It  was  in  the  year  1,807,  that  the  royal  family  of  France,  ' 
whose  situation  on  the -continent  became  every  day  more  alarming 
and  insecure,  took  refuge  in  England ;  they  hxed  their  residence  at 
Hartweli,  in  Buckinghamshire,  bis  majesty  styling  himself  the  count    ^ 
tie  Lisle,  jmd  modestly  declining  all  honours  and  attentions,  beyond 
such  as  might  be  due  to  a  private  nobleman.  '. 

12.  The  vindictive  measures  adopted  by  the  French  government  ^ 
to  ruin  the  trade  and  commerce  of  Great  Britain,  naturally  drew  ; 
from  the  latter  retaliatory  expedients,  which  were  more  or  less  ap-  1 
proved,  as  affecting  neutral  and  friendly  powers,  but  which  could  j 
scarcely  have  been  avoided,  without  surrendering  her  maritime  \ 
rights,  and  submitting  to  a  pretence  of  blockade  on  the  pai-t  of  a  ; 
power,  whose  ships  had  been  fairly  driven  from  the  sea  by  the  J 
feritish  fleets.  Orders  in  council  were  issued  in  the  months  of  Janua- 
ry and  November,  1,807,  not  only  prohibiting  all  trade  between  the  j 
ports  of  France  and  its  aUies,  but  ultimately  compelling  ail  neutrals, 
trading  to  France,  to  stop  at  a  British  port,  and  pay  a  duty  in  proi>or-  i 
tion  to  the  value  of  the  cargo.  These  embanassments  to  trade  in  ■ 
general  could  not  fail  to  excite  great  uneasiness  in  all  parts  of  the  ] 
world  ;  but  the  commencement  of  them  is  justly  to  be  imputed  to  the  : 
extraordinary  decree,  issued  by  the  French  ruler  at  Berlin,  (the  basis  ^ 
of  the  "  continental  system,")  November,  1,806,  an  account  of  which  : 
is  given  in  Sect.  XVI. :  unfortunately  the  impossibility  of  satisfactorily  ' 
exempting  other  states  from  the  eft'ect  of  these  prohibitory  and  : 
regulating  decrees,  on  the  part  of  the  two  rival  countries,  involved  ; 
Bbgland  in  a  very  unpleasant  dispute  with  the  United  States  ot  .: 
America.  j 

13.  Of  the  part  England  took  in  the  affairs  of  Spain  and  Portugal,  ; 
from  1 ,808  to  1,814,  an  account  is  to  be  found  elsewhere.  (See  Sect.  ; 
XVII.)  It  may  be  sufficient  to  say,  that,  during  the  whole  contest,  : 
the  emancipation  of  those  two  ancient  kingdoms  from  tbe'^ower  of  ^ 
the  French  seemed  to  be  contemplated  by  the  whole  mass  of  BrjUish  ,' 
subjects  as  their  own  cause.  The  people  of  Great  Britain  and  Ire-  i 
land,  on  the  first  application  for  assistance  from  Spain,  appeared  ] 
ready  to  rise  in  a  body.  They  hailed  the  dawn  of  liberty  on  the  i 
continent  with  the  most  enthusiastic  feelings.    The  deputies  from  the 


MODERN  HISTORY.  373 

supreme  junta  of  Seville,  did  not  arrive  in  England,  on  their  mission 
to  the  British  government,  till  the  24th  ol"  July,  l,u08 ;  but  i«.i;^  be- 
fore that,  other  deputies  from  the  principality  of  Asturias  Lad  been 
received  in  London,  with  the  most  cordial  tokens  of  esteem  and 
friendship.  They  were  splendidly  entertained  by  the  City  of  Lon- 
don, the  Bank,  and  other  public  bodit^>,  as  well  as  by  individual!':  of 
the  highest  distinction.  Subscriptions  were  opened  in  Londi^i,  Liver- 
pool, Bristol,  Glasgow,  Edinburgh,  iJublin,  Cork,  Waierlord,  and 
many  other  places,  for  supporting  the  cause  of  Spain  ;  and  several 
miiitary  corps,  militia,  and  volunteers,  ofiered  their  services.  Go'\  erri- 
ment  supplied  them  immediately  with  three  hundred  thousand  pouiids 
in  dollars,  live  thousand  muskets,  thirty  thousand  pikes,  and  an  im- 
mense quantity  of  powder  and  balls,  w  ith  proniises  of  more  effectual 
aid,  whicli  were  ultimately  amply  fuUilied.  The  spirit  thus  dispi;;y- 
ed  by  the  British  public,  on  the  first  certain  intelligence  received  of 
the  anti-gallican  insurrection  in  Spain,  may  he  said  to  have  continueci 
unab;;ted  till,  through  the  matchless  skill  and  valour  of  the  confee-*-- 
rate  armies  under  the  duke  of  Wellington,  the  French  were  iinaliv 
driven  from  the  peninsula  in  1,814,  as  I'elated  in  our  account  of 
.'^^.ain. 

14.  His  majesty  George  IIL,  having,  in  the  month  of  Goto!  rr, 
1,809,  entered  upon  the  50th  year  of  bis  reign,  the  event  wascr-ir- 
biated  throughout  (he  nation  in  a  very  striking  manner,  by  servics 
of  tiianksgiving  in  all  the  churches  and  cliapeis,  with  suitable  dis- 
courses, illuminations,  feasts,  and  other  testimonies  of  joy,  but  parti- 
ctilarly  by  liberal  benefactions  to  the  poor.  In  the  month  ol'Novon-- 
her  ill  the  following  year,  his  majesty,  much  troubled  and  afflicted  by 
the  long  illness  and  death  of  his  daughter  the  princess  Amelia,  bad 
an  alarming  return  of  his  former  complaint,  which  terminated  iu  a 
second  suspension  of  his  regal  functions,  and  frcm  which  he  never  fo 
sullicienlly  recovered  as  to  be  abie  to  transact  any  business  of  state. 
(On  the  i^Oth  of  December^  his  royal  highne?s  the  pritice  of  Wales 
v\as  appointed  regent,  subjiect  for  a  period  to  restrictions  similar  !o 
those  which  had  been  proposed  in  1,788-9.  This  plan  was  violently 
opposed,  as  unconstitutional  and  impolitic,  but  finally  carried  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1,811.  The  bill  was  completed  and  presented  to  his  royal 
highness,  who  did  not  hesitate  to  accept  the  trust,  though  not  without 
remonstrating  against  the  limitations  and  restrictions  imposed  on  him.. 
Early  in  1,812,  however,  these  restrictions  were  to  cease.  Great 
changes  in  administration  had  been  contemplated,  and  many  negotia- 
tions were  carried  on  to  this  effect,  but,  without  accomf  lishiu^  that 
union  and  coalition  of  parties,  which  the  regent  fimseil  seemed  to 
desire.  Not  being  disposed  to  withhold  his  confidence  therelore  from 
those  who  had  so  long  served  his  royal  father,  most  of  them,  on  (he 
termination  of  (be  restrictions,  were  continued  in  their  places.  A 
most  melancholy  catastrophoj  which  occurred  in  the  month  of  May, 
1,812,  deprived  the  nation  of  the  services  of  Mr.  Percival,  who  was 
assassinated  in  tlie  lobby  of  the  house  of  commons,  by  a  pei'son  of" 
the  name  of  Bellingham,  in  revenge,  as  he  himself  stated,  of  a  pri- 
vate injury  ;  a  denial  of  justice,  as  he  called  it,  on  the  part  of  govern- 
ment. It  seemed  to  be  accidental  that  the  premier  happened  to  be 
the  individual  first  presented  to  his  notice  on  (hat  fatal  day. 

[The  paragraphs  15  and   16  of  Dr.  Nares'  work,  giving  a  vfry 
short  account  of  the  differences  betoveen  the  English  and  Americiii 
governments  in  1,812,  13,  14,  and  15,  are  omitted.     For  a  more  par- 
ticular, and  we  trust  more  impartial  account  of  the  war  between 
1  i 


374  MODERN  HISTORY. 

Great  Britain  and  the  United  States,  the  reader  is  referred  to  Section 
VI.  of  Part  Fourth,  near  the  close  of  this  volume.] 

17.  The  year  1,814,  will  ever  be  memorable  in  the  English  histo- 
ry, for  the  very  extraordinary  influence  of  foreigners  of  the  highest 
distinction,  from  the  opposite  shore,  on  the  downfal  of  Buonaparte, 
and  the  conclusion  of  a  war,  which  had  agitated  the  whole  of  Eu- 
rope. The  list  of  visitors  invited  to  the  grand  civic  feast  given  by  . 
the  corporation  of  London,  and  all  of  whom  were  present,  but  a 
very  few,  whom  illness  kept  away,  may  convey  some  idea  of  the 
splendid  scenes  that  took  place  in  diflerent  parts  of  the  kingdom 
in  honour  of  these  illustrious  guests.  It  was  on  the  18th  of  June, 
that  the  dinner  was  given  to  the  following  very  exalted  person- 
ages : 

The  Prince  Regent  ;  the  Emperor  of  Russia  ;  his  sister,  the  Grand 
Duchess  of  Oldenburgh,  (afterwards  Queen  of  Wirtemburg  ;)  the 
King  of  Prussia;  the  Royal  Dukes  of  England  :  the  Prince  Royal  of 
Prussia ;  Prince  William  of  Prussia,  son  of  the  king  ;  Prince  Freder- 
ick^ nephew  of  the  king;  Prince  Henry,  brother  of  the  kin?;  Prince 
William^  brother  of  the  king ;  Prince  Augustus,  the  king's  cousin  ; 
the  Prlnce  of  Orange  ;  the  Prince  Royal  of  \Virtemburg ;  the  Prince 
Royal  of  Bavaria  ;  the  Prince  of  Oldenburg ;  the  Prince  of  Cobourg  ; 
Prince  Charles  of  Mecklenburgh;  DuiiE  of  Saxe  Weimar;  Prince 
Gagarina;  Prince  Czeretorinke ;  Prince  Radzivil ;  Marshal  Prince 
Blucher ;  Prince  Hardenburg ;  Prince  Metternich ;  Prince  Lichten- 
stein ;  Prince  and  Princess  Volkouske;  his  highness  the  Duke  of 
Orleans. 

These  illustrious  foreigners  were  entertained,  at  great  cost  and  ex- 
pense, during  their  stay,  both  by  the  court  and  public  bodies:  tiie 
prince  regent  accompanied  them  on  a  visit  to  the  university  of  Ox- 
ford ;  and  to  Portsmouth,  where  they  had  an  opportunity  of  witness- 
ing a  naval  review. 

18.  In  May,  1,816,  the  heiress  to  the  British  crown,  princess  Char- 
lotte, only  child  of  the  regent,  was  married  to  his  serene  highness 
Leopold  George  Frederic,  prince  of  Cobourg.,  This  marriage  was 
contemplated  by  the  nation  as  an  object  of  the  highest  hopes ;  and 
for  several  months  the  amiable  and  exemplary  conduct  of  her  royal 
highness  cheered  the  people  with  the  brightest  prospects  of  future 
good  ;  but  a  veir  sudden  and  unexpected  disappointment  took  place 
in  the  month  of  November,  1817;  the  princess  was  delivered  of  a 
still-bom  male  infant,  and  survived  her  delivery  only  a  few  hours. 
Nothing  could  exceed  the  concern  manitiested  by  the  public  on  this 
melancholy  and  distressing  occasion. 

In  the  month  of  November,  in  the  following  year,  her  majesty 
queen  Charlotte  died  at  Kew,  after  a  long  and  painful  illness ;  and  on 
the  29th  of  January,  1820,  was  followed  by  her  royal  consort  king 
George  III.)  His  majesty  died  at  the  castle  of  Windsor,  at  a  very 
advanced  age,  and  in  the  sixtieth  year  of  his  reign ;  greatly  beloved 
by  his  subjects,  and  universally  respected  for  his  many  amiable  and 
royal  virtues. 


MODERN  HISTORY.  375 


SECTION  XXI. 

FRANCE,  FROM  THE  ENTRANCE  OF  THE  ALLIES  INTO  PAR- 
IS, MARCH,  1,814,  TO  THE  FINAL  EVACUATION  OF  IT  BY 
THE  FOREIGN  TROOPS,  1,818. 

1.  Soon  alter  Buonaparte  departed  for  Elba,  Louis  XVIII.  was 
freely  recalled  to  the  throne  of  his  ancestors ;  he  had  been  resident  ia 
many  places  since  his  first  emigration,  and  been  driven  trom  almost 
all,  by  the  approach  of  republican  troops,  the  dread  of  republican 
"vengeance  in  those  who  afforded  him  a  refuge,  and  not  unseldom  the 
fear  of  poison  or  assassination.  England,  at  length,  aftbrded  him  the 
asylum  he  sought  in  vain  elsewhere:  there  he  lived  secure  against 
French  armies,  French  intluence,  and,  as  far  as  Englishmen  could 
protect  him,  the  poisonous  drtig,  or  the  sword  of  the  assassin.  When 
the  way  was  opened  tor  him  to  return  to  his  native  country,  and  re- 
ceive the  crown  and  the  throne,  which  his  people  now  offered  him. 
but  whicl)  had  been  so  insulted  and  abused,  it  was  characteristic  ol 
Englishmen  to  rejoice  at  his  restoration,  and  at  the  great  change  pre^ 
pared  for  him,  from  a  state  of  banishment,  outlawry,  and  dependence, 
to  the  recovery  of  one  of  the  most  brilliant  thrones  of  Europe,  and 
from  which  his  unhappy  brother  had  fallen  in  a  way  to  excite  the 
sympathy  of  every  feeling  and  generous  mind :  his  departure  from 
England  to  France  was  accompanied  with  the  acclamations  and  sin- 
cere gratulations  of  all  ranks  of  people  the  prince  regent  personally 
escorted  him  not  only  to  London,  but  from  London  to  Dover;  and 
took  leave  of  him,  in  sight  of  the  French  coast,  in  a  manner  the 
most  affecting  and  impressive.  White  flags  were  exhibited  on  almost 
all  the  churches,  near  which  he  had  to  pass,  and  nothing  could  ex- 
ceed the  joy  expressed  upon  the  overthrow  of  Buonaparte,  and  the 
restoration  of  the  Bourbons,  both  in  England  and  France. 

2.  In  the  latter  country,  however,  it  may  be  naturally  supposed, 
the  joy  could  not  be  general,  nor  much  of  what  was  expressed  out- 
wardly, sincere  :  Louis  XVIIl.  returned  to  France,  not  as  it  was  when 
he  lett  it,  but  revolutionized;  it  had  undergone  great  changes,  and  a 
large  proportion  of  the  population  was  deeply  interested  in  those 
changes ;  yet  many,  who  returned  with  him,  were  quite  as  deeply 
int(;rested,  in  absolutely  reversing  what  had  passed,  restoring  what 
had  been  abolished,  reclaiming  what  bad  been  alienated,  if  not  even 
punishing  and  degrading  those  who  had  psviicipated  in  or  been  ben- 
efited by  such  revolutions. 

3.  In  the  mean  while  the  exiled  emperor  was  not  quiet;  he  was 
too  near  to  the  French  coast  to  be  kept  in  ignorance  of  what  was 

Eassing,  and  of  the  sentiments  entertained  towards  him,  by  those  who 
ad  participated  in  his  many  glorious  and  triumphant  achievements, 
and  who  could  ill  brook  the  degradation  to  which  they  might  be 
doomed  by  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons ;  the  army,  in  particular, 
to  whom  indeed  he  had  behaved  not  only  ill,  but  cruelly,  in  his  re- 
treat from  Russia  and  Leipzig,  had  yet  been  raised  by  him  to  such  a 
pitch  of  glory  and  pre-eminence,  as  might  reasonably  account  for  its 
feeling  both  disgust  and  resentment,  at  having  been  compelled  to  sub- 
mit to  the  intrusion  of  strangers  into  their  counti^  and  metropolis ; 
strangers,  whom  they  had  previously  been  able  not  only  to  defy  ai^ 
resist,  but  in  some  instances,  to  triumph  over  in  their  own  capitals. 


376  MODERN  HISTORY. 

4.  The  situation  of  the  king  of  France,  therefore,  on  his  return  to 
his  dominions,  however  acceptable  to  the  greater  part  of  Eui'ope, 
couki  scarcely  be  such  as  he  might  himself  wish  or  desire :  it  was 
inipo^^^ible  for  him  to  return  to  tbe  ancient  state  of  tbings;  and  he 
innst  have  foreseen  how  dithcult  it  would  be  to  render  any  new  con 
slitutinn  agreeable  or  suitable  to  all  parties.  The  senate,  indeed, 
h;',d  prepared  a  new  constitution  before  his  arrival;  one  which  bore 
n  c-'insiderable  analogy  to  that  of  England  ;  the  legislative  power  be- 
ing pl;!ced  ii)  the  hands  of  the  king,  the  senate,  and  the  representa- 
ti\  !>s  of  the  nation  at  large  ;  and  the  amount,  nature,  and  distribution 
<f  i!io  public  taxes,  left  exclusively  to  the  decision  of  the  latter:  the 
le[,u(ies  were  to  exercise  their  functions  for  the  space  of  live  years; 
ihe  dignity  of  senator  to  be  hereditary,  and  to  be  conferred  by  the 
Kin>;,  though  with  a  limitation  as  to  numbers,  which  were  not  to  ex- 
coed  200;  religious  freedom,  and  the  liberty  of  the  press,  were  duly 
^Kni.led  for :  this  constitution  was  to  be  presented  to  him,  to  be  ac- 
ce;>ted  previously  to  Ids  inauguration  ;  but  on  his  arrival  at  Paris,  he 
did  uot  choose  to  find  himself,  further  than  to  promise  his  people 
juch  a  consiilulion  as  they  would  have  no  reason  to  disapprove  :  his 
fjist  care  was,  to  arrange  matters  with  the  (oreign  potentates  who 
(H  cupied  his  capital,  so  as  to  be  able,  as  speedily  as  possible,  to  get 
rid  of  their  numerous  armies  ;  whose  presence  could  not  fail  to  be  a 
sni  jf'Ct  of  uneasiness  to  his  own  armies,  as  well  as  to  the  people  in 
general :  to  the  credit  of  the  troops  themselves,  under  such  extraor- 
dinary circumstances,  it  should  be  observed,  that  nothing  could  ex- 
rr>-?(\  the  order  and  tbrbearance  with  which  they  conducted  them- 
selves, as  victors,  in  a  capital,  which,  in  the  way  of  simple  retribu- 
(ioi<,  stood  fairly  exposed  to  plunder,  exaction,  and  devastation. 

5.  Though  it  was  soon  settled  to  refer  to  a  convention  at  Vienna 
the  hnal  ailjustment  of  matters,  and  arrangement  of  peace ;  yet 
trance  was  quickly  made  to  understand,  that  her  boundaries  must  be 
greatly  contracted,  and  that  the  independence  of  most  of  the  newly 
annexed  states  and  territories  must  be  freely  acknowledged  ;  to  these 
terms  both  the  king  and  his  minister,  prince  Talleyrand,  plainly  saw 
the  necessity  of  yielding,  though  the  pride  of  the  French  was  likely 
to  be  wounded  by  it. 

G.  On  the  4th  "of  June,  the  king  presented  to  the  senate  and  legis- 
lative body'liis  own  new  constitution,  waichdiffered  in  several  points 
from  tlr.it  submitted  to  him  on  his  arrival ;  it  reserved  to  himself  the 
right  of  proposuig  laws,  and  the  assembly  could  only  request  to  be 
peiiniltecl  to  discuss  particular  points;  instead  of  an  hereditary 
senate,  peers,  chosen  by  the  king  tor  life  were  to  compose  that  body, 
vvilliout  limitation  of  numbers  ;  the  popular  representatives  were  to 
consist  of  262,  not  under  40  years  ol  age  :  they  were  to  be  convoked 
every  year,  and  were  to  have  the  power  of  impeaching  the  minis- 
ters for  treason  or  extortion  ;  the  khig  was  to  appoint  the  judges,  and 
trial  by  jury  was  to  be  continued  :  the  press  was  placed  under  a  cen- 
sorship, and  an  order  was  given  lor  closing  the  theatres  and  shops  on 
the  sabbath ;  an  order  not  only  extremely  unpopular  at  the  time, 
but,  as  it  would  seem,  ineffectual.  In  nominating  the  senate,  some  of 
Buonaparte's  courtiere  and  marshals  were  included,  particularly 
Talleyrand,  who  became  minister  for  foreign  atfaii-s. 

7.  The  king,  who  from  the  first  commencement  of  the  revolution 
had  displayed  a  disposition  to  favour  the  rights  of  the  people,  more 
than  others  of  his  family,  or  the  chiefs  of  the  emigrants,  was  little 
likely  of  himseli'  to  deviate  from  the  principles  of  the  cpnetitutjon, 


MODERN  HISTORY.  377 

or  to  disturb  unnecessarily  the  existing  state  of  things,  in  which  so 
many  interests  were  involved,  but  he  was  supposed  to  have  around 
him  persons  still  bigotted  to  the  ancient  system,  and  anxious  to  re- 
cover all  that  tliey  liad  forfeited  by  the  course  of  the  revolution. 
Tliese  things,  together  with  the  dissatisfied  state  of  the  army,  paved 
the  way  for  the  return  of  Buonaparte. 

8.  The  probability  of  such  an  event  seems  to  have  been  strangely 
overlooked  by  th^se  who  were  most  interested  in  preventing  it :  the 
popularity  of  the  deposed  emperor  had  been  miscalculated.    On  the 

'4st  of  March,  1,815,  he  landed  once  more  on  the  shores  of  France, 
with  only  1,1-10  attendants;  an  attempt  which  many  judged  to  be 
altogether  hopeless,  yei,  (o  the  utter  surprise  of  those  who  thought 
so,  his  progress  towards  Paris,  though  not  unmolested,  aflbrded  him 
every  hour,  from  the  defection  of  the  troops  sent  against  him, 
stronger  hopes  of  recovering  his  authority.  On  the  20th  of  March 
the  king  was  persuaded  to  retire  from  Paris;  and  on  the  evening  of 
that  very  day  Buonaparte  entered  it,  being  hailed  by  the  populace, 
which  had  so  lately  sduted  the  return  of  the  Bourbons  in  the  same 
manner,  with  the  loudest  acclamations. 

9.  He  was  soon  convinced,  hovvever,  that  he  was  not  returned  to 
his  ancient  power,  and  that  lie,  quite  as  much  as  Louis  XV'III.,  would 
nnv  he  expected  to  gratify  the  people  with  a  free  constitution;  he 
speedily  therefore,  issued  some  popular  decrees,  establishing  the 
iVoedom  of  the  press;  abolishing  the  slave-trade;  and  regulating  the 
taxes  which  weighed  most  heavily  on  the  people ;  he  also  conde- 
scended to  offer  to  thfim  the  plan  of  a  constittitioii,  very  different  from 
the  system  of  despotism  upon  whicli  he  had  bel'ore  acted,  and  con 
taiaing  matiy  excellent  regulations:  he  had,  however,  but  little  time 
to  spare  for  legislative  measures.  A  mauitesto  of  expulsion  and  ex- 
termination had  been  issued  against  him  by  the  congress  at  Vienna, 
signed  by  the  plenipotentiaries  of  Austria,  Frauce,  Great  Britain. 
Russia,  Prus'-ia,  .Sweden,  Spain,  and  Portugal,  and  it  was  indispensably 
necessary  tor  him  lo  prepare  tor  war.  To  tiiis  manifesto  on  the  part 
of  the  allied  powers,  Hunnaparte  was  not  slow  in  dictating  and  present 
ing  to  Europe  a  count<ir  manifesto,  asserting  in  the  strongest  terms 
the  right  of  the  French  to  adhere  to  the  dynasty  they  had  chosen  on 
the  expulsion  uf  the  Bourbons;  and  declaring  that  the  contederate 
princes  had  hoen  the  tii-st  to  violate  the  treaty  of  Fontainebleau; 
but  it  is  remarkable  that,  though  Buonaparte  so  peremptorily  assert- 
ed, in  his  manifesto,  the  right  of  the  French  freely  to  choose  what 
dynasty  they  pleased  to  n^igti  over  them,  he  had  inserted  in  his  new 
constitution  an  article,  tot;dly,  and  for  ever,  to  exclude  the  Bourboa 
family  from  the  succession  to  the  throne. 

10.  it  was  not  till  .Fune  that  the  several  armies  were  prepared  to 
take  the  held,  and  between  the  15th  and  19th  of  that  month,  the  fate 
of  Europe  seemed  once  more  to  become  dependent  on  the  decision 
of  the  sword.  The  battle  of  Waterloo,  which  took  place  on  the  (18th 
of  June,  and  in  which  the  British  and  Prussian  armies,  under  the 
duke  of  Wellington  and  marshal  Blucher,  totally  defeated  the  French, 
etfecfually  put  an  end  to  all  the  hopes  and  prospects  of  Buonaparte. 
On  the  20th,  he  arrived  at  Paris,  the  lirst  of  his  fugitive  army ;  and 
in  a  very  few  days  alter,  was  compelled  a  second  time  to  resign  his 
usurped  dominions.  On  bis  retirement  from  Paris,  his  destination 
appeared  to  be  a  matter  of  extreme  doubt,  till  on  the  15th  of  July  he 
put  himself  into  the  hands  of  the  English  by  going  on  board  the  Bel- 
lerophon  man  of  war,  and  surrendering  himself  and  suit  uncundition- 

12  48 


378  MODERN  HISTORY. 

ally  to  captain  Maitland,  the  commander  of  that  ship,  who  sailed  im- 
mediately to  Torbay  with  his  prisoners,  none  of  whom  were  per- 
mitted to  land. 

11.  On  the  3d  of  July,  not  however  without  a  struggle  on  the  part 
of  the  French  army,  Paris  had  formally  surrendered  to  the  duke  of 
Wellington  and  prince  Blucher,  who  took  possession  of  it  on  the  7th, 
and  on  the  8th  the  king  returned,  greeted,  as  beibre,  with  the  cheer- 
ing and  acclamations  of  the  tickle  multitudes  who  thronged  the  roads 
by  which  he  had  to  pass.  By  the  terms  of  capitulation,  the  French 
troops  under  Pavoust  had  been  made  to  retire  beyond  the  Loire, 
which  they  did  with  sullen  indignation ;  but  on  the  arrival  of  the 
Austrians  and  Russians  at  Paris,  came  over  to  the  king.  It  was  very 
obvious,  that,  having  Buonaparte  once  more  in  their  power,  the  allies 
could  not  fail  to  provide  all  possible  precautions  against  his  return 
into  any  situation  which  might  afford  him  the  means  of  commu- 
nicating with  his  old  adherents,  and  thereby  resuming  the  station  he 
had  occupied  for  so  many  years,  to  their  extreme  annoyance.  The 
small,  rocky,  and  totally  detached  island  of  St.  Helena,  in  the  Atlantic 
ocean,  seemed  the  only  secure  place  of  abode  to  which  he  could  be 
assigned.  It  was  therefore  agreed  to  send  him  thither,  under  the 
Custody  of  the  British  government,  but  under  the  eye,  also,  of  com- 
missioners appointed  to  reside  there,  on  the  part  of  the  Austrian, 
Russian,  and  French  governments.  On  the  17th  of  October,  1,815, 
he  arrived  at  his  destined  residence. 

12.  Amongst  the  measures  adopted  by  the  military  commanders  of 
the  foreign  troops  at  Paris,  none  seemed  more  to  occupy  the  atten- 
tion of  Europe  than  the  determination  they  formed  to  restore  to  the 
places  which  had  been  robbed  of  them  the  valuable  works  of  art, 
which  the  victories  of  the  French  armies  had  put  into  their  posses- 
sion, not  merely  in  the  way  of  plunder,  but  upon  a  regular  system  of 
purloining  every  thing  which  could  add  to  the  splendour  and  great- 
ness of  their  own  capital,  however  grating  to  the  feeUngs  of  those 
from  whom  they  were  taken,  and  however  severely  it  must  have 
added  to  the  mortifications  they  had  been  doomed  to  suffer  from 
weakness  or  defeat.  The  justice  of  such  a  step  could  not  be  dis- 
puted, though  nothing  was  more  likely  to  excite  the  resentment  and 
indignation  of  the  French,  in  whose  hands,  it  must  be  acknowledged, 
had  they  been  properly  acquired,  they  were  likely  enough  to  be 
preserved  and  exhibited  to  the  world,  in  a  manner  the  most  condu- 
cive to  the  glory  and  immortality  of  the  illustrious  artists  to  whom 
they  owed  their  origin ;  but,  as  an  act  of  honourable  restitution,  in 
many  instances,  to  persons  and  places  whose  claims  would  otherwise 
have  been  mocked  and  derided,  the  interposition  of  the  two  victori- 
ous chiefs  upon  this  occasion  may  be  justly  admired.  Prince  Blucher, 
indeed,  had  a  direct  interest  in  reclaiming  the  spoils  of  Berlin  and 
Fotzdam,  but  the  duke  of  Wellington,  while  he  had  nothing  to  re- 
cover for  his  own  country,  freely  a«sisted  those  whose  pretensions  re- 
quired the  support  of  such  paramount  authority. 

13.  By  the  second  general  pacification  of  Paris  with  the  allies, 
November  20th,  1,815,  it  was  agreed  that  an  army  of  occupation, 
amounting  to  1 50,000  men,  and  to  be  maintained  in  a  great  measure 
by  France,  should  for  the  space  of  five  years  be  put  in  possession  of 
her  frontier  fortresses,  while  her  boundary  should  be  farther  reduced 
than  on  the  former  occasion ;  terms  sufficiently  mortifying,  but  justi- 
fied by  the  turbulent  and  unsettled  principles  of  the  French  nation. 
Though  the  period  of  five  years,  however,  had  been  specifically 


MODERN  HISTORY.  5T9 

agreed  to,  the  state  of  things  afterwards  appearing  such  as  to  justify 
he  allies  in  departing  from  the  exact  letter  of  the  treaty,  in  the 
spring  of  the  year  '1,817  they  consented  to  reduce  tiie  army  of  oc- 
cupation one  fifth,  and  in  the  autumn  of  1,818,  it  was  wholly  with- 
drawn from  the  French  territories,  and  the  fortresses  on  the  frontier 
restored. 


SECTION  XXII. 

NORTHERN  STATES  OF  EUROPE,  FROM  THE  CLOSE  OF  THE 

.      SEVENTEENTH    CENTURY. 

1.  Though  much  has  been  said  of  the  northern  courts  in  the  pre- 
ceding sections,  as  bearing  a  part  in  the  transactions  on  the  continent, 
during  the  hist  and  present  centuries,  yet  as  they  have  not  been 
mentioned  distinctly  and  particularly,  some  brief  account  of  them 
may  be  necessary,  to  give  a  clearer  view  of  the  course  of  events 
during  the  period  under  consideration. 

2.  Peter  the  great,  of  Kussu,  who  died  in  1,725,  (see  Sect.  LXVI. 
§  2.)  was  succeeded  by  his  widow,  Catherine  I.,  wno  survived  him 
only  two  years.  It  is  remarkable,  that  though  Peter  had  taken  par 
ticular  care  to  secure  to  the  reigning  monarch  a  power  of  naming 
his  successor,  he  should  himself  neglect  this  precaution ;  and  for 
such  ;m  omission  the  law  had  made  no  provision.  Catherine,  how- 
ever, had  httle  or  no  diiliculty  to  take  his  place.  She  was  a  woman, 
if  not  of  a  superior,  yet  of  rather  an  extraordinary  character;  had 
attended  Peter  in  his  travels  and  campaigns;  been  serviceable  to  him 
in  his  greatest  extremities;  often  checked  the  violence  of  his  pas- 
sions ;  and  manifested  a  disposition,  diu'ing  her  short  reign,  to  encour 
age  a  spirit  of  liberty  amongst  her  subjects,  and  to  promote,  in  every 
way  she  could,  the  progress  of  '.mprovement  and  civilization.  Her 
death  was  little  expected,  and  jxcited  some  suspicions  against  the 
prince  Menzicoff,  who  had  just  Dciociated  a  treaty  with  Austria,  and 
entered  into  a  stipulation  to  raise  the  son  of  the  unfortunate  prince 
Alexis  to  the  throne,  upon  the  condition  of  his  marrying  his  daughter. 

3.  The  empress  died  in  1,727,  and  was  succeeded  by  Peter  II., 
grandson  of  Peter  I.  Menzicoif,  however,  seemed  to  lake  into  his 
own  hands  the  reins  of  government,  till  he  was  supplanted  by  one 
of  the  Dolgorouki  family,  and  b;mished  to  Siberia,  with  his  wite  and 
children.  The  new  favourite  designed  to  marry  his  sister  to  the 
emperor;  but  on  January  29,  l,7oU,  Peter  died  of  the  small-pox. 
In  him  the  male  issue  of  the  line  becoming  extinct,  Anne,  duchess  ot 
Courland,  was  called  to  the  throne  through  the  influence  of  Dolgo 
rouki,  contrary  to  the  order  of  succession  established  by  Peter  I.,  and 
in  prejudice  of  her  elder  sister^  the  duchess  of  Mecklenburg.  They 
were  both  of  them  the  daugnters  of  Iwan,  the  eldest  brother  of 
Peter. 

4.  The  reign  of  Anne  was  prosperous  and  glorious;  she  showed 

S-eat  sagacity  and  firmness  in  resisting  the  intrigues,  and  balancing 
e  credit  of  rival  statesmen,  counsellors,  and  generals,  Russian  and 
foreign ;  maintaining  her  prerogatives  against  tlioae  who  sought  to 
invade  them,  to  turner  their  own  ambition,  particularly  Dolgorouki. 
who,  though  he  had  placed  her  on  fhe  throne,  was  disgraced  and 
banished  to  Siberia.  Anne  died  in  1,740,  leaving  the  crown,  by  her 
will,  to  her  grand-nephew  Iwan,  son  of  her  niece,  Anne,  priucess  of 


380  MODERN  HISTORY. 

Mecklenburg,  married  to  the  duke  of"  Brunswick  Bevem;  but  she 
appointed  lier  tavourite,  count  Biren,  whom  she  had  brought  with 
her  from  Courland,  regent. 

5.  This  last  arrangement  threw  things  into  the  utmost  confusion. 
Biren  was  deservedly  no  favourite  with  the  Russians,  more  than 
20,0U0  of  whom  he  is  said  to  have  sent  into  banishment;  he  liad, 
bes^ides,  a  powerful  rival  in  count  Munich,  the  conqueror  of  Ocza- 
kovv,  a  German,  and  a  man  of  singular  bravery  and  resolution ;  the 
latter  succeeded  in  dispossessing  the  regent  of  his  authority  in  favour  i 
of  the  mother  of  the  emperor.  Biren  was  sent  to  Siberia;  and  the 
princess  of  Mecklenburg  (duchess  of  Brunswick)  assumed  the  reins 
of  government ;  but  not  attending  sutliciently  to  the  duties  of  her 
high  station,  and  appearing  to  give  too  great  encouragement  to 
foreigners,  a  new  revolution  was  set  on  foot,  1o  place  on  the  throne 
the  youngest  daughter  of  Peter  the  great,  the  princess  Elizabeth. 
This  party,  supported  by  French  gold,  and  headetl  by  Lestocq,  a 
physician,  quickly  becoming  strong,  seized  upon  the  emperor  Iwan 
and  his  parents,  and  proclaimed  Elizabeth  empress  of  all  the  Russias. 
The  life  of  tiie  infant  Iwan  was  preserved  by  the  clemency  and  ex- 
press interposition  of  Elizabeth  ;  but  only  to  undergo  a  harder  fate. 
(See  below,  §  8.)  Munich  was  banished  ;  and  other  foreign  general', 
who  had  favoured  the  former  government,  either  shared  the  s:mie 
destiny,  o'*  contrived  to  escape  from  the  Russian  dominions.  The 
people  were  well  pleased  to  see  the  throne  rescued  from  the  hands 
of  forcigncs  in  favour  of  so  direct  a  claimant  as  the  daughter  ot 
Peter  the  great.  This  revolution  took  place  in  the  month  of  i\o- 
vember,  1,741. 

G.  Russia  dourished  under  the  sway  of  Elizabeth,  whose  reign  ex- 
hibited an  uninterrupted  career  of  glory  and  success ;  her  alliance 
was  courted  by  some  of  the  greatest  powers  in  Europe.  Before  her 
death,  which  happened  in  1,762,  she  took  care  to  restore  the  natural 
order  of  succession  in  her  family,  by  declaring  the  duke  of  Holsteiu 
Gottorp,  her  heir,  son  of  her  eldipst  sister,  and  who  became  emperor, 
on  her  demise,  by  the  tide  of  Peter  HI. 

7.  T'ds  unfortunate  prince  was  not  suffered  to  reign  long ;  he  had 
married  a  princess  of  Anhalt-Zerbst ;  a  woman  of  singular  character, 
pecuharly  fitted  to  avail  iierself  of  any  opportunities  that  might  offer  ^ 
in  so  unsettled  a  country,  to  gratify  her  amhilion,  and  give  scope  to  . 
her  abilities.  The  prince  had  not  beliaved  well  to  her,  and  many  :i 
things  concurred  to  render  him  unpopidiir,  if  not  hateful  to  his  sub-  •! 
jects;  particularly  an  enthusiastic  attachment  to  the  king  of  Prussia,  i, 
then  at  war  with  the  Russians,  and  pn.jtcted  innovations,  well-meant  ^ 
but  ill-timed,  some  particularly  affecting  the  clergy.  He  proposed  to  1 
circumscribe  the  power  of  the  nobles,  and  seemed  to  prefer  the  | 
Hoistein  troops  to  his  Russian  girard.  As  these  things  rendered  his  , 
removal  probable,  according  to  the  ordinary  course  of  proceedings  in  ;J 
(hat  semi-barbarous  country,  the  sagacious  Catherine  wiUingly  gave  r 
herself  up  to  a  party  who  had  conspired  against  her  husband.  It  is  j 
generally  conjectured  that  ^he  connived,  not  only  at  the  deposition,  i 
but  at  the  death  of  Peter,  who  survived  his  elevation  to  the  imperial  ' 
dignity  not  many  months ;  while  Catherine,  by  her  superior  address  j 
and  intrepidity,  not  oidy  succeeded  in  establis'hhig  herself  upon  the  j 
vacant  throne,  but  in  emancipating  herself  from  tl)e  domination  of  the  j 
party  to  whom  she  stood  indtttted  for  it,  (the  Orloffs.)  ' 

8.  One  competitor  still  seemed  to  stand  in  her  way, — the  unfortu-   \ 
note  Iwan, — wno  had  been  deposed  by  Elizabeth,  and  now  languished    i 


MODERN  HISTORY.  381 

in  confinement,  at  the  age  of  twenty-four.  Soon  after  Catherine's 
accession  he  was  slain  in  prison,  on  a  pretence  of  his  attempting  to 
escape,  but  under  circumstances  so  mysterious  as  to  involve  the  em» 
press  in  suspicion.  She  reigned  under  the  title  of  Catherine  II.  for 
l!ie  long  space  of  upwards  of  thirty -four  years,  continually  occupied 
ill  advancing  the  glory  of  her  people,  in  augmenting  her  dominions, 
aid  rewarding  merit.  She  obtained  many  signal  advantages  over  the 
Turks,  and  succceiled  (1,784)  in  wresting.from  them  the  whole  dis- 
trict of  the  Crimea ;  but  lier  designs  extended  much  farther,  even  to 
the  expulsion  of  the  Ottoman?,  and  restoration  of  a  Grecian  empire, 
having  for  its  capital  Athens  or  Constantinople  :  she  contemplated,  in 
short,  the  complete  triumph  of  the  Cross  over  the  Crescent.  An  ex- 
pedition was  even  undertaken  for  the  liberation  of  the  Greeks,  in 
the  year  1,770;  but  it  proved  intfi'ectual,  though  it  might  have  been 
otherwise,  had  the  Russian  commanders  consented  to  follow  the  ad- 
vice of  the  Scutch  admiral,  Elphinstone,  who  commanded  one  of  the 
divisions  of  the  fleet. 

0.  Catherine  bore  a  large  share  in  the  partition  of  Poland,  and 
seems  to  have  been  restrained  by  no  principles  of  justice,  humanity, 
morality,  or  virtue,  from  furthering  the  purposes  of  her  ambition  and 
policy :  her  prodigality  was  great,  her  largesses  enormous,  and  her 
love  of  magnificence  little  proportioned  to  the  smallness  of  the  im^ 
perial  revenue :  her  abilities  and  her  resolution  were  remarkable, 
and  she  may  be  considered  as  having  contributed  largely  to  the  im- 
provement and  glory  of  the  country  over  which  she  was  permitted 
so  long  to  bear  unlimited  rule.  Her  domestic  regulations  savoured 
little  of  the  despotism  displayed  in  her  foreign  enterprises :  she  miti- 
gated the  rigour  of  the  penal  laws,  abolished  torture  and  slavery, 
protected  the  arts  and  sciences,  and  endeavoured  to  elevate  the  mid- 
dle class  to  a  proper  degree  of  importance. 

10.  Catheriue  II.  was  succeeded  in  1,796  by  her  son  Paul  I.,  a 
strange  character,  unsettled  in  his  principles,  dissolute  in  his  manners, 
jealous,  vindictive,  and,  in  his  last  days,  scarcely  in  possession  of  his 
senses.  On  his  first  accession,  however,  he  wisely  endeavoured  to 
provide  against  the  evils  arising  from  an  unsettled  inheritance,  by 
enacting  a  law  to  secure  the  crown  to  his  lineal  and  direct  descen- 
dants, not  absolutely  excluding  females,  but  admitting  them  only  into 
the  line  of  succession  on  a  total  failure  of  male  heirs. 

11.  The  emperor  appeared  to  be  extremely  eager  to  secure  an 
entrance  into  the  Mediterranean,  and  was  highly  gratitied  with  being 
chosen  patron  of  the  order  ot  Malta,  which  he  consented  to  take 
under  his  protection  in  the  year  1,798.  He  had  been  induced  to  take 
a  part  in  the  war  against  the  French,  and  succeeded,  in  conjunction 
with  the  Turks,  in  getting  possession,  for  a  short  time,  of  the  Ionian 
islands  ;  a  Russian  army  was  also  sent  to  co-operate  with  the  Austri- 
ans,  under  the  command  of  the  celebratecl  Souwarow,  (or  Souvarofl,) 
who,  after  having  achieved  great  victories  in  Lombardy,  seems  to 
have  been  cruelly  abandoned  in  Swisserland,  ami  to  have  unjustly  in- 
curred the  displeasure  of  his  capricious  master.  A  misunderstanding 
between  the  English  and  Paul  on  the  subject  of  Malta,  entirely 
alienated  the  latter  from  the  confederacy.  In  the  mean  while,  his 
violent  conduct  had  induced  the  great  officers  of  state  and  the  nobility 
to  conspire  to  dethrone  him.  He  was  slain  in  defending  himself, 
during  a  conflict,  in  his  own  chamber,  March  24,  1.801 ;  and,  greatly 
to  the  joy  of  bis  oppressed  people,  succeeded  by  his  son  Alexander, 


382  MODERN  HISTORY. 

the  present  emperor,  of  whose  accession,  and  share  in  the  continental 
war,  an  account  has  already  been  given. 

1 2.  Prussu,  as  a  kingdom,  is  not  older  than  the  eighteenth  century, 
and  entirely  belongs  therefore  to  the  period  under  discussion.  Its 
history,  as  connected  with  the  electorate  of  Brandenburgh,  ascends 
its  high,  perhaps,  as  that  of  any  sovereignty  in  Europe.''  lt»  present 
power  may  be  said  to  have  taken  its  rise  from  the  wisdom,  judgment, 
and  good  sense  of  the  elector  Frederic-Wiliiam,  commonly  calfed  the 
great  elector,  \yho  had  Ducal  Prussia  confirmed  to  him  in  1,657,  and 
by  the  convention  of  Walau  and  Bromberg,  rendered  independent  ol 
the  crown  of  Poland,  of  which,  till  then,  it  had  been  a  tief.  In  the 
time  of  the  great  elector,  advantage  was  taken  of  the  unsettled  state 
of  Europe,  to  increase  the  population,  and  thereby  advance  the 
wealth  and  improvement  of  the  country  in  every  respect.  The 
revocation  of  th?  edict  of  Nantes  in  France,  1,685,  contributed  large- 
ly to  t!KS<^  ent.t^  the  Prussian  states  being  freely  set  open  to  the  ref- 
ugees of  all  descriptions;  an  act  of  mere  policy,  as  the  elector  him- 
self, tl)ough  tolerant,  %vas  extremely  devout  and  careful  of  the  privi- 
leges, and  even  exemptions  of  the  clergy. 

la.  The  elector,  Frederic-William,  died  in  1,688,  and  was  succeed- 
ed by  his  son  Frederic,  who,  through  the  influence  of  the  protestant 
states,  and  the  good-will  of  the  emperor  Leopold,  to  whom  he  had 
been  of  service  in  his  contest  with  France,  but  who  seems  to  have 
taken  such  a  step  with  little  judgment  or  consideration,  became  king 
ill  1,701,  and  died  in  1,71:3,  at  the  very  period  when,  by  the  treaty  of 
Utrecht,  his  regal  title  was  confirmed  and  generally  acknowledged 
by  the  other  states  of  Europe.  Frederic  1.  was  generous,  but  fickle, 
superstitious,  and  vain;  he  founded  the  University  of  Hall,  the  Royal 
Society  of  Berlin,  and  the  Academy  of  IVobles,  but  without  taking 
much  interest  in  their  concerns,  and  chiefly  at  the  instigation  of  his 
more  learned  consort,  the  princess  Charlotte  of  Hanover ;  he  man- 
aged, however,  to  augment,  by  many  acquisitions,  purchases,  and 
exchanges,  the  extent  o{  his  dominions. 

14.  His  successor,  Frederic-William  II.,  is  judged  to  have  done 
much  more  to  raise  the  credit  and  character  of  his  new  kingdom,  by 
excessive  prudence,  and  good  management,  .and  the  utmost  attention 
to  his  army  ;  whereby  he  not  only  repaired  the  losses  occasioned  by 
liis  lather's  extravagances,  but  amassed  great  treasures,  and  laid  the 
foundation  for  those  stupendous  miUtary  achievements,  which,  in  the 
next  reign,  advanced  Prussia  to  that  high  state  of  glory  and  eminence 
which  has  given  it  such  weight  in  the  political  scale  of  Europe. 
Frederic  abolished,  in  1,717,  all  the  fiefs  in  his  kingdom;  he  invited 
colonies  from  all  parts  to  settle  in  his  dominions.  Like  his  great  rred- 
ecessor  and  namesake,  he  established  military  schools  and  hospitals, 
but  he  was  no  friend  to  literature  ;  unpolished  in  his  manners,  and 
implacable  in  his  resentment.  He  added  to  the  dominions  of  Prussia, 
Stettin  and  the  greater  part  of  Swedish  Pomerania. 

15.  On  the  death  of  Frederic-William  11.,  in  1,740,  his  son,  (who 
is  sometimes  called  Frederic  11.,  to  distinguish  him  from  the  Frederic- 
Wiiiiams,  and  sometimes  Frederic  III.,)  came  to  the  throne.  Of  this 
monarch  so  much  is  known,  and  so  much  has  already  been  noticed 
and  recorded  in  the  other  sections  of  this  work,  that  we  have  little 
to  say  here,  but  that  he  managed  to  raise  a  scattered,  ill-sorted,  dis- 
jointed kingdom  into  the  first  rank  of  power  and  renown ;  that  he 
applied  himself  incessantly  to  promote  the  weltare  and  improvement 


MODERN  HISTORY.  383 

of  his  dominions,  to  augment  the  weaiUi  and  advance  the  civilization 
of  his  people,  though,  in  many  of  his  regnhitions  and  measures  to 
this  end,  he  erred  occasionally  as  his  predecessors  had  done,  for  want 
of  a  due  knowledge  of  some  of  the  tirst  principles  of  political  econ- 
omy, a  science  at  that  period  little  cultivated.  Frederic  daed  August, 
1,786,  in  the  seventy-tiith  year  of  his  age,  and  tbrty-seventh  of  l.is 
reign,  morq  admired  than  esteemed ;  more  disiinguished  for  bi'avery 
in  the  tield,  wisdom  in  the  cahiuet,  and  literary  attainments,  than  lor 
any  virtues  or  qualities  of  a  nobler  nature.  He  has  had  the  reputa- 
tion of  being  the  author  of  two  very  important  measures,  the  parii- 
tion  of  Poland,  and  the  armed  neutrality.  The  credit  of  the  tiist 
may  probably  be  very  fairly  divided  between  himself  and  Catherine 
of  Russia  ;  the  second,  as  a  matter  of  self-defence,  and  a  joaious  re 
card  for  the  liberty  of  the  seas,  rellects  no  dishonour  on  his'churacler 
It  is  a  point  that  should  be  better  settled  than  it  seems  to  be,  by  the 
strict  rules  of  international  and  maritime  law. 

16.  Frederic  was  succeeded  by  his  nephew  Frederic-William.  Of 
the  part  taken  by  this  monarch  in  support  of  the  house  of  Orange, 
in  1,787,  of  his  opposition  to  the  French,  in  1,792,  and  of  the  share 
he  had  in  the  two  last  partitions  of  Poland,  in  1,793  and  1,795,  by 
which  he  gained  the  territories,  first  of  South  Prussia,  and,  secondly 
of  South-eastern  Prussia,  an  account  has  been  given  elsewhere. 
Frederic- William  ii.  died  in  1,797,  aged  fifty-three,  leaving  the  crown 
to  his  son,  the  present  king,  Frederic  ill.,  who,  as  he  came  to  the 
throne  at  the  moment  that  Buonaparte  began  his  extraordinary  c 
reer,  in  disturbance  of  the  peace  of  the  continent,  was  necessarily 
involved  in  all  the  difficulties  and  confusion  of  those  times,  as  has 
been  already  shown  :  he  joined  the  armed  neutrality  in  1,800,  caused 
Hamburgh  to  be  shut  against  the  English,  and  occupied  the  states  of 
Hanover,  1,801,  which  being  annexed  by  France  to  Prussia,  in  1,805, 
in  exchange  for  a  part  of  the  duchy  of  Cleves,  Anspach,  Bareuth, 
Neufchatel,  and  Vaiengin,  provoked  the  resentment  of  England  and 
Sweden,  hi  1,806,  the  king  rashly  engaged  in  war  with  France,  and 
was  nearly  deprived  of  his  kingdom  :  the  losses  he  sustained  by  the 
treaty  ot  Tilsit,  have  been  mentioned.  (Sect.  XVI.)  In  1,812,  Fred- 
eric was  compelled  by  France  to  furnish  an  auxiliary  force  against 
Russia,  but  was  afterwards,  on  the  retreat  of  the  French  from  Mos- 
cow, able  to  break  through  this  engagement,  and  conclude  a  treaty 
ot  neutrality  with  Russia.  From  this  time  to  the  abdication  of  Na- 
poleon, Prussia  acted  in  close  confederacy  with  the  allies,  the  king 
being  constantly  with  his  army  till  their  entrance  into  Paris,  March, 
l,bU.  On  the  return  of  Buonaparte,  1,815,  the  Prussians  were  the 
first  to  take  the  tield,  under  their  celebrated  general,  prince  Blucher, 
and  in  the  battle  ot  Waterloo,  reaped  the  splendid  glories  of  that  day 
m  conjunction  with  the  British.  Since  that  time,  Prussia  has  enjoyed 
a  state  ot  peace,  though  not  undisturbed  as  to  her  internal  concerns 

17.  The  crown  of  Sweden,  on  the  demise  of  Charles  XII.,  1,718, 
(see  Sect.  LXVI.  §  9.  Part  II.)  was  conferred  on  his  youngest  sister, 
Llnca  Lleanora,  by  the  free  election  of  the  states.  On  the  death  of 
Cnarles,  whose  strange  proceedings  had  greatly  exhausted  the  king- 
dom, and  occasioned  the  actual  loss  of  many  provinces,  an  opportuni- 
ty w.is  taken,  once  more,  to  limit  the  kingly  power,  which  had  been 
rendered  almost  absolute  in  the  reign  ot  Charles  XL,  and  to  make 
the  crown  elective.  The  new  queen,  who  was  married  to  the  hered- 
itary  prince  of  Hesse  Cassel,  and  who  had  been  offered  the  crown  in 
prejuaice  of  the  son  and  representative  oi  her  elder  sister,  the 


384  MODERN  HISTORY. 

duchess  of  Holstein  Gottorp,  readily  submitted  to  the  conditions  pro. 
posed  by  the  stales  for  limiting  the  royal  authority,  but  soon  after  her 
accession  resigned  the  government  to  her  royal  consort,  who  was 
crowned  by  tiie  title  of  Frederic  1.,  1,720. 

18.  The  new  king  ruled  the  nation  with  little  dignity  and  less  spir- 
it; submitting  to  every  thing  impose<l  on  him  by  the  states,  till  (be 
government  became  more  republican  than  monarcitical.  The  Swe- 
dish territories  were  also  much  reduced  during  tlie  early  part  of  his 
reign.  In  the  course  of  the  years  1,719,  1,720,  1,721,  Sweden  ceded 
to  Hanover,  Bremen,  and  \  erden ;  to  Prussia,  the  town  of  Stettin  ; 
and  to  Russia,  Livonia,  Esthonia,  Ingria,  Wiburg,  a  part  of  Carelia, 
and  several  islands, 

19.  It  was  during  this  roign  that  the  rival  factions  of  the  Hats  and 
Caps  iiad  their  origin,  and  which  caused  great  trouble ;  the  former 
being  generally  under  the  influence  of  France,  the  lalter  of  Russia. 
To  deter  the  latter  from  assisting  the  queen  of  Hungary,  in  the  war 
that  took  place  on  tbe  death  of  Charles  VI.,  France  made  use  of  its 
influence  with  the  Hats,  to  involve  Sweden  in  hostilities  with  Russi:-, 
ibr  which  she  was  iil-j)repared,  and  from  which  she  sutTered  consid- 
erably*  Her  losses  were  restored  to  her  in  some  measure  by  the 
peace  of  Abo,  1,743,  but  upon  the  positive  condition  that  Frederic 
should  adopt  as  his  heir  and  successor,  at  (he  instance  of  the  czarina, 
Adoiphus-Frederic,  bishop  of  Lubrc,  uncle  to  tbe  duke  of  Holstein 
Gottorp,  presumptive  heir  to  tlie  throne  of  Russia,  and  nephew  to 
the  queen  of  Sweden,  who  would  more  willingly  have  had  (he  latter 
for  her  successor. 

20.  Adoiphus-Frederic  came  to  the  crown  in  1,751.  The  same 
factions  which  had  disturbed  the  former  reign  continued  to  give  him 
trouble,  and  though  he  made  some  endeavours  to  get  the  better  (  f 
foreign  influence,  and  recover  his  lost  authority,  all  his  efforts  were 
vain.  Nothing  could  exceed  the  anarchy  and  confusion  that  prevail- 
ed, encouraged  and  fomented  both  by  Russia  and  France,  to  further 
their  private  ends.  The  king  is  supposed  to  have  fidlen  a  sacritice 
to  these  disturbances,  dying  wholly  dispirited  in  tbe  year  1,771. 

21.  He  was  succeeded  by  bis  eldest  son  Gustavus  HI.,  twenty-five 
years  old  at  the  time  of  his  accession  ;  a  Swede  by  birth,  and  an  ac- 
tive and  spirited  prince,  who  was  bent  upon  recovering  what  Ids 
predecessors  had  too  tamely  surrendered  of  their  rights  and  prerog- 
atives ;  in  which,  being  supported  by  France,  he  had  the  good  fortune 
to  succeed.  Having  found  means  to  conciliate  the  army,  and  to  rec- 
oncile the  people  to  an  attack  upon  the  aristocrats,  who  were  betr.iy-- 
ing  the  interests  of  the  country,  he  established  a  new  constitulion, 
1,772,  with  such  good  management  and  address,  that  the  public  tran- 
quilUty  was  scarcely  for  a  moment  disturbed.  This  new  arrangement 
threw  great  power  into  the  hands  of  the  king,  by  leaving  him  the 
o{)tion  of  convening  and  dissolving  the  states,  with  the  entire  disposal 
of  the  army,  navy,  and  all  public  appointments,  civil,  military,  and  ■ 
ecclesiastical;  some  alterations  were  made  in  1,789,  but  nothing 
could  reconcile  the  party  whom  he  had  superseded ;  at  least  it  is 
probable  that  this  was  the  occasion  of  the  catastrophe  which  termi- 
nated  the  life  of  the  unfortunate  monarch.  Towards  the  commence- 
ment of  the  French  revolution,  in  the  year  1 ,792,  when  he  was  pre- 
paring to  assist  Lewis  XVT,  (an  unpopular  undertaking,)  he  was 
assassinated  at  a  masquerade  by  a  person  encouraged,  if  not  directly 
employed,  by  the  discontented  party  of  i,772. 

22.  Gustavus  III.  was  brave,  polite,  well-informed,  and  of  a  ready 


MODERN  HISTORY.  385 

eloquence  ;  but  profligate  in  liis  hal-its  of  life,  and  careless  as  to  mat* 
ter§  of  religion.  He  promoted  letters,  agriculture,  and  commerce, 
as  far  as  his  means  would  enable  liim  to  do  so.  His  measures  aj  i>ear 
to  hare  been  more  arbitrary  than  his  disposition. 

23.  His  son  Gustavns  IV.  bein^  only  fourteen  years  old  at  the  time 
of  his  father's  death,  the  duke  ot  Suderm;!iiia,  l.rother  of  the  deceas- 
ed king,  became  regent  for  a  short  time.  No  monarch  in  Kurope 
manifested  a  greater  zeal  in  the  cause  of  ihe  French  myal  family, 
or  disgust  at  the  arbiti-ary  proceedings  of  liuona^jarte,  than  Gustavus 
IV'.,  but  he  was  little  able  to  give  etfect  to  his  wi.^bes;  liis  judgment 
being  weak,  and  his  Ibrces  inadequate  to  contend  uith  ihe  rrenoh, 
especially  after  the  latter,  by  the  treaty  of  TiUit,  (see  Sect.  XV  1.) 
had  found  means  to  detach  and  conciliate  the  emperor  Aiexandei'. 
After  this  disastrous  treaty,  Gustavus  became  not  only  the  object  of 
French  resentment,  but  of  Russian  rapaciiy.  He  was  peremiitoriiy 
forbidden  to  admit  the  English  into  his  ports,  and  Finland  was  quickly 
wrested  from  him.  The  Danes  also  attacked  him.  In  this  diiemma, 
England  would  have  assisted  him  if  she  could  have  tnisled  him,  lu:t, 
ill  truth,  his  rashness  Hnd  incapacity  were  become  too  apparent  to 
justify  any  such  coiitideiice.  A  revolution  was  almost  necessaiy,  nor 
was  it  long  before  a  conspiracy  was  formed,  which,  in  the  year  1,809, 
succeeded  so  far  as  to  induce  him  to  abdicate  His  uncU ,  the  duke 
of  Sudermania,  being  appointed  protector,  and  Vf^ry  soon  afterv\ards 
king,  by  the  title  of  Charles  Xill.,  the  states  currying  their  resents 
ment  against  Gustavus  iV.  so  far,  as  to  exclude  his  posterity  also  Aom 
the  throne. 

24.  Charles  XIII.  submitted  to  new  restrictions  on  the  kingly  au- 
thority, and  having  no  issue,  left  it  to  the  nation  to  ni^minale  an  heir 
to  the  crown.  Their  first  choice  fell  upon  the  prince  of  Augusten- 
burg,  a  Danish  subject,  but  his  death  happening  soon  afterwards,  not 
without  suspicion  of  foul  play,  liernadotle,  one  of  Buonaparte's  g*  n- 
erals,  was,  in  a  very  extraordinary  manner,  nominated  in  Lis  io(  ni  by 
the  king,  and  approved  by  the  states.  As  crown  prince  of  ISweoen, 
tempted  by  the  oifer  of  I^orway,  he  joined  the  contederacy  against 
Buonaparte  in  1.813,  and  was  present  at  the  battle  of  Leipzig,  (fcce 
Sect.  XX.)  On  the  death  of  Charles  XIII.,  1,818,  he  succeeded  to 
the  crown,  and  still  reigns,  having,  by  tlie  treaty  of  Vienna,  1,815, 
obtained  Norway,  and  the  is];ind  of  Guadaloiipe. 

25.  The  history  oi'  Denmark  during  the  eighteenth  century,  and 
beginning  of  the  nineteenth,  is  very  uninteresting,  in  a  poli;ical  p(  iiit 
of  view.  Incapable  of  taking  any  leading  or  conspicuous  part  in  the 
affairs  of  Europe,  all  that  we  know  concerning  her  relates  rather  to 
other  countries,  as  Rii.'-'?i;i,  Sweden,  Prussia,  Fi'ance,  and  E.ngiand;  in 
whose  friendships  and  hostilities  she  has  been  ccmpelled,  I  y  circum 
stances,  to  take  a  part,  litlie  advantageous,  if  not  entirely  delrimcnlal, 
t^o  her  own  interests. 

26.  Five  kings  have  occupied  the  throne  since  the  close  of  the 
seventp^^'ith  century,  f>ut  it  will  be  ncjcessMrv  to  say  very  little  of 
ihp^.  Frederic  IV.,  who  came  to  ihe  crown  in  l,by9,  died  in  :,730, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Christian  VI. ;  a  monarch  who  paid  great  at- 
tention to  the  welfare  of  his  subjects,  in  hghtening  the  taxes,  and  en- 
couraging trade  and  manufactures.  He  reigned  sixteen  years,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  son  Frederic  V'.,  in  the  yeai  1,746.  Frederic 
trod  in  the  footsteps  of  his  father,  by  promoting  knowledge,  encour- 
aging the  manufactures,  and  extending  the  cf  n.iricrce  of  his  country. 
Hie  had  nearly  been  embroiled  with  Russia  during  the  six  months' 

Kk  49 


386  MODERN  HISTORY. 

reign  of  the  unfortunate  Peter  111.,  who,  the  moment  he  became  em- 
peror, resolved  to  revenge  on  the  court  ol'  Denmark  the  injuries 
which  had  been  committed  on  his  ancestors  of  the  house  of  Hulstein 
Gottorp.  In  these  attempts  he  was  to  be  nssisted  by  the  king  of 
Prussia.  The  king  of  Denmark  prepared  to  resist  the  attacks  willi 
which  he  was  threatened,  but  the  dti  position  and  death  of  the  em- 
peror fortunately  relieved  him  from  all  apprehensions,  and  he  was 
able  to  compromise  matters  with  Catherine  II.,  by  a  treaty  thnt  was 
not  to  take  effect  till  the  grand  duke  Paul  came  of  age.  By  tiiis  con- 
vention, the  empress  ceded  to  Denmark,  in  tlie  name  of  her  son,  tlie 
duchy  of  Sleswick,  and  so  much  of  llolstein  as  appertained  to  the 
Gottorp  branch  of  tliat  family,  in  exchange  for  the  provinces  of  Ol- 
denburg .and  Dahnenhorst. 

27.  Fredei'ic  V.  died  in  1,7G6,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Chris- 
tian VII.,  who,  in  1,7G8,  miirried  the  princess  Caroline  Matilda  of 
England,  sister  to  his  majesty  king  George  III.  The  principal  event 
hi  this  reign  was  one  which  involved  the  unhappy  queen  in  inextric- 
able diihcuities,  and  probably  hastened  her  death  ;  but  which  Seems 
still  to  be  enveloped  in  considerable  njystery.  A  German  physician 
of  the  court,  (yiruensee,)  who  had  risen  from  rather  a  low  station  in 
life  to  be  tirst  minister,  having  rendered  himself  extremely  obnoxious 
by  a  most  extensive  reform  in  all  the  pul.lic  oihces  oi  state,  civil  and 
luiUtary,  and  which,  had  they  succeedotl,  might  have  done  him  great 
credit  as  a  statesman,  was  accused  of  intriguing  with  the  young 
queen,  and  by  the  violence  oC  his  enemies,  headed  and  encouraged 
by  Juliana  Maria,  the  queen-dowager,  and  her  son  prince  Frederic, 
brought  most  ignomiuiously  to  the  scaftbid.  The  untortunate  queen 
Caroline,  wiiose  hfe  was  probably  saved  only  by  the  spirited  inter- 
position of  the  Bi'ilisli  minister,  quilled  Denmark  after  the  execution 
of  Slruensee  and  his  coadjutor  Lrandt,  and  having  retired  to  Zell  in 
Germany,  painfully  separated  fiom  iier  children,  there  ended  her 
days.  May  ID,  1,775,  in  the  tweniy-fourth  year  of  iier  age. 

28.  During  the  latter  part  of  his  life,  Cli|ustian  VIL,  whose  under- 
standing had  always  been  weak,  fell  into  a  state  of  mental  derange- 
ment, and  the  government  was  carried  on  by  the  queen-dowager  and 
prince  Frederic,  as  co-regents,  w  ilh  the  aid  of  Barnstcff,  an  able  and 
patriotic  minister.  In  1,773,  the  cession  of  Ducal  Holstein  to  Den- 
mark by  Russia  took  place,  according  to  the  treaty  above  spoken  of: 
this  was  a  very  important  acquisilion,  as  giving  her  the  command  of 
the  whole  Cinibrian  peninsula,  and  enabhng  her,  by  forming  a  canal 
from  Kiel,  to  connect  the  Baltic  with  the  German  ocean.  In  tlie 
conlinental  uars  of  1,788,  179:3,  Denmark  remained  neuter,  but  by 
jouiing  the  armed  neutrality  hi  1,800,  she  excited  the  suspicions  asid 
resentment  of  Great  Britain,  and,  bt-iug  supposed  to  favour  not  only 
Russia  but  France,  became  involved  in  a  contest,  which  was  attended 
with  losses  and  vexatious  the  most  melancholy  and  deplorable.  (See 
Sect.  XX.  §  9.) 

29.  Christian  VII.  died  in  1,788,  and  was  succeeded  hj  his  son 
Frederic  VI.,  the  present  monarch,  who  had,  a  few  years  bet0i<i,  on 
entering  the  seventeenth  year  of  his  age,  been  admitted  to  his  proper 
share  in  the  government,  having  with  singular  moderation  and  pru- 
dence succeeded  in  taking  the  administration  of  all'airs  out  ot  the 
bands  of  the  que&n-dowager  and  lier  party.  Denmark  appears  to 
have  suffered  greatly  from  the  peculiarity  of  her  situation  during  the 
struggles  arising  out  of  the  French  revolution,  being  continually 
forced  into  alliances  contrary  to  her  own  interests,  and  made  at  last  to 


MODf.RN  HISTORY.  387 

•ontribute  more  largely  than  almost  any  *tiste,  to  the  establishment 
of  peace.  The  cession  of  Norway  to  Sweden,  which  had  been  held 
out  by  the  allies  as  a  boon  to  the  latter  power,  to  induce  her  to  join 
the  last  confederacy  against  France,  being  a  severe  loss  to  Denmark^ 
and  very  ill  requited  by  the  transfer  of  Pomerania  and  the  Isle  of 
Rugen,  which  were  all  that  she  received  in  exchange. 


SECTION  XXIII. 

SOUTHERN   STATES    OF  EUROPE,  FRO:\I  THE  CLOSE  OF  THE 
SEVENTEENTH  CEiNTURY. 

1.  The  southern  states  of  Europe  underwent  such  extraordinary 
revolutions  during  the  preponderance  of  the  French  under  Buona- 
parte, that  what  happened  to  them  during  the  eighteenth  century, 
previously  to  these  surprising  events,  seems  comparatively  of  very 
little  consequence ;  of  the  changes  and  disturbances  to  which  they 
were  subject  through  the  interfei'ence  of  the  French,  an  account  is 
to  be  found  in  the  sections  relating  to  France. 

2.  SwiTZERL.ANT>  at  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century  was  in- 
volved in  disputes  between  the  protestants  and  catholics,  which  were 
attended  with  very  unpleasant  circumstances.  These  differences, 
however,  were  brought  to  an  end  by  a  convention  in  1,717,  which 
established  an  equality  of  religious  rights.  Things  remained  very 
quiet  in  most  of  the  cantons  from  this  time  to  the  French  revolution^, 
with  the  exception  of  the  towns  of  Geneva  and  Berne,  and  a  few 
other  places,  wnere  a  disposition  was  manifested  to  limit  and  restrain 
the  aristocratical  governments,  but  which  only  led  at  that  time  to 
such  judicious  reforms,  as  were  sufficient  to  appease  the  ardour  of  the 
people.  These  disputes,  however,  may  be  held  to  have  contributed 
to  the  evils  which  befel  the  country  afterwards.  Though  the  states 
endeavoured  to  preserve  their  neutrality  during  the  progress  of  the 
French  revolution,  it  was  not  possible,  while  revolutionary  principles 
were  afloat,  to  keep  the  country  so  free  from  internal  disputes  and 
commotions,  or  so  united,  as  to  deter  the  French  from  interfering. 
Geneva  had  already  been  cajoled  out  of  her  independence,  but  the 
first  decisive  occasion  aflibrded  to  the  French  of  taking  an  active  part 
in  the  afl'airs  of  Swisserland,  arose  out  of  the  disputes,  in  1,798,  rel- 
ative to  the  Pajs  de  Vaud;  the  gentry  and  citizens  of  which,  not 
thiriking  themselves  sufficiently  favoured  by  the  riders  of  Berne  and 
Fribourg,  began  to  be  clamorous  for  a  change.  The  peasantr}-  of 
Basle  also,  instigated  by  an  emissary  of  the  French  directory,  de- 
manded a  new  constitution.  These  disputes  opened  the  way  for  the 
introduction  of  French  troops,  first  under  the  orders  of  the  directory, 
and  afterwards  undt  r  Buonaparte,  as  has  been  shown  in  our  account 
of  France  ;  and  from  that  period  to  the  conclusion  of  the  war  in 
1,815,  Switzerland  can  scarcely  be  said  to  have  known  a  year  of 
repose. 

3.  Of  the  condition  of  Venice  during  the  eighteenth  century,  much 
may  be  collected  from  the  foregoing  sections.  She  lost  the  Morea  in 
1,7  1 8,  but  acquired  in  exchange  some  towns  in  Albania  anrl  Dalmatia. 
Some  ecclesiastical  reforms  took  place  in  tho  middle  of  the  last  cen- 
tury, at  which  period  many  convents  wore  suppressed,  ami  the  Jesuits 
expelled.    Venice  endeavoured  to  remuiu  neuter  during  the  first 


388  MODERN  HISTORY. 

movements  of  the  French  revolution,  but  was  soon  drawn  into  tlie 
voitex  when  Buonaparte  assumed  the  command  of  the  French  army. 
By  the  treaty  of  Campo  Formio,  1,797,  (see  Sect.  XV.)  her  doom 
was  sealed,  and  this  celebrated  republic  entirely  overthrown. 

4.  In  Rome,  since  tlie  close  of  the  eighteenth  century,  there  has 
been  a  succession  of  many  popes,  though  the  last  two  have  filled  the 
papal  chair  longer  than  might  be  expected,  in  a  sovereignty  where 
the  election  is  generally  made  Irom  persons  advanced  in  years.  Lit- 
tle more  than  the  "  magni  nominis  umbra'''  remained  to  the  popes  at 
the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century,  of  that  temporal  power 
which  at  one  time  or  niher  had  shaken  every  throne  in  Europe. 
The  clergy  of  Fraace  in  particular  had  effectually  asserted  that  kings 
and  princes,  in  temporal  concerns,  were  independent  of  the  ecclesi- 
astical authority.  Clement  XL,  who  was  of  the  family  of  the  Albani, 
and  assumed  the  tiura  in  the  year  1,700,  opposed  the  erection  of 
Prussia  into  a  kingdom ;  an  extraordinary  measure  of  interposition, 
and  which  had  so  little  weight  as  almost  to  expose  his  court  to  ridi- 
cule, lie  espoused  the  French  interests  in  the  contest  concerning 
tlie  Spanish  succession,  though  in  1,708  he  was  compelled,  by  the 
vigorous  proceedings  of  the  emperor,  to  acknowledge  Charles  III. 
king  of  Spain.  From  this  pope  the  famous  bull  unigeniius  was  ex- 
torted by  the  Jesuits,  to  the  great  disturbance  of  Frartce,  and  the 
whole  Romish  church;  and  the  consequences  of  which,  indeed,  may 
be  traced  even  in  the  present  state  and  circumstances  of  Europe. 

5.  Pope  Clement  XI.  died  in  1,721,  and  was  succeeded  by  the  car- 
dinal Michael  Angelo  Conti,  who  took  the  name  of  Innocent  XIII.,  but 
being  far  advanced  in  years,  lived  a  very  short  time,  dying  on  the  3d 
of  March,  1,724,  and  on  the  29th  of  May  following,  cardinal  Ursini, 
Benedict  XIII.,  was  chosen  his  successor.  During  his  papacy,  Com- 
machio,  which  had  been  lost  to  the  Roman  see  in  the  time  of  Clem- 
ent XI.,  was  recovered;  Benedict  was  zealous  lor  the  honour  of  the 
bull  uiiigenitus,  and  in  conjunction  with  cardinal  Fleury,  succeeded 
io  procuring  the  cardinal  de  Noailles,  one  of  the  most  respectable  and 
zealous  opposers  of  it  in  France,  to  subscribe  it.  He  had  a  di-^posi- 
tion  to  unite  the  Roman,  Greek,  Lutheran,  and  reformed  churche.s, 
but  could  not  succeed.  He  died  1,730,  more  admired  for  his  virtues 
and  talents,  thati  praised  for  his  wisdom  in  the  management  of  affairs. 

6.  Benedict  XIII.  was  succeeded  by  Clement  XII.,  Laurence  Corsi- 
ni,  a  Florentine,  whose  public  acts  were  of  little  importance.  He 
iiad  disputes  with  the  king  of  Sardinia,  the  republic  of  Venice,  with 
the  en^pire  and  Spain ;  but  much  of  his  pontificate  was  passed  in 
tranquillity.  He  died  on  the  Gth  of  February,  1,710.  He  made  con- 
iriderable  and  valuable  additions  to  the  Vatican  library.  On  his 
death,  a  struggle  arose  between  the  Albani  and  Corsini  families,  and 
the  conclave  was  much  agitated.  The  former  prevailed,  and  suc- 
ceeded in  elevating  cardinal  Prosper  Lambertini  to  the  papal  chair, 
who  took  the  title  of  Benedict  XIV.  His  government  of  the  church 
was  extremely  mild,  and  he  was  regarded  as  no  favourer  of  the 
Jesuits,  who,  during  his  pontificate,  fell  into  disrepute  in  Portugal, 
the  lirst  symptom  oitheir  decline  and  fall.  This  pope  was  a  man  of 
most  amiable  manners,  a  great  writer,  and  possessed  of  considerable 
learning.  He  corrected  several  abuses,  particularly  such  as  had 
arisen  out  of  the  privileges  of  asylum.  He  carefully  endeavoured  to 
Iteep  clear  of  disputes  and  contests,  thinking  the  times  unfavourable 
to  thepapal  authority.     He  died  in  the  year  1,758. 

7   The  cardinal  Rezzonico  succeeded  Benedict  XIV,,  jm4  took  the 


MODERN  HISTORY.  389 

title  of  Clement  XIII.  His  pontificate  is  memorable  for  being  the 
»ra  ot  the  expulsion  of  the  order  of  Jesuits,  (in  some  instances  nn- 
cler  circumstances  of  very  unjustifiable  precipitation,)  from  Portugal, 
trance.  Spam,  Naples,  Sicily,  Parma,  Venice,  and  Corsica,  notwith- 
standing the  utmost  eflbrts  of  the  pope  to  uphold  them ;  many  of 
them  were  actually  landed  from  Spain,  Portugal,  Naples,  and  Sicilv 
on  the  pope's  territorie-s  as  tlioush  it  belonged  to  him  to  maintain 
titem  when  abandoned  by  the  catholic  sovereigns.  The  Done  re- 
monstratefl,  but  with  little  effect.  The  French  seized  upon  Avignon 
and  the  Nenpohtans  upon  Benevento,  to  induce  him  to  abandon  the' 
on  er,  but  he  would  not.  Clement  XIII.  died  suddenly,  on  Februai-v 
Z,  l,-o9,  and  was  succeeded  by  the  celeorated  Ganganelli  who  in 
comp.iment  to  his  predecessor  and  patron,  took  the  title  of  Cle-nent 
AlV.  ihis  enlightened  pontiiT  was  sensible  of  the  decline  of  the 
papal  authority,  and  ot  the  prudence  of  conciliating,  if  not  of 
humouring  the  sovereigns  o<  Europe,  against  whom,  he  was  accus- 
tomed to  observe,  the  Alps  and  tiip  Pyrenees  were  not  sulTicient  pro- 
n^wTc'  tl  7T  '"  consequence  of  this  leaning  towards  the  temporal 
punces,  that  he  secured  t.neir  concirrence  to  his  being  made  pope 
his  ireedom  of  thought  and  manners  being  otherwise  obnoxious  to 
the  court  of  Rome.  1  he  conclave,  by  which  he  was  elected  was 
tumultuous;  but  at  length  the  cardii.a"!  de  Bernis  succeeded  in  pro- 
ainng  h.m  to  be  chosen  pope,  May,  1,769.  It  is  well  known  hat 
this  accomplished  pontiff  -n  the  ye.r  1,773,  after  much  deliberation, 
suppressed  the  order  ot  Jesuits;  and,  dying  in  the  next  year,  si S 
cions  were  raised  that  be  had  been  poisoned,  but,  on  open  ng  his 
body  ,n  the  presence  of  the  French  and  Spanish  ministers,  enemies 
to  the  Jesuits,  dt  was  pronounced  otherwise.     Thero  is  litdo  dnnht 

comiet  i"J^;^."^^1'  "^  ''""'  ,"V'^^;  ^•-''"'•^^'  ^'^  "ep'he  tdt'e'n 
compelled  to  take  ;  it  procured  tor  hnn,  indeed,  the  restitution  of 
Avignon  and  Benevento,  which  had  been  taken  from  bis  predecessor- 
but  in  consenting  to  the  di-^soiution  of  an  order  so  essential  to'the 
papal  dominion  he  must,  in  a!}  probability,  have  yielded  to  the  power 
ot  irresistible  circumstance..  He  was  of  an  amiable  disposition' 
much  given  to  literature,  indefatigable  in  business,  and  hidilv  re- 
2's'interestld'''^'^"  "''^'""''  ^''"" ''"''  ■•'"'^'''  '"  ^'"'^  manners,  and  very 

nii  ^f%  '"  %  -''''"'■  '^^^^-  /^"^''''^  Br^^chi,  a  descendant  of  the 
noble  family  of  Cesena  „,,,  ch.osen  to  fill  the  chair  vacated  by  the 
death  oi  Ganganelli.  1  he  new  pope  took  the  title  of  Pius  VI  He 
IS  said  to  have  heea  eleded  contrary  to  the  wishes  and  intentions  of 
most  of  the  members  of  the  conclave,  a  circumstance  not  unlikely  to 
happen  amidst  such  a  contrariety  of  interests,  and  the  complicJfPd 
torms  of  proceeding.  As  he  had  thus  risen  to  supreme  power  he 
acted  afterwards  more  independently  of  the  cardinals,  than  any  of 
his  predecessors.  '  -^ 

9.  He  had  taken  the  name  of  Pius  VI.,  in  acknowledged  defiance 
of  a  preva.hng  superstition,  expressed  in  the  following%erses,  and 
applied  to  Alexander  V  I.  particularly,  if  not  to  others. 

"  Sextus  Tarquinius,  Sextus  Nero,  sextus  et  iste 
Semper  sub  sextis,  perdita  Roma  fuit." 

tie  is  known  to  have,  in  his  troubles,  reflected  on  this  ratber  sin- 
gular arcunastance,  with  sorrow  and  dismay.     Certniulv  no  p.^fe  had 
greater  mdignities  to  sustain,  nor  could  any  have  greater  cause  to 
Kk2 


390  MODERN  HISTORY. 

apply  to  themselves  the  ominous  presages  conveyed  in  the  lines  just 
cite  1 ;  for  in  the  year  1,798  his  government  was  overthrown,  and 
Rome  lost.  The  French  took  possession  of  it  and  proclaimed  the 
restoration  of  the  Roman  republic. 

10.  The  pope's  troubles  beg;m  in  t,796,  when  he  was  compelled 
to  cede  to  Buonaparte  the  cities  of  Bologna,  Lrbino,  Ferrara,  and 
Ancona,  to  pay  twenty-one  millions  of  francs,  and  dehver  to  the 
French  commissioners,  sent  for  the  purposes,  pictures,  busts,  statues, 
and  vases,  to  a  large  amount.  He  afterwards  endeavoured  to  raise 
an  army  to  recover  what  he  had  lost;  but  he  had  ibriued  a  very 
wrong  estimate  of  the  po\ver  of  his  opponent.  He  was  soon  com- 
pelled, February  12,  1,797,  to  sue  for  peace,  and  submit  to  furtiier 
sacrifices  at  the  uiil  of  Buonaparte,  whom  he  had  certainly  very  in- 
cautiously provoked.  By  the  peace  of  Tolontino,  he  renounced  all 
right  to  Avignon  and  the  Vanais.-iu,  Bologna,  Ferrara,  and  tl^e  Romag- 
na.  On  the  entrance  of  the  French  in  1,798,  the  Vatican  and  Quir- 
inal  palaces,  and  private  mansion^  of  the  obnoxious  amongst  tiie 
nobility,  were  stripped  of  ali  their  ornaments  and  riches.  The  peo- 
ple who  had  invited  the  French,  landed  themselves  free,  but  had 
ver)'  little  cause  to  thank  their  deUverers.  The  pope  was  forcibly 
removed  from  Rome,  at  the  age  of  eiglity,  and,  l)y  order  of  tlie 
French  directory,  tnuisferred  from  place  to  pfice,  as  the  course  of 
events  dictated,  from  Rome  to  Florence,  from  Florence  to  Briancon, 
■juil  i'rum  Briancon  to  \'alence.  Another  removal  to  Dijon  is  said  to 
huvc  been  in  contemplation,  had  not  the  decline  of  his  health  become 
too  visible  to  render  it  necessary.  He  died  at  the  latter  place  on  the 
'i9th  of  August,  1,799,  in  the  eig'dy-second  year  of  his  age,  and 
Iwenly-lburtli  of  his  ponuticate. 

11.  Pius  \'l.  was  correct  in  his  manners,  and  a  patron  of  genius, 
particularly  of  the  fine  arts.  He  spent  much  money  on  buildings, 
nolwiihslanding  the  distressed  stale  of  the  hnances,  and  devoted  large 
sums  to  the  draining  of  the  Pontine  marshes,  in  which  almost  im- 
practicable undertakiiig,  he  partly  succeeded.  He  endeavoured  to 
correct  the  abuses  of  sanctuary,  which  liad  I)ecn  carried  so  far  as  to 
give  irnp\initj'  to  hired  assassins,  rnucii  to  the  disgrace  of  those  who 
[.rotected  them.  It  deserves  to  be  recorded  of  Idm,  that  he  display- 
ed great  magnaniniily,  as  well  as  pious  resisinalion,  when  dragged 
from  his  dominions  ;  and  though  he  fell  severely  the  wrongs  that  had 
been  committed  against  him  by  the  French  and  the  infatuated  Ro« 
marts,  he  die.l  tranquilly  and  serenely. 

12.  It  is  remarkable  that  he  had  scairely  been  dead  a  month,  when 
Rome  was  delivered  from  the  hands  of  its  oppressors,  and  given  up 
to  the  British,  whose  fleet,  under  conamodore  Trowbridge,  iiad  block- 
ed up  the  port  of  Civita  Vecchia.  Tiiose  who  had  lavoured  the  re- 
publican cause  were  permitted  to  retire^  nnd  the  French  garrison 
marched  out  with  the  honours  of  war. 

13.  In  the  month  of  March,  1,800,  a  conclave  of  cardinals,  under 
the  protection  of  the  emperor  and  other  catholic  powers,  met  at 
Venice  to  elect  a  successor  to  Pius  V'l.,  and  was  not  long  in  fixing 
upon  the  cardinal  Chiaremonte,  bishop  of  Tivoli,  the  present  pope 
Fins  VII.  In  a  few  weeks  afier  his  election,  he  set  out  for  his  new 
ik)miniL)ns,  and  arrived  at  Rome  on  the  9th  of  July.  In  the  month 
of  September,  1,801,  he  had  the  satisfaction  of  concluding  a  concor- 
datum  with  the  French  republic,  by  which,  undor  the  auspices  of 
l>uonaparte,  then  first  consul,  the  Roman  catholic  religion  was  re- 
QStabiished  there.    Not  only  heresy,  but  infidelity  and  atheism,  had 


MODERN  HISTORY.  331 

been  so  openly  encouraged  and  avowed  by  tiie  French  revolutionists, 
thai  Pius  appears  to  have  thought  no  concessions  too  great  to  ac- 
complisii  this  end;  for  the  terms  ol"  the  agreement  undoubtedly  sub- 
jected the  Gallican  church  eatirely  to  the  civil  goveruinent,  canoni- 
cal institution  being  almost  the  ouly  privilege  reserved  to  the  pope, 
and  every  possible  encouragc'ment  being,  at  tbe  same  lime,  given  to 
the  protestanl  churches,  Lutheran  and  Calvinistic. 

13.  It  was  very  soon  discovered,  that  the  new  head  of  the  Roman 
church,  was  to  be  made  to  bovv  as  iow  to  the  aulhurity  of  Buonaparte 
as  iiis  predecessor.  In  1,SU4  Pius  VII.  was  smnaoned  to  Paris  to 
otiiciate  at  the  coronation  of4he  French  emperor;  and  though  in 
the  year  following  he  decUaed  ultending  a  similar  cereuioiiy  at 
Milan,  as  has  been  already  shown,  il  seems  only  to  have  exposed  him 
to  greater  sacrifices.  In  1,808  he  was  deprived  of  Urbino,  Ancona, 
M.icerata,  and  Canierino,  and  soon  after  his  temporal  sovereignty 
was  formally  dissolved,  and  the  pajial  territories  annexed  to  France. 
Rome  was  declared  to  be  a  free  and  imperial  city  ;  tlie  court  of  in- 
quisition, the  temporal  jurisdiction  of  tiie  clergy,  the  rigfit  of  asylum, 
and  other  privileges  were  abolished,  and  the  title  of  king  of  Rome  ap- 
propriated to  the  heir  of  the  Frencii  empire.  Pius  was  conveyed 
hrst  to  Grenoble,  afterwards  to  Savona,  and  hually,  in  1,812,  to  Fon- 
tainebleau,  where,  for  reasons  unknoivn,  he  was  unce  more  acknowl- 
edged as  a  sovereign,  till  the  advance  of  the  .liiies  upon  Paris,  at  last. 
procured  him  his  liberty;  and  in  1,814  he  was  reinstated;  he  made 
his  solemn  entrance  hito  Rome  on  the  24th  of  May;  and  in  1,815, 
by  the  arrangements  of  the  congress  of  \  ienna,  his  foiiVited  estates 
were  re-annexed  to  the  papal  dominions.  !  lis  restunvlion  of  the 
order  of  Jesuits  and  of  the  court  of  inqul-ition,  on  his  I'eturn,  occa- 
sioned some  concern  to  the  greater  part  of  Europe ;  but  ids  holiness 
has  generally  had  the  credit  of  being  a  man  of  sense,  prudence,  and 
moderation. 


SECTION  XXIV. 
OF  INDIA,  OR  HINDOOSTAX. 

1.  India  or  Hindoostan  haying  largely  engaged  the  attention  oi 
Europe  since  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  centnry,  may  deserve 
some  distinct  notice,  thougli  little  is  to  be  added  to  what  has  already 
been  related  in  form -r  sec;ions,  of  tlie  pohtical  events  ^nd  trins;;c- 
tions  wiiich  have  occurred  in.  that  remote  region  of  the  globe,  during 
the  period  alluded  to. 

2.  The  celebrated  Aurungzebe,  w!io  occupied  the  throne  of  Del- 
hi, at  the  commencement  of  the  eighteenth  centnrv,  lived  to  the 
year  1,707.  In  him  the  spirit  of  the  great  Timor,  "from  whom  he 
was  the  eleventh  in  descent,  seemed  to  revive.  He  was  brave,  but 
cruel.  He  attained  to  a  great  age,  being  nearly  a  hundred  5  ■  ai 
old  when  he  died,  having  succeeded  in  rendering  almost  the  wholt 
of  the  peninsula  subject  to  his  sway,  from  the  tentii  to  the  thirty-tlfth 
degree  of  latitude,  and  nearly  as  much  in  longitu<)e. 

3.  But  if  Aurcngzebe  thus  raised  in  his  own  person  the  credit  of 
the  mogul  throne,  its  glory  also  perit^hed  with  him.  A  sad  scene  of 
confusion  ensued  upon  his  death.  He  had  himself,  indeed,  waded  to 
the  throne  through  tlie  blood  of  his  own  kindred.  After  deposing 
his  father,  two  of  his  biothers  were  slain  in  contending  lor  the  crowo. 


m 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


But  such  was  the  nature,  generally,  of  the  political  revolutions  of 
those  countries,  that  had  not  this  been  the  case,  the  life  of  Aurungze- 
be  himself  might  probably  have  been  sacrificed  to  similar  views  and' 
purposes. '  He  is  said  to  have  bitterly  repented  of  his  misdoings  be- 
ibie  he  died. 

4.  No  sooner,  however,  was  he  dead,  than  the  most  violent  con- 
tests arose  between  his  own  sons,  two  of  whom,  Azem  and  Kaum 
Buksh,  perished  in  their  opposition  to  their  elder  brother,  who  be- 
came emperor,  under  the  title  of  Bahader  Shah.  The  throne,  in- 
deed, was  such  an  ofject  of  contention,  that,  in  the  small  space  of 
eleven  years,  live  princes,  who  attained  to  the  throne,  and  six,  who 
wci-e  candidates  for  it,  successively  fell  victims  to  the  lusts  and  pas- 
sions of  their  semi-barbarous  competitors.  It  was  in  the  reign  of 
Feroksere,  w!io  was  deposed  in  1,717,  that  the  English  East  India 
Company  obtained  the  f  imous  tirman  or  grant,  by  which  their  goods 
of  export  and  import  were  exempted  from  duties,  and  which  has  been 
regarded  as  their  commercial  charter  in  India;  no  other  European 
companies  being  similar!;,  indulged. 

5.  hi  the  time  of  Mahmud  or  Muhammed  Shah,  who  came  to  the 
throne  in  the  year  1,718,  and  who  was  engaged  in  disputes  with  some 
of  his  most  powerful  neighbours  and  dependents,  the  celebrated 
usurper  of  the  Persian  throne,  Nadir  Shan,  encouraged,  or  even  in- 

,  vited,  as  it  has  been  said,  by  some  of  the  (hscontented  piiuces,  particu- 
larly the  subahdar  of  the  i)eckan,  invaded  the  dominions  of  the  Mo- 
gul, and  with  such  success,  as  in  the  year  1,739,  to  seize  upon  Delhi, 
the  capital,  with  all  its  treasures,  and  conipei  the  unhappy  sultan,  to 
surrender,  .with  the  utmost  iunoniiuy,  his  crown  and  sceptre.  He 
was,  indeed,  afterwards  restored,  but  with  the  loss  of  all  his  domin- 
ions west  of  the  Indus,  togethfir  with  jewels  and  treasures  to  an  in- 
calculable amount ;  some  indiscreet  insult,  offered  to  the  Persians, 
having  been  the  alleged  provocation  for  deiivering  the  city  up  to 
plunder,  and  the  inhabitants  to  the  sword,  with  every  ciuelty  and  in- 
dignity attendant  upon  such  misfortunes.  This  miserable  capital 
afterwards  imderwent  a  second  visitation  of  the  same  description, 
from  one  of  the  followers  of  Nadir  Shah,  Abdallah,  who  had,  indeed, 
been  forced  into  his  service,  but  found  means  to  take- advantage  of 
his  nraster's  victories,  by  seizing  upon  the  territories  west  of  tiie  In- 
dus, ceded  to  Nadir  by  the  unlbrtunate  mogid,  and  erecting  a  sove- 
reignty for  himself  at  Candahar.  Nadir  Siiah  was  assassinated  in  his 
tent,  in  1,747. 

6.  By  the  invasion  of  the  Persians,  the  power  and  glory  of  the 
moguls  may  be  said  to  have  been  brought  to  an  end.  From  that 
peiiod  the  sulxirdinate  states,  princes,  and  viceroys,  began  to  as;  ire 
to  a  degree  of  independence,  and  to  acquire  a  consequence  betore 
unknown ;  the  mogul  himself  becoming  a  mere  nominal  sovereign. 
Those  who  were  must  raised  at  this  time  by  the  depression  of  the 
sultanic  authority,  appear  to  have  been — 

The  Nizam  or  Subahdar,  of  the  Deckan  ;  the  Nabot  of  Arcot,  or 
the  Carnatic ;  the  Subahdar  of  Bengal ;  the  Nabob  of  Oude ;  the 
Rajahpoote  Princes  of  Agimere  ;  the  Mahrattas ;  the  Seiks;  the 
Rohillas,  and  the  Jats. 

The  disputes  and  differences  that  took  place  between  these  several 
power's,  alter  they  hiid  shaken  off'  the  yoke  of  the  mogul,  opened 
the  door  for  the  interference  of  the  European  settlers,  towards  the 
middle  of  the  eighteenth  century.  (See  Sect.  VI.  §  2.)  The  French 
first,  and  afterwards  the  English,  contrived  to  take  advantage  of  the 


MODERN  HISTORY.  393 

rival  claims  set  up  by  the  diflerent  native  powers,  and  bv  rendering 
them  assistance  against  each  other,  and  it  is  to  be  feared  greatly  fo- 
menting their  quarrels,  soon  became  acquainted  with  the  manifest 
superiority  of  their  own  tactics,  and  the  inlluonce  this  must  give  them 
in  such  contests.  The  French  went  farther,  and  first  hit  upon  the 
expedient  of  training  the  natives  in  the  European  manner,  and  in- 
corporating them  with  their  own  annies ;  these  were  called  Sepoys. 

7.  It  was  not  long  before  the  French  and  English,  who  had  at  first 
only  taken  the  field  as  auxiliaries,  became  opposed  to  each  other  as 
principals;  in  which  conflicts  the  English  succeeded  beyond  all  ex- 
pectation, and  instead  of  being  driven  out  of  the  peninsula  themselves, 
which  was  evidently  in  the  view  of  the  French  under  Dupleix,  in 
the  year  1,751  and  1,752,  found  means  to  establish  themselves  there, 
through  the  victories  of  Ciivc,  to  the  exclusion  of  all  other  European 
nations,  except  for  piu'poses  purely  commercial. 

8.  Clive  has  justly  been  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  British 
empire  in  India  ;  he  was  the  first  to  procure  for  the  company  grants 
of  territory  and  assignments  of  revenue,  which  totally  changed  the 
character  of  our  connexions  with  that  country,  and  rendered  the  na- 
tive princes,  even  the  mogul  himself,  subservient  to  our  purposes. 
The  English  had  received  great  provocation  from  the  subahuar  of 
Bengal,  in  an  attack  upon  Calcutta,  and  Clive  was  selected  by  admiral 
VVatsun  to  recover  from  Sourajud  Dowlah  the  town  and  fort,  which 
had  been  surrende-red  to  him.  At  the  battle  of  Plassey,  1,757,  he 
not  only  succeeded  in  the  recovery  of  Calcutta,  but  in  the  deposition 
of  the  subahdar,  and  having  appointed  his  general  in  his  room,  ob- 
tained a  grant  of  all  the  eftects  and  lactones  of  the  French  in  Bengal, 
Bahar,  and  Orissa,  and  money  contributions  to  the  immense  amount 
of  £2,750,000  sterling,  exclusive  of  private  gratuities. 

9.  It  would  have  been  well  if  these  advantages  could  have  been 
acquired  with  less  la«s  of  credit  to  the  nation  than  was  actually  the 
case  ;  but  there  was  too  much  in  these  first  steps  towards  a  territorial 
establishment,  to  teed  the  ambition  and  cupidity  of  those  intrusted 
with  the  management  of  affairs,  to  render  it  probable  that  they  would 
keep  clear  of  abuses.  The  opport\inities  that  occurred  of  intermed- 
dling with  the  native  powers,  were  eagerly  seized  upon  as  occasions 
for  enriching  the  servants  of  the  company,  (drawn  from  home  in  ex 
J)ectation  of  making  rapid  fortunes,)  at  the  expense  of  the  company 
itself,  whose  aftairs  were  in  danger,  not  only  of  becoming  more  em- 
barrassed by  the  extraordinary  expenses  of  such  irterference,  but  by 
the  alienation  of  the  minds  of  the  natives,  under  circumstances  little 
short  of  the  most  determined  plunder  and  persecution.  In  the  man 
agemeut  of  the  new-acquired  territories  and  inland  trade,  it  is  no 
longer  to  be  doubted  that  the  natives  suffered  in  everv  possible  man 
ner,  from  the  most  unreasonable  monopolies,  exorbitant  duties  im- 
posed on  articles  of  general  consumption,  iibuses  in  regard  to  leases, 
and  fiscal  oppressions;  so  that  the  British  name  became  dishonoured, 
and  it  was  tound  to  be  absolutely  expedient  that  some  change  should 
take  place  in  the  administration  of  alTairs  so  remote  from  the  seat  of 
all  rule  and  direction,  and  which,  from  simply  commercial,  were  now 
clearly  become  political  and  military. 

10.  The  charter  of  the  company  being  subject  to  periodical  re- 
newals, aflbrded  opportunities  for  the  interference  of  the  legislature, 
nor  was  the  company  itself  backward,  under  any^  pressure  of  pecu- 
niary embarra^ments,  to  apply  to  government  for  assistance.  On 
one  of  these  pccasions,  the  great  change  that  had  taken  place  in  the 

50 


394  MODERI'^'  HISTORY. 

state  of  things  in  India,  induced  the  government  at  home  to  claim  for 
the  crown  all  revenues  arising  from  any  new  acquisitions  made  by 
military  force,  and  in  order  to  repress  the  inordinate  proceedings  of 
the  company's  servants,  of  which  the  natives,  the  public  at  home, 
and  the  company  itself,  had  but  too  much  reason  to  complain,  gov- 
ernment also  insisted  upon  taking  into  its  own  hands'  the  political 
jurisdiction  of  India. 

1 1.  These  claims  and  regulations  were  first  proposed  in  parliament, 
November,  1,772,  and  may  be  said  to  have  laid  the  foundation  for 
that  enlarged  system  of  administration  and  control  which  has  prevail- 
ed since,  though  under  different  modifications,  from  lord  North's  bill 
in  1,773  to  Wr.  Fill's  in  1,784.  By  this  latter  bill,  a  board  of  control, 
composed  of  certain  commissioners  of  the  rank  of  privy  counsellors, 
nas  established,  the  members  of  which  were  to  be  appointed  by,  the 
king,  and  removable  at  his  pleasure.  This  board  was  authorized  to 
check,  superintend,  and  control  the  civil  and  military  government 
and  revenue  of  the  company ;  a  high  tribunal  also,  for  the  trial  of 
Indian  delinquents,  was  prop:S -d  at  the  same  time.  The  manage- 
ment of  their  commercial  concerns  was  left  in  the  hands  of  the  crra- 
pany  ;  the  poUtical  and  civil  authority  only  transferred  to  the  crown. 
In  1,786,  son>e  alterations  were  made  in  the  bill;  the  ofllices  of  com- 
mander-in-chief and  governor-general  were  for  the  future  to  be  unit- 
ed in  the  same  pei'son,  and  a  power  given  to  the  governor-general  to 
decide  in  opposition  to  the  majority  of  the  council.  The  presidencies 
of  Madras  and  Bombay  had  been  previously,  by  lord  North's  bill, 
placed  under  the  superin tendency  of  the  governor  and  council  of 
Bengal,  but  by  this  bill  that  point  also  was  confirmed. 

12.  When  this  bill  was  passed,  it  appeared  from  the  preamble,  to 
be  decidedly  the  opiiiion  of^  parliament,  of  government,  as  well  as  of 
the  court  of  directors,  whose  orders  had  tor  some  time  breathed  the 
same  spirit,  that  "  to  pursue  schemes  of  conquest  and  extension  of 
duiiiinion  in  India,  were  measures  repugnant^o  the  wish,  the  honour, 
and  the  poJioy  of  the  nation."  It  had  previously  been  resolved  by 
the  house,  '•  lliat  the  maintenance  of  an  inviolable  character  for 
moderation,  good  failh,  and  scrupulous  regard  to  treaty,  ought  to 
have  been  the  simple  gromuls  on  which  the  British  government 
should  have  endeavoured  lo  establish  an  influence  superior  to  other 
Europeans,  over  the  minds  of  the  native  powers  in  India;  and  that  the 
danger  atul  discredit  arising  from  tlie  forfeiture  of  this  pre-eminence, 
could  not  be  compensated  by  the  temporary  success  of  any  plan  of 
violence  and  i^j.l^-lice."' 

13.  8uch  v^as  the  tenor  of  the  resolutions  of  the  house  of  commons 
in  1,782,  recognised  as  the  principle  of  the  bill  of  1,784,  and  farther 
conlirmed  by  an  act  passed  in  i  ,71)3.  In  all  we  perceive  an  evident 
aliusioa  to  those  mal-practices  of  the  company's  servants,  which  will 
for  ever,  it  is  to  be  feared,  rem  .in  on  record,  to  tarnish  the  lustre  of 
our  tii-st  victories  and  territorial  acquisitions  in  India,  and  to  detract 
from  the  reputation  of  persons,  whose  names  might  otherwise  have 
justly  stood  high  on  tiie  iisl  of  those,  from  whose  pre-eminent  talents 
and  abilities,  ihe  nation  has  derived  both  glory  and  advantage. 

14.  The  En",Ush  system  of  jurisprudence  had  been  extended  to 
India  by  lord  North's  bill  of  1,773,  but  under  disadvantages  extreme- 
ly embarras,sing.  The  ditfereuce  of  manners,  habits,  customs;  the 
diihculty,  if  noi  impossil-ility,  of  mingliiig  two  codes,  so  very  dissimi- 
lar as  those  of  Britain  ai.d  liindoostan;  the  forms  and  technicalities 
of  the  Engilsh  law,  totally   uakaovvn  to  the  native  courts;  the  ap- 


MODERN  HISTORY.  395 

parent  injustice  of  suhjectin^  a  people  to  lows  to  which  they  were 
no  parties,  and  to  which,  ot  course,  they  had  given  no  sanction: 
these,  and  other  ditlicuhies  have  heen  acknowledged  by  tliose  who 
have  had  to  administer  the  laws  under  the  new  system,  in  hidia, 
as  having  prevented  tliose  happy  eflects  taking  place,  which  might 
otherwise  have  been  expected  from  the  introduction  of  the  l-ngii^^h 
jurisprudence.  Since  the  passing  of  Mr.  Pitt's  bill,  however,  much 
benefit  haS  certainly  been  derived  from  the  residence  and  superin- 
tendence of  noblemen  of  the  highest  rank  and  ahilitie:*,  as  governors- 
general,  and  of  judges  the  most  enlightened,  to  pre^-ide  in  the  hidian 
courts.  The  lirst  relbrnis  that  were  attempted  under  tht-  new  sysiem, 
though  not  so  successtul  as  might  he  wished,  proceeded  from  these 
two  most  amiable  and  highly  respected  person;! ges,  the  marquis 
Cornwaiiis,  and  sir  V>'illiam  Jones. 

15.  From  the  conduct  of  lord  Corn wal lis,  and  his  successors  lord 
Teignmoulh,  and  lord  Moniington,  now  marquis  Wellesley,  il  is  ex- 
tremely evident  that  tlie  sj'stem  of  neutrality  and  forbeanmce  pre- 
scribed by  the  resolutions  of  parliament,  and  preamble  of  the  act  of 
l,78il,  would  have  been  scrupulously  adhered  to  had  it  been  possiliJe, 
consistently  with  the  security  of  our  settlements;  but  towaifl>  li.e 
close  of  the  eigliteenth  centuiy,  the  English  uero  compelled  to  de- 
fend themselves  from  the  most'tbrmidable  designs  of  the  celebrated 
Hyder  Ally  and  his  son  Tippoo  Saib,  who  unquestionably  bad  il  in 
view  to  exterminate  the  British,  and  probably  ail  other  Europeans, 
from  the  peninsula  of  hidia. 

16.  The  result  of  these  confhcts,  which  took  place  in  Mysore,  and 
the  Carnadc,  was  the  total  overthrow  of  a  IMahemedan  dynasty  of 
only  two  sovereigns,  commencing  with  a  mere  ad\enlurer  of  oust 
singular  character,  who  having  waded  through  crinifs  to  hi?  ot j<'Ct, 
succeeded  in  placing  himself  and  his  son  on  one  of  the  most  briiii-nt 
thrones  of  the  east,  and  in  a  condition  to  give  very  considerable 
trouble  to  the  English  government  there. 

17.  Hyder  Ally,  the  father  of  'i'ippoo,  was  horn  in  1,722,  and  di^d 
in  1,782.  Tippoo  was  born  in  1,763,  and  lost  his  life  in  the  celebrat- 
ed assault  of  the  capital  of  his  new  dominions,  Seriiigapatam,  in  \\19d. 
They  were  very  different  men,  havhig  been  difurently  educated. 
The  former  had  strong  natural  powers,  which  compensated  for  iiis 
want  cf  acquired  knowledge;  the  latter  was  vain  of  his  scanty  pro- 
ficiency in  I'ersian  literature,  and  a  lew  other  attainments,  to  a  degree 
of  absurdity  ;  fmcying  himself  the  greatest  philosopher  of  the  age, 
the  wisest,  bravest,, and  handsomest  of  men.  ilydsr  was  tolerant  in 
religious  concerns  to  a  degree  of  inditierence ;  Tippoo,  a  bigoted 
mussulman,  to  the  utmost  pitch  of  intolerance  and  persecution.  The 
^ormer  meddled  little  with  religion.  The  latter  contemplated  changes 
in  Islamism,  as  in  every  thing  else,  having,  as  a  prehminary,  substi- 
tuted a  new  era  in  his  coins,  dating  from  the  birth  instead  of  the  flight 
of  Mahomet.  Both  father  and  son  were  devoid  of  principle,  but  the 
former  was  much  the  greatest  man. 

18.  It  was  owing  to  the  vigilance  and  prompt  measures  of  lord 
Vv'^ellesley,  that  Tippoo  was  so  opportunely  overthrown;  though  his 
proceedings  were  weak,  they  were  carried  on  with  much  duplicity 
and  deceit,  and  upon  principles  of  alliance  which  in  other  circimi- 
stances  might  have  become  very  alarming.    Under  the  most  positive 

V  and  repeated  assurances  of  peace  and  amity,  he  had  intrigued  wiXb 
"^•■ance,  Turkey,  the  king  of  Candahar,  (a  descendant  of  the  cele- 
braix^  Aflghan  cuief  Abdallah,)  the  P^izana  of  the  Deckan,  and  the 


396  MODERN  HISTORY. 

Mahratfas,  for  the  express  object  of  forming  a  strong  confederacy  t« 
extirpate  the  English  ;  in  his  negotiations  with  the  courts  of  Canda- 
har  and  C'onstantinopie,  indeed,  he  had  declared  vengeance  agaii;St 
the  infidels  generally,  whence  it  has  been  reasonably  concluded  that 
his  schemes  of  destruction  embraced  all  the  European  powers,  the 
French  not  excepted,  had  his  projects  but  been  successful.  Fortu- 
nately, lord  Wellesley  delected  all  his  plots,  and  when  it  l)ecan!e 
impossible  to  treat  farther  with  him  on  any  fair  grounds,  by  the 
most  decisive  measures,  and  raj>id  movements,  effectually  avert- 
ed the  blow  that  had  been  decideilly  aimed  at  the  British  empire  in 
India. 

19.  On  the  fall  of  Seringapatam,  the  Mjsorean  dominions  were, 
by  allotments  to  the  allies,  the  British,  the  JN'izam,  and  the  Mahralta-', 
nearly  reduced  to  the  limits  by  which  they  were  bounded  beft-re  tiie 
xisurpation  of  Hyder,  and,  a  surviving  representative  of  the  lliudDO 
dynasty,  a  child  only  live  years  old,  placed  on  the  throne,  uiin  an 
acknowledged  dependency  on  the  British  government.  The  de- 
scendants of  Tip[>oo  being,  however,  liberally  provided  for,  and 
settled  in  the  Carnalic,  disturbances  in  the  northern  and  north-western 

arts  of  the  peninsula,  among  the  Mahratta  chieftains,  occupied  \he 
aitention  of  the  English  army,  in  the  early  part  of  the  present  cen- 
tury, when  a  fresh  opportunity  was  afforded  of  triumphing  over  tlie 
intrigues  of  the  French,  who  headed  the  adverse  forces,  and  endeav- 
oured to  procure  for  that  government  a  cession  of  the  districts  in- 
trusted to  their  care;  but  the  issue  of  the  contest  was  entirely  in 
favour  of  the  British.  From  tliis  time  the  ascendancy  of  the  Brilish 
in  the  peninsula  has  continued  so  decidedly  established,  as  to  render 
it  needless  to  say  any  thing  of  the  other  European  settlements. 

20.  The  acquisition  of  terriloiy  in  India,  together  with  the  new 
system  of  government  and  control,  by  rendering  it  necessary  for  jx  r- 
sons  of  learning  and  talent  to  resi  le  there,  have  had  the  effect  of  im- 
proving our  knowledge  of  those  remote  countries,  and  opened  to  u« 
a  field  of  inquiry  and  research,  peculiarly  interesting  and  curious. 
Among  those  who  may  be  considered  as  having  most  particularly 
contributed  to  tiiese  ends,  we  may  reckon  Mr.  VVilkius  and  sir  William 
Jones:  the  former  by  having  first,  with  any  real  success,  pursued  lue 
study  of  the  Sanscrit  language,  the  root  of  all  the  vernacular  diaUci-: 
of  the  peninsula,  and  thereby  opened  to  the  contem{)latioii  of  liie 
historian,  the  antiquarian,  the  philosopher,  and  the  poet,  whatever  is 
interesting  in  the  literature  of  all  the  nations  east  of  the  Indus;  and 
the  latter,  by  instl  ^ting  the  first  philosophical  society  in  those  parts, 
and  inviting  the  learned,  in  all  quarters  of  the  globe,  to  propose  que- 
ries in  every  branch  of  Asiatic  history,  natural  and  civil,  on  the  phi- 
losophy, mathematics,  antiquities,  and  polite  literature  of  Asia,  and 
on  eastern  arts,  both  liberal  and  mechanic,  as  guides  to  the  investiga- 
tions of  the  persons  re.sident  in  ti)e  peninsula,  qualified  to  pursue 
such  inquiries  on  the  spot,  and  communicate  to  the  world  in  general 
the  results  of  their  discovciies. 

21.  To  this  learned  society,  first  established  in  Bengal,  under  the 
presidency  of  sir  William  Jones,  we  are  indebted  for  all  those  curious 
papers  preserved  in  the  several  volumes  of  the  Asiatic  Researches 
and  the  Indian  Annual  Register,  and  which  have  so  largely  contrib- 
uted to  enlarge  the  boundaries  of  oriental  literature.  To  the  names 
already  mentioned,  as  having  taken  the  lead  in  this  curious  branch  of 
science,  we  may  add  those  of  our  countrymen,  Halhed,Vansitt;'-.i 
Shore,  (lord  Teignmouth,  the  second  president,  on  the  death  -"^  ^'^ 


MODERN  HISTORY  397 

William,  1,794,^  Davie, Colebrook,Wilford,Rennell, Hunter,  Bcntley, 
Marsden,  Orme,  Carey,  Buchanan,  Baiiovv,  Harrington,  Edmoiibtoiie, 
Kirkpatrick,  i^c. 

22.  At  the  commencement  of  the  present  century,  it  became  ob- 
vious to  the  marquis  of  Wellesle}',  then  governor-general,  that  the 
state  of  the  British  empire  in  India  absolutely  required,  that  the  per- 
sons sent  out  to  discharge  the  important  functions  oi  magistrates,  judges^ 
ambassadors,  and  governors  of  provinces,  should  have  som»  bettei 
means  of  qualifying  themselves  for  sucn  high  stations  and  complicated 
duties,  than  were  then  in  existence.  His  lordship's  view  of  these 
matters,  as  recorded  in  the  minute  of  council,  dated  August  18, 1  800, 
is  highly  deserving  of  consideration,  and  his  plan  for  iorming  ana  en- 
dowing a  college  for  these  purposes  at  Calcutta,  reflect  the  highest 
credit  on  his  wisdom  and  discernment,  though  the  latter  has  not  been 
carried  into  execution  in  the  way  his  lordshiii  proposed,  for  want  of 
funds.  The  East  India  College,  since  established  in  Hertfordshire, 
may  be  considered  as  entirely  owing  to  the  adoption  by  the  company 
of  the  enlightened  principles  contained  in  the  minute  alluded  to.  A 
system  of  oriental  education  is  now  effectually  established,  which, 
though  on  a  much  more  contracted  scale,  and  in  a  great  measure  con- 
tined  to  England,  bids  fair,  it  is  to  be  hoped,  to  accomplish  most  of 
the  ends  contemplated  by  his  lordship  in  his  original  design  of  Ibunding 
a  college  at  Fort  \V^illiam,  in  Bengal,  namely,  "  to  perpetuate  the  im- 
mense advantages  derived  to  the  company  from  their  possessions  in 
India,  and  to  establish  the  British  empire  in  India  on  the  solid  founda- 
tions of  ability,  integrity,  virtue,  and  religion." 

23.  Of  the  studies  to  be  pursued,  according  to  lord  Wellosley's 
plan,  a  competent  notion  may  be  formed  from  the  following  list  of 
professorships  and  lectures  : — Arabic,  Persian,  Sanscrit,  Hindostanee, 
Bengal,  TeJinga,  Mahvatta,  Tamula,  and  Canara,  languages ;  Mahom- 
edan  law -Hindoo  law  ;  Ethics,  civil  jurisprndence,  and  the  law  of 
nations  ;  English  law  ;  political  economy,  commercial  institutions  and 
interests  of  the  East  India  Conipany,  geography  and  mathematics  ; 
modern  languages  of  Europe;  Greek,  Latm,  and  English  classics  j 
general  history,  ancient  and  modern  ;  the  histoiy  and  antiquities  ot 
Hindoostan  and  the  Deckan  ;  natural  history  ;  botany,  chemistiy,  and 
astronomy. 

24.  Though  the  company  saw  reason  to  withhold  its  countenance 
from  the  original  institution,  the  studies  above  chalked  out  have  been, 
in  a  great  measure,  adopted  in  the  Hertfordshire  college,  and  its  gen- 
eral success  hitherto  has  been  pronounced  answerable  to  the  expecta- 
tions of  those  who  were  most  solicitous  in  effecting  its  establishment. 
The  education  of  the  young  men,  destined  to  fill  the  civil  offices  in 
India,  is  how  therefore  partly  European  and  partly  Asiatic;  for  so 
much  of  the  collegiate  establishment  in  India  may  be  said  to  remain, 
tliat  there  the  students,  who  have  been  taught  in  England  tlie  elements 
of  Asiatic  languages,  are  enabled  to  advance  to  perfection,  and  to  be- 
come masters  of  the  several  dialects  prevailing  through  the  peninsula. 
Though  the  original  plan  of  the  noble  founder  of  the  college  of  Fort 
William  has  not  yet  been  adopted  by  the  East  India  Company,  yet  to 
apply  the  words  of  one  of  the  most  distinguished  of  our  orientalists, 
*'  Good  has  been  done,  which  cannot  be  undone  ;  sources  of  useful 
knowledge,  moral  instruction,  and  political  utility,  have  been  opened 
to  the  natives  of  India,  which  can  never  be  closed."  In  1,814,  an 
ecclesiastical  establishment,  under  the  immediate  auspices  of  govern- 
ment, was  formed  for  India;,  the  right  reverend  Dr.  Thomai  Fansbaw 

Li  1 


398  MODERN  HISTORY. 

Middlelon  being  consecrated  at  the  archiepiscopal  palace,  at  Lambetii^ 
the  first  bishop  of  Calcutta. 

It  must  surprise  the  English  reader  to  be  told,  that  the  population 
of  the  British  empire  in  India  has  been  lately  estimated  at  90,000,000  ! 


STATE    OF    ARTS,    SCIENCES,    RELIGION,    LAWS,     GOVERN- 
MENT, &c. 

1.  The  historical  events  of  the  eighteenth  century  have,  we  must 
confess,  been  found  to  be  of  such  magnitude  and  importance,  as  to 
occupy  rather  too  large  a  space  in  a  work  professing  to  be  merely 
elementary  ;  but  we  should  be  compelled  in  a  still  greater  degree  to 
exceed  the  liniits  assigned  to  us,  if  we  were  to  attempt  to  enter  into 
the  details  of  the  very  extraordinary  progress  that  has  taken  place 
during  the  same  period,  in  arts,  sciences,  and  literature  ;  some  changes, 
indeed,  have  occurred,  and  more  been  contemplated,  in  religion,  laws, 
and  government,  but  in  regard  to  the  former,  almost  all  things  have 
become  new  :  we  have  new  arts  and  new  sciences  ;  and  in  literature, 
such  an  overtlowing  of  books  upon  every  subject  that  could  possibly 
occupy  or  interest  the  mind  of  man,  that  the  most  diligent  compiler  of 
catalogues  would  fail  in  endeavouring  barely  to  enumerate  them. 

2.  ft  is  somewhat  extiaordinary,  indeed,  that  this  great  and  rapid 
advancement  of  knov.ledge  has  after  all  been  confined  to  only  a  small 
portion  of  the  globe.  The  great  continent  of  Africa,  though  better 
known  than  in  past  times,  has  made  no  advances  in  civilization.  Asia, 
though  many  parts  have  been  diligently  explored  during  the  last  centu- 
ry, and  a  large  portion  of  it  actually  occupied  by  Europeans,  remains, 
as  to  the  natives,  in  its  original  state.  The  vast  empire  of  China  has 
made  no  progress  at  all.  Japan  has  effectually  shut  the  door  against 
all  improvement.  South  An;erica,  indeed,  though  labouring  under 
difficulties  unfriendly  to  the  progress  of  knowledge,  is  yet  reported  to 
be  making  no  inconsiderable  advances,  particularly  in  Mexico,  where 
both  the  arts  and  sciences  are  cultivated  with  credit  and  effect;  In 
North  America,  also,  the  arts  and  sciences  and  literature  may  certainly 
be  said  to  be  in  a  progressive  state,  but  under  circumstances  of  rather 
slow  and  partial  improvement.* 

3.  Civilized  Europe  is  the  only  part  of  the  world  that  can  claim  the 
credit  of  almost  ail  that  has  been  done  towards  the  advancement  of 
Knowledge  since  the  commencement  of  the  eighteenth  century,  and 
only  a  few  parts  after  all  of  civilized  Europe  itself.  Turkey  has  stood 
still,  as  well  as  her  Grecian  dependencies,  till  very  lately.  Spain, 
Portugal,  and  even  the  greater  part  of  Italy,  have  labour^u  wider  dif- 
ficulties and  restrictions  exceedingly  inimical  to  their  3avaftcement, 
and  which  have  greatly  arrested  their  prepress  in  the  career  of  letters 
and  philosophy.  The  north  and  north-eastern  parts  of  Europe  have 
produced  many  learned  men,  have  been  diligently  explored,  and  ma- 
terials at  least  collected  for  great  improvements  ;  other  parts  are  also 
upon  the  advance  :  but  England,  France^  and  Germany^  are  undoubt- 

[•  The  writer  must  be  under  a  mistake.  Is  it  not  acknowledged  through- 
out Europe,  that  the  United  States  of  North  America  are  not  only  farther 
advanced,  but  faster  advancing,  in  the  discoveries  of  science,  and  that 
their  progress  ia  KUrature  it  aMr«  rapid^  thaa  any  other  aalion  of  the  new 


MODERN  HISTORY.  399 

edly  the  principal  countries  to  which  we  must  look  for  the  most  strik- 
ing progress  in  every  branch  of  human  knowledge.  In  these  three 
countries,  in  particular,  discoveries  have  now  certainly  been  made,  and 
principles  established,  which  can  never  be  lost  again,  and  which  must, 
as  far  as  they  may  extend,  be  constantly  operating  to  the  lasting  im- 
provement 01  the  world  at  large. 

4.  It  would  be  quite  unnccessarj^  to  go  back  to  the  origin,  or  former 
state,  either  of  the  arts  or  sciences,  now  known  and  cultivated  in  Eu- 
rope. It  is  pretty  generally  understood,  that,  comparatively  with  the 
pge  of  the  world,  they  hure  been  only  very  recently  submitted  to  such 
juocesses  as  bid  fair  to  bring  thorn  to  the  h'ghest  stale  of  perfection. 
One  art  hri  helped  another,  and  new  sciences  been  brought  to  light, 
that  have  greatly  promoted  the  advancement  of  those  before  under- 
stood and  cultivated.  Galvanism  has  assisted  electricity  ;  and  gal- 
\:  nism  and  electricity'  together  been  exceedingly  serviceable  to 
chemistrj'  ;  chemistrv-  to  niineralcgy,  and  so  forth  :  new  sj'stems  and 
srrangemcnts,  and  new  nomenclatures,  have  contributed  greatly  to 
rende^  every  step  thnt  has  been  taken  more  accurate  and  certain,  and 
to  place  eveij  object  of  attention  or  inquiiy  more  exactly  in  the  rank 
and  order  it  sivpuld  occup}'  in  the  general  circle  of  arts  and  sciences  ; 
but  the  thing  of  most  importance  of  all,  in  regard  to  the  improvements 
tiiat  have  taken  place  since  the  beginning  or  middle  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  is,  that  every  thing  has  been  conducted  exactly  upon  those 
principles,  which  the  great  lord  Bacon  so  strongly  recommended,  and 
has,  therefore,  been  found  conducive  to  all  those  great  ends,  the  neg- 
lect of  v.hich,  in  his  own  and  preceding  ages,  he  so  much  deplored  : 
e^rry  tiling  has  had  a  tendency  to  augment  the  powers,  dimin!.«h  the 
pains,  or  increase  the  happiness  of  mankind. 

5.  Amongst  the  sciences  so  cultivated  and  advanced,  since  the  sev- 
enteenth centurj',  as  justly  to  he  regarded  as  new,  we  may  rank  chem- 
idry,  botany,  eheiricity.  galvanism^  mineralogy,  geology,  and  in  many 
respects,  geography  :  eveiy  one  of  these  sciences  has  been  placed  on  so 
very  different  a  footing,  by  the  recent  manner  of  treating  them,  and  by 
nev/  discoveries,  that  it  is  better,  perhaps,  at  once  to  consider  ihem  as 
new  sciences,  than  to  advert  to  former  systems,  founded  on  totally  er- 
roneous principles,  and  which  have  been,  on  that  account,  very  rea- 
sonably exploded. 

6.  Chemistry,  however,  even  in  the  cotirse  of  the  period  before  us, 
has  undeig;one  very  essentia!  changes  ;  it  is  now  not  only  a  very  diifer 
cut  science  from  the  chemistry  that  prevailed  antecedent  to  the  eigh- 
trenth  century  ;  but  the  eighteenth  centurj'^  itself  has  witnessed  a  re- 
markable revolution  in  its  leading  principles  :  some,  indeed,  of  the 
niost  important  changes  approach  nearer  to  the  nineteenth  than  the 
seventeentn  century,  if  they  do  not  actually  belong  to  the  former  ;  at 
all  eVents,  it  was  not  till  towards  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  centuiy 
that  chemical  experiments  had  been  pushed  so  far  as  to  displace  tw-* 
of  the  elements  of  the  old  philosophy,  and  totally  supersede  the  pre- 
vailing theory  of  heat,  light,  and  combustion  ;  a  theory  which  ^v^s 
itself  not  much  more  than  half  a  century  old.  Stahl,  the  celebrated 
disciple  of  Becher,  born  in  1,660,  but  who  lived  to  1,734,  has  the  credit 
of  being  the  author  of  the  phlogistic  system,  which  began  to  be  attack- 
ed late  in  the  last  century,  and  seems  now  to  be  totally  exploded. 
Whether  the  rival  theoiy  will  ultimately  maintain  its  ground  in  all 
points,  may,  perhaps,  appear  still  doubtful  to  some  :  the  French  claim 
to  be  the  authors  of  the  new  theoiy  ;  but  though  the  experiments  they 
very  ably  conducted  were  highty  conducive  to  the  establishment  of  it) 


400  MODERN  HISTORY. 

the  way  seems  to  have  been  more  opened  to  them  by  others  than  they 
are  willing  to  acknowledge,  particularly  by  English  observers.  The 
phlogistic  system  vyas  a  plausible  theory  in  certain  respects,  but  in 
others  totaily  indefensible  ;  and,  perhaps,  a  better  proof  of  the  utility 
of  repeated  experiments  could  not  be  produced,  than  that  which  as- 
certained, that,  instead  of  the  extrication  of  a  particular  substance  by 
combustion,  something  was  undoubtedly  added  to,  or  imbibed  by,  the 
combustible  body,  in  order  to  the  separation  of  its  parts  ;  that,  in  foot, 
in  the  actual  process  of  combustion,  affinity  produces  a  double  decom- 
position, and  that  a  certain  portion  of  the  atmosphere  entering  into 
union  with  the  combustible  body  produces  all  those  appearances, 
wLich,  under  the  former  system  had  been  attributed  to  the  ex- 
•/ication  of  an  unknown  principle  of  iiJlammability,  denominated 
phlogiston. 

7.  The  very  curious  experiments,  made  to  confirm  and  establish  the 
latter  system,  have  been  of  tiie  greatest  importance  in  regard  to  other 
matters,  particularly  to  that  branch  of  the  new  chemistry  which  haa 
been  denominated  \he  pneumatic  system.  The  discoveries  in  this  line 
of  experiment,  which  has  the  air  for  its  subject,  exceed,  perhaps,  all 
others  in  importance  and  interest  :  the  analysis  of  the  common  atmos- 
phere has  opened  to  our  view  a  series  of  physical  operations  constant- 
ly going  on,  the  most  wonderful  and  delicate  that  can  possibly  be  con- 
ceived :  the  respiration  of  animals  is  of  this  description.  The  atmos- 
phere is  now  known  to  be  a  most  curious  compound  of  two  sorts  of 
air,  or  gases,  (as  they  have  been  named  of  late,)  the  one  capable  of 
suvtporling  life  and  tlame,  the  other  destructive  of  both  :  in  combus-r 
tion,  calcination  of  metals,  and  respiration,  the  process  is  the  same, — 
a  decomposition  oi"  the  atmosphere  :  the  pure  part  is  imbibed,  and  the 
impure  part  left  subject  to  further  contamination,  by  what  is  given 
out  by  the  combustible,  calcining,  or  respiring  bodies  during  the  ope- 
ration ;  for,  as  it  was  before  said,  the  decomposition  in  all  instances  is 
a  double  one  ;  the  prop(>rtion  of  the  two  parts  of  the  atmosphere  has 
been  ascertained  to  be  in  a  hundred,  twenty-two  of  pure  or  -mial,  and 
seventy-eight  of  impure  or  azotic  gas. 

•'f.  The  discovery  of  tne  vital  air  is  acknowledged  by  M.  Lavdisier 
to  have  been  common  to  himself  with  two  other  eminent  chemists,  Dr. 
i'nestly  and  the  celebrated  Scheele.  Dr.  Priestly  discovered  it  in 
1,774,  Scheele  in  1,777,  M.  Lavoisier  in  1,775  :  the  fomier  seems  un- 
dou'otedly  to  have  the  best  claim  to  the  discovery.  M.  Lavoisier,  at 
first,  called  it  "  highly  respirable  air  ;"  afterwards,  as  entirely  essen- 
tial to  the  support  of  life,  "  vital  air:"  Dr.  Priestly,  who  lived  and 
died  an  advocate  for  the  phlogistic  system,  "  dephlogisticated  air  :" 
and  Scheele  called  it  "  empyreal  air."  It  at  last  obtained  another 
name,  from  its  being  supposed  to  be  the  cause  of  acidity,  viz.  "  oxy- 
gen gas." 

9.  Who  i?  justly  to  be  accounted  the  father  of  the  pneumatic  chem- 
istry, it  would,  perhaps,  be  hazardous  to  say  :  Dr.  Black  of  Edinburgh 
h.as  had  the  credit  of  being  so,  from  his  experiments  on  the  carbonic 
acid.  It  has  been  claimed  for  Dr.  Priestley,  Scheele,  and  M,  Lavoi- 
sier :  the  discoveries  in  this  line  certainly  constitute  a  grand  era  in 
chemistry.  Tl>e  ipany  various  kinds  of  gases  that  have  been  now 
discovered  ;  the  very  curious  experiments  made  to  ascertain  their 
properties  ;  the  instruments  invented  to  render  such  experiments  cer- 
tain ;  the  new  compounds  that  have  been  detected  by  their  means, 
and  their  operation  and  effects  in  almost  every  branch  of  physics,  it 
would  far  exceed  our  limits  to  describe  ;  but  it  is  impossible  not  to 


MODERN  HISTORY.  401 

.notice  the  extraordinary  discovery  of  the  decomposition  of  water, 
which  belongs  entirely  to  pneumatic  chemistry. 

10.  Till  within  less  than  half  a  century  ago,  water  was  esteemed  to 
be  so  certainly  an  elementary  principle,  that  but  few  ever  dreamed  of 
its  being  otherwise  ;  and  it  was  almost  by  accident  that  it  was  at  last 
found  to  be  a  compound.  In  the  course  of  certain  pneumatic  experi- 
ments, it  was  -ascertained  by  Mr.  Cavendish,  that  n-ater  was  produced 
by  a  combination  of  two  particular  gases  :  both  analysis  and  synthesis 
wei'e  resorted  to,  to  render  this  curious  discovery  more  certain,  and  it 
was  at  length  ascertained,  not  only  that  those  two  gases  were  constant- 
ly produced  in  certain  proportions  from  the  decomposition  of  water, 
but  that  water  was  as  constantly  the  result  of  a  judicious  mixture  of 
those  two  gases  :  the  gases  thus  constituting  the  proper  principles  of 
water,  were  the  vital  and  inflammable  airs  of  the  first  chemical  nomen- 
clature of  modern  days,  better  known  now  by  the  names  of  oxygen 
gas  and  hydrogen  gas  ;  the  latter  evidently  so  called  from  its  im- 
portaiice,  as  a  constituent  base  or  radical  of  water  ;  we  owe  the  dis- 
covery of  it  to  our  countryman,  Mr.  Cavendish.  The  prt)portion  be- 
tween the  two  gases  in  these  curious  experiments  has  been  found  to  be 
eighty-five  of  oxygen  to  fifteen  of  hydrogen  ;  both  oxygen  and  hydro- 
gen being  combustible,  their  combination  for  experimental  purposes 
is  brought  about  hj  inflammation,  through  the  means  of  the  electric 
spark. 

11.  Having  given  this  short  account  of  the  leading  discoveries  in 
pneumatic  chemistiy  ;  discoveries  which  have  opened  to  us  total!}' 
neiv  views,  of  certain  physical  operations  of  the  first  importance,  and 
greatly  extended  our  knowledge  of  chemical  substances  and  their  prop- 
erties, simple  and  compound,  visible  and  invisible,  confineable  and 
unconlineable  :  we  shall  be  compelled  to  be  much  more  brief  in  what 
further  relates  to  modem  chemistry. 

12.  Of  late  years  almost  all  the  substances  in  nature  have  been  ex- 
amined ;  and  probably  almost  all  the  combinations  of  them  exhausted : 
new  metals  to  a  large  amount,  new  earths,  and  new  acids  have  been 
discovered  ;  the  fixed  alkalis  decomposed,  and  their  nature  ascertain- 
ed ;  the  whole  range  of  chemical  athnities  and  attractions  nicely  ar- 
ranged and  determined,  as  far  as  experiment  can  reach  ;  and  mr-y 
elastic  aeriform  fluids  brought  to  light,  distinguished  irom  each  other 
by  their  difterent  bases,  which  were  totally  unknown  before  to  natural 
philosophers,  under  tiie  forms  in  which  they  are  noAv  obtained  ;  and 
which  have  been  thought  desen'ing  of  being  tonned  into,  ^  fourth  class 
or  kingdom,  amongst  the  productions  of  nature  :  the  proper  distinction 
of  these  elastic  fluids,  or  gases,  as  they  have  been  denominated,  (after 
a  term  adopted  by  Vanhdmont,  sigiiitying  a  spirit  or  incoerciblc 
vapour,)  being  that  of  some  base,  saturated  with  the  cause  of  heat  or 
expansion,  called  in  the  new  nomenclature  caloric  ;  by  means  of  some 
of  these  gases,  so  combined  with  caloric,  a  power  has  been  obtained 
of  fusing  the  most  refractory  substances  in  nature. 

13.  To  render  the  nice  and  delicate  experiments  necessary  in  this 
new  branch  of  chemical  science  more  accurate,  numerous  instruments 
have  been  invented,  o{yery  curious  construction  ;  such  as  the  eudiom- 
eter, to  measure  the  purity  of  any  given  portion  of  air  ;  the  gazometer, 
A)  measure  the  quantities,  Vr.  ol  gases;  the  calorimeter,  for  measures 
of  heat ;  to  which  we  maj  ddd  various  descriptions  of  thermometers 
and  /J?/ro7ne?ers,  particularly  the  differential  thermometer,  invented  by 
Mr.  I^eslie,  of  Edinburgh,  and  its  accojnpaniments  ;  the  pyroscope, 
or  measure  of  radiant  heat ;  the  photometer,  to  ascertain  the  intensity 

LI  2  51 


402  MODERN  HISTORY. 

of  light ;  very  curious  and  delicate  balances,  some  that  arc  said  to  be 
capable  of  ascertaining  a  weight  down  to  the  seven  millionth  part, 
deserve  to  be  mentioned,  as  extraordinary  instances  of  skilful  work- 
manship ;  many  diffprent  sorts  of  hygrometers  also  have  been  con- 
structed, particularly  one  by  the  same  ingenious  experimentalist 
already  mentioned,  Mr.  Leslie,  calculated  to  render  more  correct  the 
examination  of  all  processes  dependant  upon  evaporation ;  but  it 
l^'ould  be  endless  to  attempt  to  describe  the  many  instruments  and  con- 
trivances rendered  necessary  by  the  extreme  delicacy  and  minuteness 
of  modem  chemical  and  pneumato-chemical  experiments  ;  it  is  suffi- 
cient to  state,  in  a  history  of  the  progress  of  arts  and  sciences,  that 
in  ail  instances,  invention  appears  to  have  kept  pace  with  experiment ; 
and  that  the  world  has  been  almost  as  much  enriched  by  the  new-in- 
vented means  of  discovery,  as  by  the  discoveries  to  which  they  have 
conduced  ;  while  th'i  skill  and  judgment  requisite  to  construct  the 
expensive  and  complicated  instruments  indispensably  necessary  for 
ascertaining  the  analysis  and  synthesis  of  Iwdies,  with  such  exquisite 
precision,  as  to  quantity  and  proportion,  have  conspired  greatly  to 
advance  the  several  arts  connected  with  such  machinery,  as  well  as  to 
quicken  the  intelligence  and  ingenuity  of  the  artists  themselves  ;  in 
tl»is  line,  perhaps,  nobody  has  acquiiea  greater  celebrity  than  the  late 
Mr.  Ramsden,  the  maker  of  the  balance  of  the  Royal  Society,  whose 
extraordinary  powers  have  been  alluded  to  above. 

14.  Amortg  those  who  have  principally  distinguished  themselves  in 
the  improvement  and  advancement  of  chemical  science,  since  the 
commencement  of  the  eighteenth  century,  we  may  justly  mention  the 
names  of  Stahl,  Fourcroy,  Macquer,  Lavoisier,  Guytonmorveau, 
Berthollet,  Klaproth,  Vauquelin,  Chaptal,  Gay-Lussac,  KiiTian,  Tcn- 
nant,  Wollaston,  Priestley,  Cavendish,  Black,  Invine,  Crawford, 
Leslie,  Hall,  Thompson,  Brande,  and  Davy.  To  the  last  of  whom, 
our  illustrious  countryman,  we  stand  indebted  for  some  of  the  most 
remarkable  discoveries,  and  most  laborious  analyses  of  compound 
substances,  which  have  taken  place  under  the  new  system  ;  nor  has 
he  been  deficient  in  applying  his  scientific  attainments  to  practical 
purposes,  in  his  elements  ot  chemical  agriculture,  and  above  all,- the 
safety-lamp,  whereby  he  may  possibly,  in  combating  the  fatal  effect? 
ol  the  fire  demp  in  coal  mines,  have  contributed  to  preserve  the  lives 
of  thousands  and  thousands  of  his  fellow  creatures  ;  this  discovery 
was  the  fruit  of  many  most  laborious,  difficult,  and  even  dangerous  ex- 
periments. 

13.  When  we  consider  the  many  uses  of  chemistry,  and  the  im- 
mense advantages  to  be  derived  from  every  improvement  of  it  in  a 
variety  of  manufactures,  in  medicine,  in  metallui^y,  in  the  arts  of 
dying,  painting,  brewing,  distilling,  tanning,  making  glass,  enamels, 
porcelain,  and  many  others,  we  may  easily  conceive  that  the  progress 
and  advancement  of  this  one  branch  of  science  alone,  during  die  last 
and  present  century,  must  have  contributed  largely  to  the  improve- 
ment of  many  things,  on  which  all  the  comforts  and  conveniences,  the 
happiness,  the  security,  the  well-being,  the  prosperity,  and  even  the 
Kves  of  men,  depend- 


BOTANY 

J.  BoTAirr  is  another  of  the  sciences,  which,  (torn  the  charge* 
It  baa  undeigone}  and  the  great  progress  it  has  mad«  Bin«e  the 


MODERN  HISTORY.  4(53 

aommencement  of  the  eighteenth  century,  may  justly  be  regarded  as 
new. 

2.  Already  were  the  names  of  Ray,  Rivinus,  and  Touniefort,  well 
known  to  the  lovers  of  this  interesting  study,  foi-ming  as  it  were  a  new 
era  in  the  history  of  botany,  and  imparting  a  lustre  to  the  close  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  for  which  it  will  ever  be  memorable.  Their  at- 
tempts at  arrangement  may  be  justly  considered  as  the  commencement 
of  a  career  which  was  destined  to  acquire  its  full  degree  of  develope- 
ment  during  the  eighteenth  century,  under  the  happy  auspices  of  the 
most  celebrated  botanist  the  world  ever  saw  ;  the  great  and  illustrious 
Linna'us. 

3.  This  extraordinary  man  was  bom  at  Rashult,  in  the  province  of 
Smaland,  in  Sweden,  on  the  24th  of  May,  1,707,  and  before  he  was 
twenty-one  years  of  age,  had  made  himself  so  thoroughly  acquainted 
with  the  study  of  plants,  as  well  as  with  the  merits  and  defects  of  his 
predecessors  in  that  line,  as  to  conceive  the  idea  of  remodelling  the 
vyhole  fabric  of  systematic  botany,  and  of  placing  it  on  a  new  founda 
tion,  namely,  the  sexvaUty  of  vegetables.  This  liold  and  enterprising 
undertaking  he  not  only  projected,  but  accomplished  with  a  rapidity 
and  success  that  excited  the  wonder  and  astonishment  both  of  hit 
friends  and  enemies. 

4.  His  first  work  was  pul)lished  in  1,730,  being  a  brief  exposition  of 
the  new  principle  on  which  his  system  was  to  bo  founded  ;  and  thu 
method  may  be  said  to  have  been  completed  in  l,7a7,  when  be  pub 
lished  his  Genera  Plontarum,  which  contained  a  description  and  ar 
rangement  of  nearly  one  thousand  genera,  comprising  upwards  of 
eight  thousand  species,  and  constituting  what  has  been  since  known  by 
the  name  of  tlie  sexval  system. 

5.  At  first  it  was  either  opposed  as  a  fanciful  innovation,  or  received 
v;ith  doubt  and  distrust  ;  but  its  fame  soon  began  to  spread,  and  to 
bear  down  before  it  all  opposition,  til!  it  ultimately  met  with  the 
almost  universal  reception  of  botanists  in  ever}'  country  in  Europe. 

6.  In  1,742,  Linnaeus  was  chosen  professor  of  botany  at  Upsal,  and 
in  1,753  he  published  his  S]  ecies  Planiarnin.  His  authority  was  now 
supreme,  and  the  impulse  he  communicated  to  the  study  of  vegetables 
unprecedented  in  the  annals  of  botany  ;  hence  the  various  voyages 
that  were  undertaken  by  his  immediate  disciples,  Kalm,  Lgepling, 
Hasselquist,  and  others,  or  which  have  been  since  undertaken  by  their 
successors,  aided  by  the  niunificence  of  princes,  or  the  zeal  of  private 
individuals,  as  well  as  the  various  societies  that  ^^ere  sooner  or  later 
instituted,  with  a  view  to  the  ad\ancement  of  botanical  knowledge  ; 
amongst  which  the  Linnsean  society  of  London,  founded  in  1,788,  stands 
pre-eminent,  under  the  presidency  of  sir  James  Edward  Smith,  one 
of  the  most  distinguished  of  the  followers  of  Linnaeus,  and  the  pos- 
sessor of  his  herbarium,  library,  and  manuscripts. 

7.  The  acquisitions  thus  made  to  the  mass  of  botanical  knowledge, 
are  altogether  astonishing.  Botanists  are  now  said  to  be  acquainted 
with  upwards  of  forty  thousand  species  of  plants  ;  and  still  there  are 
regions  of  the  earth  unexplored,  and  flowers  without  a  name,  ("  et  sunt 
sine  nomine  Jiores.''^) 

8.  We  cannot,  however,  refuse  to  acknowledge  that  Ijotany  has  also 
derived  the  most  important  advantages  from  such  cultivators  of  the 
science  as  cannot  be  ranked  amongst  the  disciples  of  Linnaeus,  though 
they  have  equally  contributed  to  the  advancement  of  the  knowledge  of 
plants,  at  least  in  the  department  of  the  ptiK^y  of  their  natural  affini 
lies  ;  the  grand  and  ultimate  end  of  botany,  which  Linnaeus  himself 


404  MODERN  HISTORY. 

knew  well  how  to  appreciate,  and  even  to  improve,  as  may  be  seen  lb 
h;s  prelections  pubiisiied  by  Giseke,  and  in  his  Fragments  of  a  Natu- 
ral Method.  But  it  v.as  left  for  the  illustrious  Jussieu,  the  most  ac- 
complished botanist  of  the  present  age,  to  give  to  that  method  the 
comparative  perfection  which  it  has  actually  obtained,  and  to  erect 
the  noble  surierstructure  of  his  Genera  Planiarum ;  a  work  exhibiting 
the  most  phiiosophicai  arrangement  of  plants,  as  well  as  the  most 
coorpiete  view  of  their  natural  affinities,  that  Avas  ever  presented  to 
the  covitemplalionof  man. 

9.  This  work  wiis  published  at  Paris  in  1,789,  and  the  natural 
method  of  Jussieu,  which  may  be  regarded  as  having  at  all  times 
stood  in  opposition  to  the  arti/irial  method  of  Linnseus,  seems  now  to 
be  advancing  to  a  more  direct  rivalship  than  ever.  Even  in  the 
works  of  such  botanists  as  profess  to  be  the  disciples  of  Linnaus,  there 
seems  to  be  a  leaning  to  the  method  of  Jussieu  ;  but  whether  the 
natural  method  of  the  latter  will  be  suffered  ultimately  to  prevail,  or 
the  artificial  meihod  of  the  former,  time  only  can  show. 

10.  Great,  however,  as  the  progress  of  systematic  botany  has  un- 
doubtedly been,  during  the  course  of  the  last  and  beginning  of  the 
present  century,  the  progress  of  physiological  botany  has  perhaps 
been  still  greater.  In  proof  of  this,  it  will  be  sufficient  to  mention  the 
names  of  Hales,  Bonnet,  Du  Hamel,  Hedwig,  Spallanzani,  Gaertner, 
Knight,  Keith,  and  Mirbel  ;  each  of  whom  has  distinguished  himself 
in  the  tieldof  phytological  investigation,  and  eminently  contributed  to 
the  advancement  of  the  science.  Above  all,  we  must  not  fail  to  men- 
tion the  name  of  Priestley,  as  being  the  first  who  introduced  into  the 
study  of  phytology  the  aid  of  pneumatic  chemistry,  which,  under  the 
happy  auspices  of  Ingenhouz,  Scnebipr,  Saussure,  Ellis,  and  Davy, 
and  lastly  of  Gay-Lussac  and  Kenard,  has  done  m.ore,  to  elucidate  the 
phenomena  of  vegetation,  than  all  other  means  of  investigation,  and 
has  furnished  as  the  foundation  of  the  physiology  of  plants  a  body  of 
the  most  curious  and  undoubted  facts. 

11.  Before  we  dismiss  this  part  of  our  subject,  it  is  not  unfit  that  we 
should  notice  the  extraordinaiy  progress  that  has  been  made  at  the 
same  time  in  distinct  branches  of  the  science,  as  well  as  in  the  appli- 
cation of  the  arts  of  diawing,  engraving,  and  colouring,  for  the  pur- 
poses of  illustration,  and  for  exhibiting  to  the  eye,  at  all  times,  in  all 
places,  and  at  all  seasons,  the  beautiful  and  interesting  productions  of 
the  vegetable  kingdom,  in  such  perfection,  as,  in  some  degree,  to  su- 
persede the  necessity  of  living  specimens  ;  sometimes  so  rare  and  in- 
accessible as  to  be  out  of  the  reach  of  the  most  scientific.  There  is 
no  branch  of  knowledge  which  has  furnished  more  splendid  and  elabo- 
rate works  of  this  nature,  than  that  of  botany,  or  in  which  the  arts  have 
been  carried  to  a  greater  degree  of  perfection  and  delicacy  ;  and  as  a 
study  so  elegant  and  agreealjle  cannot  well  be  rendered  too  general, 
it  is  pleasing  to  observe,  that  through  the  improvements  that  have  thus 
taken  place,  and  the  f'cilities  afforded  to  such  publications,  not  k 
month  passes  in  this  kingdom  without  large  additions  being  made  to 
the  general  stock  of  botanical  knowledge,  in  works  of  singular  beauty 
and  correctness  ;  though  far  from  costly,  considering  the  pains  bestow- 
ed upon  them. 

12.  The  lovers  of  botany  stand  greatly  indebted  also,  to  those 
learned  persons  who  have  made  it  lbn»r  particular  busine.ss  to  collect, 
examine,  and  describe  the  plants  of  countries  and  districts,  and  to 
supply  thsni  with  distinct  Floret,  ljt><h  foi-eign  and  domestic,  as  the 
Flora  Britannica  of  Smith,  the  Flora  Ai^lica  of  Hudsoa,  the  Fiora 


MODERN  HISTORY.  405 

Scotica  of  Li^htfoot,  the  Flora  Cantabrigiensis  of  Relhan,  the  Flora 
Oxoniensis  of  Sibthorpe,  the  Flora  Londinensis  of  Curtis,  the  Flora 
Graeca,  the  Flora  Peruviana,  the  Flora  Danica,  the  Flore  Francoise, 
and  others  much  too  numerous  to,  mention ;  in  the  same  class  may  be 
reckoned  those  works  which  are  still  further  confined  to  the  descrip- 
tion or  illustration  of  particular  genera  of  plants,  as  in  our  own  country, 
thf:  Carices,  by  Goodenough  ;  the  Grasses,  by  Stillingfleet ;  the 
Menthas  Britannicae,  by  Sole  ;  the  Pines,  by  Lambert ;  the  Fuci.  by 
Turner  :  and  various  others. 


ELECTRICITY. 

1.  Though  the  property  of  excitation  existinc:  in  amber,  (elektron,) 
appears  to  have  been  known  to  Thales  six  hundred,  and  to  Tneophras- 
tus  three  hundred  years  before  Christ,  yet  electricity  (which  takes  its 
name  from  this  circumstance)  and  galvanism,  as  it  is  still  called,  may 
decidedly  be  regarded  as  sciences  which  have  sprung  up  during  the 
period  to  which  our  present  inquiries  belong.  It  was  not,  indeed,  till 
towards  the  middle  of  the  eigliteenth  century  that  experiments  in 
electricity  were  pursued  with  any  degree  of  ardour,  success,  or  ad- 
vantage. Mr.  Hawksbee  wrote  learnedly  upon  the  subject  in  1,709, 
but  it  was  not  till  twenty  j'ears  afterwards  that  Mr.  Grey  and  M.  du 
Faye  at  Paris,  engaged  in  some  experiments  which  contributed  to 
throw  light  upon  the  subject.  Mr.  Grey,  who  resumed  his  experi- 
ments in  1,724,  saw  enough  to  lead  him  to  suppose  that  the  electric 
fluid  and  lightning  were  the  same,  Arhich  was  not,  however,  effectually 
proved  till  the  year  1,752,  when  the  celebrated  Dr.  Franklin,  of 
America,  with  great  ingenuity,  and  no  small  degree  of  courage,  ascer- 
tained the  fact  by  decisive  experiments  ;  a  discovery  which  he  soon 
applied  to  practical  purposes,  by  the  invention  of  metallic  conductors 
for  the  security  of  buildings,  ships,  kc,  during  storms. 

2.  As  experiments  could  not  be  profitably  undertaken  till  a  stn'table 
apparatus  was  provided,  it  is  equally  evident,  th;!t  the  improvement 
of  such  apparatus  m.ust  greatly  have  depended  on  the  progress  of  the 
science.  The  Leyden  phial  for  the  accumulation  of  the  electrical 
power  in  glass,  was  invented  about  1,745,  and  the  general  apparatus 
gradually  improved  by  Van  Marum,  Cuna'us,  Dr.  Nooth,  Mr.  Nairne, 
Dr.  Priestley,  Messrs.  Read,  Lane,  and  Adams.  To  proCessor  Volta, 
of  Corao,  we  stand  indebted  for  two  very  useful  and  important  electri- 
cal instruments,  the  electrophorus,  and  condenser  of  electricity.  Many 
sorts  of  electrometers  for  measuring  the  quantity  and  quality  of  elec- 
tricitv  in  rm  electrified  body,  have  also  betn  invented. 

3.  "in  1,747  electricity  began  to  be  used  for  medical  purposes,  and 
was  supposed  to  be  of  efficacy  in  cases  of  rheumatism,  deafness,  palsy, 
scrofula,  cancers,  abscesses,  gout,  fcc. ;  but  the  progress  of  medical 
electricity  has  not  been  great,  v.'hile  the  want  of  an  apparatus,  and  the 
knowledge  and  skill  requisite  to  apply  it  properly,  must  always  pre- 
vent its  becoming  any  very  common  remedy. 

4.  Galvanism,  which  may  be  said  to  have  been  engrafted  on  elec- 
tricity in  1,791.  was  the  discovery  of  the  celebrated  Galvani  of 
Bologna  ;  it  has  been  called  animal  electricity^  ;  his  first  experiments 
having  been  made  on  animals,  and  tending  "manifestly  to  prove  tlie 
identity  of  the  nervous  and  electric  fluids,"though  this  was  for  some 
limp  doubted.  M.  Galvani  discovered  that,  without  any  artificial 
electricity,  and  by  merely  presenting  some  conducting  substance  to 


406  MODERN  HISTORY 

different  parts  of  the  nerves  or  muscles  of  a  dissected  frog,  violent 
motions  were  produced,  exactly  similar  to  those  which  were  excited 
by  a  discharge  of  the  electrical  machine. 

5.  The  discovery  of  M.  Galvani  has  since  led  to  veir  important 
ends,  through  the  great  care  cind  attention  of  M.  Volta,  Avho,  improv- 
ing upon  his  discovery  of  the  power  of  conductors,  has  been  enabled 
to  supply  the  philosophical  world  with  an  instrument  of  very  extraor- 
dimiry  powers,  especially  for  purposes  of  chemical  decomposition. 
At  first  M.  Volta  was  led  to  suppose  that  it  required  only  a  set  of  dif- 
ferent conductors,  two  metals  and  a  fluid,  to  collect  and  distribute  the 
electrical  matter ;  he  considered  that,  upon  these  principles,  he  had 
produced  an  artificial  imitation  of  the  electrical  powers  exhibited  by 
the  torpedo,  the  gymnotus,  silurus,  and  tetrodon  electricus  ;  but  further 
disco\eries  demonstrated  that  there  was  a  chemical  agency  going  for- 
■«\ard  all  the  time,  and  that  much  depended  on  the  action  of  the  fluids 
on  the  metalb,  which  are  all  naturally  excellent  conductors,  but  become 
non-conductors  when  oxydated,  some  being  more  easily  oxydattd  than 
others.  The  voltaic  pile  is  a  simple  galvanic  combination  ;  a  series 
ot  lliem  lorms  a  battery.  The  most  perfect  galvanic  combination  is 
held  to  consist  in  such  an  arrangement  of  metals,  exposed  to  the  action 
of  an  oxydating  fluid,  as  are  liable  to  very  different  changes  ;  the 
greiitest  and  the  least.  In  every  simple  galvanic  combination,  water 
'k  decomposed,  the  oxygen  entering  into  union  with  the  metal,  and  the 
hydro^-en  being  evolved. 

6.  hince  this  discovery,  many  have  engaged  in  electro-chemical  re- 
searches, of  the  utmost  importance,  particularly  our  own  countiyman, 
sir  Humphrey  Davy.  His  experiments  on  the  alkalis  and  earths,  nnd 
discovery  oi  their  metallic  nature,  being  in  themselves  sufficient  to 
show  h9^v  "ide  a  range  ol'  inquiry  is  opened  to  the  experimentalist, 
by  this  powerful  agent ;  it  being  reasonable  to  suppose,  that  there  is 
scarcely  any  substance  in  nature,  either  above  or  below  the  surface  of 
the  earth,  that  is  not  subject,  more  or  less,  to  the  chemical  .agencies 
of  electricity.  Heretofore  the  observations  of  the  philosopher  were 
chiefly,  if  not  entirely,  confined  to  those  sudden  and  violent  changes 
which  take  place  through  any  powerful  concentration  of  the  eliectric 
fluid.  These  new  discoveries  seem  to  afford  him  a  fair  chance  and 
opportunity  of  tracing  some  at  least  of  those  manifold  changes  which 
may  be  brought  alxjut  in  a  more  quiet,  tranquil,  and  insensible  man- 
ner ;  and  which,  in  all  probability,  are  incessantly  operating  effects, 
hitherto  little  known  and  little  suspected.  It  is  obvious  that  medicine, 
chemistry,  physiology,  mineralogy,  and  geology,  may  all  be  grci'tly 
assisted  by  a  more  perfect  knowledge  of  such  curious  and  hitherto 
hidden  processes  of  nature.  Before  the  galvanic  method  of  exciting 
electricil)'  had  been  discovered,  many  veiy  curious  experiments  had 
been  made,  to  prove  the  influence  of  electricity  on  the  atmosphere, 
magnetism,  vegetation,  muscular  motion  ;  in  earthquakes,  volcanoes, 
and  other  natural  appearances  and  operations  ;  all  ol  which  are  likely 
to  become  better  known,  and  further  illustrated,  by  the  application  of 
the  electro-chemical  apparatus,  which,  since  its  first  invention,  has  been 
already  greatly  improved.  It  may  not  be  amiss  to  observe,  that  meteo- 
rology, as  a  particular  branch  of  knowledge,  has  been  greatly  aided 
by  all  the  improvements  spok^i  of  above  in  chemistry  and  electricity, 
and  in  the  invention  of  many  instruments,  very  simple,  but  chiefly  to 
be  referred  to  the  eighteenth  century  ;  as  the  barometer,  the  thermom- 
eter, the  hydrometer,  the  pluviameter,  or  rain-gnuge,  the  anemometer, 
snd  electrometer  already  mentioned.     Amongst  the  most  eminent  o( 


MODERN  HISTORY.  407 

those  who  hare  applied  themselves  to  this  study,  we  may  reckon 
Mes&rs.  Bouguer,  Saussure,  De  Luc,  Gay-Lussac,  Van-Marum,  Fer- 
guson, Cavalio,  &c. ;  Drs.  Franklin,  Blagden,  and  Priestley  ;  Messrs 
Canton  and  Beccaria 


MINERALOGY  AND  GEOLOGY. 

1.  Mineralogy  and  geology  are  reasonably  to  be  regarded  as  netk 
sciences  since  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century,  having  been  cul 
tivated  from  that  time  in  a  manner  totally  new,  and  greatly  advanced 
by  the  progress  made  in  other  sciences,  and  the  improvement  of  many 
arts.  They  are  both,  however,  still  so  much  in  their  infancy,  that  a 
ver}.'  brief  account  of  what  has  taken  place  during  the  last  and  present 
century  is  the  utmost  that  we  can  attempt. 

2.  It  was  not  till  towards  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  that  the 
modern  scientific  arrangements  of  minerals  began  to  occupy  the  atten- 
tion of  naturalists.  That  indefatigable  observer,  Linnaeus,  did  not 
overlook  this  branch  of  natural  history,  but  introduced  into  the  twelfth 
edition  of  his  "  Systema  Naturae,"  published  in  1,768,  a  systematic 
view  of  "  The  Regnum  Lapideum,"  which  he  divided  into  three 
classes,  petrce,  rrmiera;,  andfossilicE,  many  orders,  and  fifty-four  gene- 
ra. In  1,793,  Gmelin  republished  the  "Systema  Naturae"  ofLin- 
n^us,  with  alterations  and  improvements. 

3.  Linnaeus  did  not  take  the  lead  in  such  arrangements  :  in  his  own 
work  he  notices  the  preceding  systems  of  Bromelius,  who  published 
in  1,730  ;  Wallerius,  in  1,747;  Woltersdorf,  in  1,748  ;  Curtheuser,  in 
1,775  ;  Justi,  in  1,757  :  Cronstedt,  in  1,758  ;  and  Vogel,  in  1,762, 
Linnaeus,  however,  has  the  credit  of  having  first  reduced  the  science 
of  mineralogy  into  classes  and  orders,  and  Wallerius  and  himself  un- 
dertook the  arduous  and  hazardous  task  of  fixing  the  specific  characters 
of  minerals.  Wallerius's  second  system  appeared  in  1,772.  In  1,781, 
Veltheim  puolished  his  system  at  Brunswick,  and  in  1,782,  Bei^a- 
man's  made  its  first  appearance  at  Leipsic. 

4.  Before  this  time  the  celebrated  Werner,  professor  of  mineralc^ 
at  Freybui^,  in  Saxony,  had  published  a  treatise  on  the  classification 
of  minerals,  according  to  their  external  characters,  which  was  more 
fully  illustrated  in  his  notes  to  a  translation  of  Cronstedt,  which  ap- 
peared in  1,780.  Werner  has  obtained  a  name  amongst  mineralogists 
and  geologists,  which  stands  deservedly  high  ;  though  he  seems  only 
to  have  prepared  the  way  for  the  observations  and  experiments  of 
others,  by  an  accumulation  and  description  of  facts  and  appearances, 
extremely  curious  and  valuable.  The  fundamental  principle  in  Wer- 
ner's mineralogical  arrangement,  is  the  natural  affinity  of  fossils,  of 
which  he  enumerates  three  kinds  :  the  chemical,  the  oryctognostical, 
and  the  geognostic.  Mr.  Kirwin  first  introduced  the  Wernerian  sy3- 
tem  into  Britain,  in  his  treatise  on  mineralogy,  1,784. 

5.  In  1,773,  the  study  of  the  regular  or  crystalline  forms  of  minerals 
seemed  to  give  a  new  turn  to  mineralogy.  The  first  work  of  eminence 
in  this  line  was  the  Crystallographie  of  the  celebrated  Rome  de  1'  Isle, 
which  was  made  the  basis  of  the  system  of  Hauy,  published  in  1,801, 
All  mineral  bodies  are  supposed  by  this  system  to  be  reducible  by 
mechanical  division  to  an  integrant  molecule.  From  the  form  and 
component  parts,  it  has  been  proposed  to  deduce  the  specific  charac- 
ters. The  forms  of  the  integrant  molecule  are  found  to  be  tliree  ;  the 
wrahedron,  the  triangular  prism,  and  the  parallelapiped.    Much 


408  MODERN  HrSTORY. 

attention  has  been  paid  to  this  system,  and  it  must  be  acknowledged 
that  if  the  tests  proposed  were'  easily  to  be  applied,  and  chemistiy 
had  proceeded  so  far  as  thoroughly  to  enable  us  to  distinguish  between 
the  accidental  and  essential  ingredients  of  mmerals,  as  has  been  done 
in  some  remarkable  instances  with  much  effect,  more  direct  means  of 
distinguishing  minerals  could  scarcely  be  devised  :  but  as  things  stand 
at  present,  there  seems  to  be  too  much  geometry  and  chemistry  ne- 
cessary to  render  such  a  systejn  generally  useful.  In  l,8o8,  however, 
M.  Chevenix,  in  the  Annales  de  Chymie,  gave  great  support  to  the 
system  of  Hauy,  to  the  disparagement  of  that  oi  Werner,  to-\vhoin, 
nevertheless,  he  is  caret'ul  to  give  due  praise.  Crystallization  will 
long  remain,  probably,  a  subject  of  most  curious  research  and  inquijy 
among  geologists  as  well  as  mineralogists ;  the  appearances  of  it  in 
primitive  rocks,  leading  immediately  to  the  grand  question  concerning 
the  opeiations  of  fue  and  water,  which  have  divi,ded  the  cultivators  oi 
this  branch  of  study  into  the  two  parties  of  Plaionists,  who  contend  for 
the  igneous  origin  of  those  rocks,  and  the  JVeptunists,  who  refer  them  to 
an  aqueous  origin  ;  of  the  latter  of  which,  was  the  celebrated  Werner. 

6.  Many  other  systems,  more  or  less  connected  with  Werner's,  have 
been  made  public,  as  Brocliart's,  Schmeisser's,  1,795  •  Babingtnn's, 
1,796  ;  Brogniart'sj  (a  very-  useful  and  valuable  one,)  Kidd's,  1,8-J9  ; 
Clarke's,  1,811  ;  one  by  Mr.  Arthur  Aikin  ;  and,  lastly,  that  of  Ber- 
zelius,  a  Swedish  chemist,  who  has  lately  attempted  to  establish  a 
pure  scientific  system  of  mineralogy,  uy  the  application  of  the  electro- 
chemical theoiy  and  the  chemical  proportions  :  as  this  system  is 
closely  connected  with  the  latest  discoveries  and  improvements  that 
have  been  made  in  chemistr}'  and  electricity,  we  shall  here  close  our 
remarks  on  mineralogy,  as  a  science  by  no  means  perfected,  but  open 
to  further  experiments  and  observations,  though  very  materially  ad- 
vanced since  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

7.  Geology  has  arisen  out  of  mineralogy  ;  and  though  no  new 
science  as  to  name,  is  entirely  so  according  to  the  principles  upon 
which  it  is  now  conducted.  Werner  was  for  giving  a  new  name  at 
once  to  the  new  science,  which  was  a  judick)us  step  to  take,  though  it 
has  not  been  generally  adopted  ;  he  called  it  Geognosie  :  it  is  fit,  in- 
deed, that  it  should  be  distinguished  from  the  geoloj^y  of  old.  which 
only  engendered  a  parcel  of  fnntiful  theories  of  the  earth,  unfoun  le'i 
on  facts.  How  the  globe  was  tbrmed,  is  a  very  different  inquiry  fioni 
that  of  "  what  has  happened  to  it  since  it  was  formed  :"  modern 
geolc^y  is  chiefly  conversant  with  the  latter  ;  to  examine  the  interior 
of  the  earth,  as  far  as  it  can  be  examined,  in  order  to  understand  the 
course  of  the  revolutions  and  changes  that  have  taken  place,  and  of 
which  we  perceive  the  most  manifest  proofs  :  already  very  extraordi- 
nary circumstances  liave  been  discovered,  indicative  oi  successi'.e 
changes,  both  before  and  after  any  organic  beings  existed,  and  there- 
fore both  before  as  well  as  after  the  gVjbe  became  strictly  habitable  ; 
among  the  most  curious  effects  plainly  to  be  traced,  mayne  reckoned 
the  extensive  operations  of  lire  and  water,  the  extinction  of  many 
species  of  vegetables  and  animals,  and  the  very  extraordinarj'  preser- 
vation of  some  of  the  latter,  bespeaking  a  state  of  congelation,  at  the 
moment  of  the  catastrophe  by  which  they  appear  to  have  been  over- 
whelmed ;  remains  of  animals  in  places  where  they  no  longer  exist, 
and  the  extraordinary  absence  of  human  reliquiae.  The  science  of 
comparative  anatomy  has  been  of  great  use  in  these  researches,  in 
which  nobody  has  distinguished  himself  so  muc.i  as  M.  Cuvier,  secre- 
tajy  of  the  French  Institute. 


MODERN  HISTORY.  405 

8.  Many  eeological  societies  are  forming,  or  have  been  already 
formed,  in  different  parts  of  Europe  and  in  America,  and  professor- 
ships founded  in  our  universities  ;  but  it  will  be  long,  perhaps,  before 
tlie  several  observations  and  discoveries  inaking  in  all  parts  of  the 
world,  can  be  so  compared,  classed,  and  methodized,  as  to  bring  out 
such  results  as  may  be  admitted  for  certain  and  indisputable  truths,  in 
regard  to  the  history  of  the  earth  and  of  man.  In  the  mean  while,  we 
should  consider  that  geologists  have  always  a  field  to  work  in,  ahourid- 
ing  in  materials  so  applicaole  to  every  useful  art  as  to  promise  con 
tinual  accessions  of  knowledge,  not  merely  scientific,  but  of  real 
practical  utility. 

We  ought  not,  perhaps,  to  dismiss  this  part  of  our  subject,  without 
noticing  the  very  curious  geological  map  of  England,  published  by 
our  countryman,  Mr.  Smith,  in  1,815,  a  work  of  great  merit  ant' 
originality. 

GEOGRAPHY. 

1.  We  have  mentioned  geography,  also,  as  amorig  those  sciences 
which  may  be  regarded  as  almost  new,  not  only  because  it  is  since  tht 
middle  of  the  last  cenluiy  that  we  have  acquired  a  more  correct  knowl 
edge  of  the  figure  of  the  earth,  hut  from  the  extraort^inary  manner  ir 
which  the  whole  terraqueous  globe  has  been  explored  of  Into,  and  tlic  , 
additions  consequently  made  to  our  forn)t'r  knowlec'ge  of  its  parts; 
the  discoveries  that  have  taken  place  since  the  close  of  the  seventeenth 
centuiy,  have,  according  to  the  French  geographers,  presented  to  us 
two  new  quarters  of  the  world,  and  which  have  been  denominated 
Jiustralasia  and  Polynesia.  The  following  account  may  serve  to  ex- 
plain these  additions  to  modern  geography : 

2.  The  former  is  held  to  contain,  1.  New  Holland,  and  all  the 
islands  between  twenty  degrees  west,  and  between  twenty  and  thirty 
degrees  east  of  it.  2.  New  Guinea  and  the  islands  adjacent.  3.  New 
Britain,  New  Ireland,  and  the  Solomon  Isles.  4.  New  Caledonia  and 
the  New  Hebrides.  5.  New  Zealand.  6.  Van  Dieman's  Land,  which 
is  separated  from  New  Holland  by  Basse's  strait  or  channel,  and  ifl  . 
about  thirty  leagues  wide.  ' 

3.  The  division  csWed.  Polynesia,  consists  of,  1.  The  Pelew  Islands. 
2.  The  Ladrone  or  Marian  Islands.  3.  The  Carolines.  4.  The 
Sandwich  Islands.  5,  The  Marquesas,  which  are  very  numerous. 
6.  The  Society  Islands,  about  sixty  or  seventy  in  number.  7.  The 
Friendly  Islands.  8.  The  Navigators'  Islands.  The  lai^est  island 
in  this  division  is  Owhyhee,  one  of  the  Sandwich  Islands,  and  the 
^lace  where  the  celebrated  circumnavigator,  Cook,  lost  his  life. 

4.  The  voyages  and  travels  conducive  to  these  discoveries  are  too 

fentfrally  known  to  be  much  dwelt  upon  in  such  a  work  as  the  present, 
t  will  be  sufficient  merely  to  mention  the  names  of  those  who,  since 
the  years  1,735  and  1,736,  (when  the  Spanish  and  French  mathemati- 
cians undertook  their  celebrated  missions  to  measure  a  degree  of  the 
meridian  under  the  pole  and  at  the  equator,)  have  been  employed  by 
the  different  powers  of  Europe  on  voyages  of  discoveiy. 

5.  Of  tlie  English  we  may  ©numerate  : 

Byron,  1,764 — 1,766.  Mr.  Harrison's  time-piece  applied  to  the 
discovery  of  the  longitude. 

Wallisand  Carteret,  1,766.  Sailed  together,  but  sOon  separated; 
Otaheite  and  other  islands  discovered. 

Mm  6S 


410  MODERN  HISTORY 

Cook,  three  voyages : — 

First  voyage,  1,768 — 1,771.  The  transit  of  Venus  observed  at 
Matavai,  in  Otaheite,  June,  1,769.  New  Holland,  and  New  Zealand 
Explored. 

Second  voyage,  1,772 — 1,775,  in  search  of  a  southern  continent. 

Third  vojage,  1,776 — 1,780,  to  discover  a  northern  passage  ;  fatal 
to  captain  Cook,  who  was  killed  at  Owhyhee. 

PortJoch  and  Dixon,  1,785 — 1,788  ;  principally  to  establish  the  fur 
trade,  at  Nootka  Sound. 

Vancouver,  1,790 — 1,795,  to  explore  the  northern  passage.  Unsuc- 
cessful. 

Phipps,  (lord  Mulgrave,)  north  pole,  1,773. 

Lord  Macartney,  China,  1.792. 

Lord  Amherst,  ditto.  1,816,  1,817. 

Of  the  French  we  may  reckon, 

Bougainville,  1,766 — 1,768. 

La  reyrouse,  1,785 — 1,788,  supposed  to  have  perished. 

D'Entricasteux,  in  search  of  La  Peyrouse. 

Warchand,  1,790—1,792. 

The  Spaniards  appear  to  have  employed  Malaspina,  an  Italian, 
I  790,  to  explore  distant  seas  and  countries ;  but  his  voyage  was  not 
p  iblished.  These  were  all  of  them  voyages,  not  merely  devoted  to 
g<  ©graphical  discoveries,  but  in  which  competent  persons,  in  almost 
es«ry  branch  of  science,  were  concerned,  to  take  account  of  whatever 
sh  uld  offer  itself  to  their  notice,  or  be  likely  to  contribute,  in  any 
iDiiner  whatsoever,  to  the  general  advancement  of  human  knowledge  ; 
ast'onomy,  botany,  zoology,  meteorology,  physiology,  mineralogy, 
anc  geologj'.  Trade  and  commerce,  navigation  and  the  arts,  were 
constantly  in  the  way  of  receiving  illustration  or  improvement,  durjng 
these  bold  attempts  to  advance  the  geography  of  the  world,  and  solve 
the  difficulties  which  still  seemed  to  hang  about  that  interesting  and 
important  science.  The  names  of  Banks,  Solander,  Green,  Sparrman, 
f orster,  and  Anderson,  will  descend  to  the  remotest  posterity,  with 
that  of  Cook. 

6.  War  often,  indeed,  interrupted  these  pursuits,  but  the  eighteenth 
century  has  the  credit  of  affording  the  following  strong  marks  of  the 
progress  of  civilization  and  liberal  ideas.  It  Avas  during  a  continental 
war,  that  a  combination  of  learned  and  scientific  persons,  English, 
French,  Russians,  Danes,  and  Swedes,  in  the  year  1,761,  laying  aside 
their  animosities,  undertook  the  arduous  task  of  observing,  for  astro- 
nomical and  geographical  purposes,  a  transit  of  Venus  over  the  sun. 
It  Avas  in  the  midst  of  war,  that  France,  in  a  very  public  and  forOtaJ 
manner,  suspended  all  hostilities  that  could  in  any  manner  affect  the 
progress  or  safe  return  of  our  English  navigator,  Cook  ;  and  both  the 
French  and  English,  in  the  course  of  their  voyages  of  discovery,  are 
known  to  have  evinced  a  spirit  of  philanthropy  and  humanity  very 
opposite  to  what  had  passed  on  such  occasions  in  former  ages.  The 
improvement  of  every  barbarous  and  savage  people  they  nyght  visit, 
was  among  the  first  thoiights  of  those  w  ho  were  engagea  in  these  new 
adventures.  Some  remarkable  directions  to  this  effect,  given  by 
Louis  XVI.  himself  to  La  Peyrouse,  will  for  ever  do  honour  to  the 
memory  of  that  benign  but  ill-fated  monarch.  The  Er^lish  circum- 
navigators were  not  less  attentive  to  these  things,  but  continually  sought 
riie  anfielioration  of  the  savage  condition  of  the  people  they  visited ; 
>QP  cf^en,  however,  quite  in  vain,  or  without  any  lasting  effect. 

7.  It  would  lie  utterly  out  of  our  power  to  enter  into  any  details  of 


MODER?^  HISTORY.  411 

the  numerous  researches  that  have  been  made  in  all  parts  of  the  globe, 
since  the  spirit  of  discovery  was  first  excited,  which  nas  so  remarkably 
distinguished  the 'period  ot  which  we  are  treating.  In  the  north  ami 
south,  east  and  >\'est,  of  both  hemispheres,  almost  every  region  has 
been  explored,  and  every  information  obtained  that  can  throw  light  on 
the  histoiy  either  of  the  earth  or  of  man.  The  two  peninsulas  of 
India,  Persia,  Arabia,  Egypt,  and  Abyssinia,  the  northern  and  the 
southern,  and,  in  some  instances,  the  interior  parts  of  Africa  ;  S3^ria, 
Greece,  ^nd  Turkey  ;  Norway,  Lapland,  Siberia,  and  even  the  wilds 
of  Turtary  and  Kamschatka  ;  New  Spain  ;  the  back  settlements  of 
North  America,  and  North  America  itself ;  Iceland,  Greenland,  &c. 
have  all  been  visited  by  persons  of  science  and  learning,  and  are  almost 
as  well  known  now,  as  the  most  frequented  and  civilized  parts  of  Eu- 
rope -;  all  that  can  be  ascertained  of  their  histoiy  ;  all  that  the  re- 
mains of  antiquity  could  unfold  to  the  eye  of  curiosity  ;  all  the  ai-.imals, 
plants,  minerals,  they  produce  ;  have  been  so  amply  examined,  de- 
scribed, classed,  and  methodized,  that  it  may  reasonably  be  supposeiK 
that  in  veiy  many  instances,  all  that  can  be  known  is  known.  Among 
the  travels  enumerated,  tiie  scholar,  in  particular,  has  been  in  no  or- 
dinary degree  gratified  by  the  visits  that  have  been  recently  paid  to 
modern  Greece,  and  by  the  able,  classical,  and  scientific  descriptions 
which  have  been  given  of  tliat  very  interesting  portion  of  the  conti- 
nent, by  lo^d  Byron,  Mr.  Hobhouse,  major  Leake,  Dr.  Holland,  sir 
William  Drummond,  Dr.  Clark,  lord  Aberdeen,  sir  William  Gell,  and 
others  of  our  own  countrymen  :  and  by  M.  Pouqueville,  who  having 
accompanied  Buonaparte  to  Egypt,  at  the  close  of  the  last  century, 
was  among  the  first  to  explore  those  celebrated  regions. 

8.  The  new  means  of  inquiry  and  investigation,  have  so  kept  pace 
^vith  the  wide  field  lately  opened  to  the  world,  that  even  individuuh 
have  been  found  competent  to  bring  home  with  them  from  the  most 
remote  countries,  ample  mformation  upon  all  the  great  points  that  can 
possibly  interest  the  curiosity  of  man ;  a  greater  instance  of  this,  could 
not,  perhaps,  be  produced,  than  in  the  case  of  a  living  traveller  and 
author,  the  celebrated  M.  Humboldt,  of  Prussia,  whose  multifarious 
researches,  at  a  very  early  age,  in  almost  all  parts  of  the  globe,  have 
added  more  to  the  general  stock  of  kno\v]edge  in  the  compass  of  a  very 
few  years,  than  could  have  been  attained  by  ages  of  inquiry  in  times 
at  all  distant.  In  speaking  of  this  very  celebrated  traveller,  whose 
accounts  of  Spanish  America  in  particular  have  lately  excited  so  much 
attention,  it  is  fit  also  to  notice  the  removal  of  many  restraints  and  im- 
pediments in  the  way  of  such  researches,  through  the  more  liberal 
policy  of  the  mother  country  ;  so  far  from  expressing,  as  would  have 
been  the  case  in  former  times,  any  jealousy  of  such  a  visit  to  her  colo- 
nies, M.  Humboldt  obtained  the  express  approbation  and  concurrence 
*ii  the  Spanish  court.  The  removal  of  the  court  of  Portugal  to  the 
Brazils  in  tlie  year  1,807,  has  also  proved  favourable  in  no  small  de- 
gree to  the  prosecution  of  such  inquiries  ;  the  kir^  having,  with  con- 
siderable liberality,  patronised  Such  undertakings. 

9,  The  sovereigns  of  Russia,  from  the  time  of  Peter  the  great, 
through  a  natural  desire  of  acquiring  a  correct  knowledge  of  their  very 
extended  dominions,  buried,  at  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
in  profound  ignorance  and  obscurity,  were  careful  to  employ  proper 
persons  to  make  such  discoveries,  who  so  ably  dischaig;ed  their  com- 
missions, that  before  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  a  very  cele- 
brated German  professor  declared  that  they  had  amassed  such  a  quan- 
tity of  materials,  entirely  new,  for  the  history  of  the  three  kingdom* 


412  MODERN  HISTORY. 

of  nature,  for  the  theory  of  the  earth,  for  rural  economy,  and  for  an 
infinity  of  other  objects  relative  to  the  arts  and  sciences,  as  would  ena- 
plor  many  learned  men  for  several  years,  in  their  proper  arrangement 
and  classification.  The  names  of  Beering  and  Spangberg,  rallas, 
Gmelin,  Muller,  Chappe  D'Auteroche,  Geoigi,  Lepechin,  are  well 
known,  as  among  those  who  have  most  distinguished  themselves  in 
these  northern  and  north-eastern  expeditions.  Among  the  improve- 
ments connected  with  the  science  of  geography,  and  its  progress,  we 
should  be  glad  if  we  could  do  justice  to  the  very  learned  and  eminent 
persons  who  have,  in  a  manner  unknown  before,  devoted  their  time  to 
the  more  correct  delineation  of  the  face  of  the  globe,  in  the  construc- 
tion of  maps  and  charts,  which  seem  to  be  advancing  rapidly  to  the 
highest  degree  of  perfection.  M.  d'AnviJle,  whose  labours  in  this 
way  are  so  well  known,  may  be  justly  considered  perhaps  as  having 
given  the  first  stimulus  in  this  line  of  study,  to  the  geographers  ot 
modein  times. 

10.  As  the  science  o(  astronomy  's  in  many  instances  connected  with 
gcr-graphy,  we  may  here  notice  the  changes  that  have  taken  place  in 
regr.rd  to  the  former,  during  the  last  and  present  centuries  ;  which, 
however,  beii^  only  in  the  way  of  addition  upon  the  established  prin- 
ciples of  the  Copernican  and  Newtonian  systems,  are  not  such  as  can 
be  said  to  have  altered  the  character  of  Ihe  science  itself ;  and,  indeed, 
the  additions  that  have  been  made  are  very  easily  enumerated,  though 
they  must  have  cost  much  pains,  and  are  the  results  of  very  curious 
ob-servations  and  intricate  calculations,  on  the  part  of  those  to  whom 
we  stand  indebted  for  them. 

11.  We  have  added  five  plan-Js  to  those  formerly  known  as  belong- 
ii!g  to  our  solar  system.  The  Geoi^ium  Sidus,  or  Uranus,  discovered 
by  the  celebrated  sir  W.  Hersche!,  1,781,  and  its  satellites,  1,787  ; 
Ceres,  by  31.  Piazzi,  at  Palermo,  1,801  ;  Pallas,  by  Dr.  Olbers,  at 
Bremen,  1,002;  Juno,  by  M.  Harding  of  Lilienthal,  in  1,G04  ;  and 
Vesta,  by  Dr.  Olbers,  1,807.  To  the  former  of  these  celebrated  ob- 
servers we  owe  a  most  enlarged  knowledge  of  the  celestial  regions, 
particularly  of  the  nebulous  parts,  from  the  application  of  his  new 
telescopes  of  most  extraordinary  powers,  which  have  enabled  us  to 
ascertain  that  the  milky-way,  and  other  similar  appearances  in  the 
heavens,  are  a  congeries  of  fixed  stars,  in  strata,  prodigiously  numer- 
iHJS,  and  exhibiting  veiy  curious  phenomena.  Of  the  immense  amount 
of  these  stars,  which  may  still  have  beyond  them  an  unfathomable  and 
uncxplorable  abyss  of  the  same  kind,  we  may  form  some  conjecture 
from  the  following  statement  of  sir  William  himself,  who  found  by  his 
gauges,  in  the  year  1,792,  that  in  the  small  space  of  forty-one  minutes, 
no  less  than  238,000  stars,  in  the  ria  lactea,  had  passed  through  the 
field  of  view  in  his  telescope.  Sir  William  places  our  own  system  in 
the  via  lactea.  He  has  discovered,  besides  many  new  stars,  double 
and  triple  stars,  and  what  he  calls  changing  stars. 

12.  We  have  learned  to  correct  our  ideas  concernir^  the  substance 
of  the  body  of  the  sun,  heretofore  considered  as  entirely  of  an  igneous 
nature.  Though  its  rays  contribute  largely  to  the  production  of  heat 
en  the  earth's  surface,  many  very  obvious  appearances  ought  sooner 
to  have  convinced  us  of  what  now  seems  clearly  to  be  understood,  that 
the  sun  is  not  a  body  of  fire. 

13.  The  science  of  astronomy  has  been  much  promoted  during  the 
time  of  which  we  have  been  treating,  by  the  improvement  or  invention 
of  many  curious  and  necessarj'  instruments,  and  the  building  and 
establisliment  of  regular  observatories ;  and  practical  astcpnomj  ha$ 


MODERN  History.  413 

been  carried  to  a  very  high  pitch,  by  the  talents  and  ingenuity  of  many 
very  eminent  persons  in  France,  Britain,  Germany,  Italy,  &c. ;  as  M, 
Clairault,  d'Alembert,  De  la  Caille.  La  Place,  La  Grange,  Bailly,  De 
la  Lande,  &c. ;  Bradley,  Maskelyn,  Hei-schel,  Htitton,  Robison, 
Ferguson,  Vince,  &lc.  ;  Euler,  Mayer,  Boda,  Biaftchini,  Boscovich, 
Frisi,  Piozzi,  .-vc. 

14.  We  have  spoken  elsewhere  of  the  travels,  expressly  undertaken 
in  1,753,  to  measure  in  the  northern  and  southern  parts  of  the  world,  a 
degree  of  the  meridian,  by  which  the  figure  of  the  earth  was  ascertain- 
ed to  be  an  oblate  spheroid,  according  to  the  conjectures  of  sir  Isaac 
Newton,  and  contrary  to  the  assertions  of  the  Cassinis  and  Bemouilli, 
who  had  for  some  time  insisted  that  the  polar  diameter  was  longer 
than  the  equatorial  :  all  the  experiments  seemed  to  concur  in  proving 
the  reverse.  The  steps  that  were  taken,  in  the  years  1,761  and  1,769, 
to  determine  the  parallax  of  the  sun,  by  observing  the  transit  of  Venus» 
afford  another  strong  proof  of  the  extraordinary  zeal  and  resolution 
with  which  science  was  cultivated  during  the  period  of  which  we  have 
been  treating.  On  the  recommendation  of  Dr.  Halle3%  who  had  ob- 
served a  transit  of  Mercur}'  at  St.  Helena,  but  who  did  not  expect  to 
live  to  see  a  transit  of  Venus,  and  Avho  in  fact  died  in  1,742,  mathema- 
ticians and  astronomers  were  sent  out  in  the  years  betbre  mentioned, 
both  from  France  and  England. 

15.  Among  the  modern  inventions  appertaining  to  astronomy,  be- 
sides the  instruments  absolutely  necessary  to  correct  observation,  we 
may  reckon  those  curious  and  elegant  machines,  exhibiting  the  motions 
ai;di  phenomena  of  our  solar  system  and  its  several  pa^-ts  ;  our  orreries-, 
planetariums,  tellurians,  lunariums,  &c.,  all  of  which  may  be  consider- 
ed as  extremely  interesting  and  ingenious  contrivances. 


1.  It  would  be  useless  to  attempt  to  give  any  circumstantial  account 
of  the  progress  that  has  been  made  in  other  sciences,  during  the  period 
of  which  Ave  have  been  treating,  and  vain  to  seek,  by  a  mere  enume- 
ration of  names,  to  do  justice  to  the  many  eminent  and  illustrious  per- 
sons who  have  distinguished  themselves  in  various  parts  of  the  world, 
in  every  branch  of  learning,  useful  and  ornamental,  since  the  com- 
mencement of  the  eighteenth  century.  The  numerous  biographical 
works,  chronological  charts,  critical  and  philosophical  journals,  which 
have  from  time  to  time  been  published  during  tliis  period,  may  supply 
information  much  more  full  and  copious  than  would  be  at  all  consistent 
with  the  limits  of  this  work,  already  extended  beyond  their  original 
design.  As,  however,  the  surprising  burst  of  intellect,  investigation, 
and  enterprise  which  has  so  marked  and  distinguished  the  last  and 
present  century,  appears  to  have  been  in  a  great  degree  connected 
witii  the  hislory  of  Europe  during  the  same  period,  we  fehall  take  a 
brief  view  of  the  latter;  beginning  with  England  and  France  ;  the  " 
two  countries  which  seem  in  several  respects  to  have  had  the  most 
considerable  share  in  the  changes  that  have  taken  place. 

^2.  At  the   period  of  the  deaths  of  queen  Anne  and  Lewis  XIV.    ' 
(see  Sect.  LilV.)  England  and  France  appear  to  have  stood  in  situa- 
tions diametrically  o]^posite.     England  had  just  obtained  all  that  she,' 
wanted  from  a  re\oiution  ;  France  had  scarcely  begun  to-feel  that  shie*-' 
stood  in  need  of  one.     England  had  succeeded  in  placing  her  civil  and 
religious  rights  on  a  sure  tooting  ;  France  was  as  yet  hut  little  sensible 
that  hers  had  been  greatly  violated.     England  was  recovering  from  a 
Mm2 


4U  MODERN  HISTORY. 

state  of  misrule  and  licentiousness  ;  France  was  declining  more  than 
ever  into  such  a  condition.  In  England,  Newton  had  established  his 
new  system  of  philosophy,  and  Locke  illustrated  the  principles  of  a 
free  government  ;^  in  France,  Descartes  still  held  the  minds  of  men  in 
a  state  of  fascination  and  enchantment,  and  tlie  people  knew  not  what 
it  was  to  be  free. 

3.  The  French  government,  by  too  great  severity  in  poKtical  and 
religious  matters,  had  compelled  many  of  her  subjects  to  take  refuge 
in  foreign  countries,  where  they  were  at  liberty  to  make  their  own  re- 
flections, to  print  and  to  publish  their  thoughts  upon  the  comparative 
despotism  of  the  countiy  from  which  they  had  been  driven,  and  the 
delusions  to  which  the  subjects  of  the  latter  were  exposed. 

4.  Among  those  who  had  been  thus  banished,  or  compelled  to  retire, 
no  one  could  have  done  more  to  unsettle  the  minds  of  his  countrymen, 
in  regard  both  to  religion  and  politics,  than  the  celebrated  Bayle. 
o^is  object  appears,  however,  to  have  been  merely  to  vnsettle  them  ; 
lor  his  whole  work  is  a  tissue  of  doubts  and  difficulties,  which  he  had 
no  disposition  to  resolve,  but  to  leave  to  every  man's  own  judgment  to 
determine,  after  having  veiy  impartially  stated  all  the  arguments  and 
all.  the  facts  he  could  possibly  collect,  on  both  sides  of  every  question. 

5.  The  French  had  been  so  long  used  to  submission,  that  merely  to 
teach  them  to  doubt  was  a  grand  step  towards  a  revolution  in  their 
opinions  ;  but  Bayle  did  not  live  to  see  the  seeds  he  had  been  sowing 
come  to  any  perfection.  It  was  not.  according  to  the  account  of  the 
French  themselves,  till  Voltaire,  partly  in  a  state  of  exile,  had  visited 
England,  that  they  began  to  ripen,  fii  England,  Voltaire  became  ac- 
quainted with  the  philosophy  of  Newton  and  Locke,  and  saw  some  of 
the  best  political  principles  of  the  latter  established  and  in  action  ; 
but  being  the  guest  of  Bolingbroke,  his  deistical  principles,  which 
were  very  early  made  known  by  a  passage  in  his  tragedy  of  CEdipus, 
underwent  no  change,  or  were  probably  more  deep!}'  fixed  and  con- 
firmed. 

6.  Though  Shaftesbury,  Wolston,  Collins,  Toland,  Tindal,  and 
others,  had  attacked  revelatioi),  and  either  openly  or  insidiously  sought 
to  imbue  the  minds  of  the  English  with  their  deistical  principles  ;•  the 
public  in  general  were  little  affected  by  their  writings.  Men  of  supe- 
rior talents,  superior  credit,  and  very  superior  learning,  had  lived,  or 
were  living,  capable  of  giving  a  different  tone  to  the  feelings  of  the 
people.  Newton,  Locke,  Addison,  Steele,  Clarke,  Swift,  fee,  were 
amply  sufficient  to  support  the  cause  of  religion  ;  and  not  only  to  de- 
fend the  very  outworks  of  Christianity,  but  to  avert  the  shafts  of  ridi- 
cule, and  set  at  naught  the  sarcasms  of  infidelity.  In  those  admirable 
periodical  papers,  the  Spectator,  the  Guardian,  the  Tattler,  &.C.,  we 

•jnay  trace  a  direct  and  most  benevolent  design  of  rescuing  the  rising 
generation  from  the  contagion  of  bad  examples,  and  the  influence  oi 
lalse  principles. 

7.  In  France  it  was  otherwise  :  deism,  thot.'gh  weak  against  the 
plain  evidences  of  christianit}',  was  strong  against  the  fanaticism  of  a 
oigoted,  and  the  superstition  of  a  corrupted  church.  The  banter  of 
'Voltaire  soon  began  to  take  effect,  when  aimed  at  things  and  persons 
to  vulnerable  as  the  monastic  orders,  and  the  controverted  points  in 
dispute  between  the  Jesuits  and  Jansenists.  The  defence  of  religion 
also,  in  consequence  of  these  disgraceful  and  puerile  conflicts,  and  the 
plausibility  of  the  attacks  that  were  made  upon  it,  which  struck  hard 
at  its  abuses,  fell  into  hands  little  capable  of  v^ielding  the  weapons  so 
vSwknaJlir  employed  ia  England^    Th^  dread  of  aerision  too  eoan 


MODERN  HISTORY.  415 

damped  the  spirit  of  pulpit  eloquence,  which  had  cast  such  a  lustre 
on  the  .names  of  Saurin,  Massillon,  isic. ;  and  converted  even  the  chris- 
tian j)reacher  into  a  philosopher  of  the  modern  school.  Among  those 
who  first  appeared  in  defence  of  revealed  religion  against  the  deists, 
the  French  themselves  ha-ve  particularly  mentioned  the  younger  Ra- 
cine, the  cardinal  de  Polignac,  and  M.  Le  Franc  de  Pompignan. 
The  first  wrote,  a  heavy  poem,  which  few  read  ;  the  second  a  long 

{)hiiosophical  poem  in  Latin,  which  not  many  could  read  ;  and  the 
ast  published  some  sacred  odes,  of  which  Voltaire  found  room  to  say, 
with  his  usual  wit,  "  Sacres  Us  sont,  car  personne  li'y  tourhe."  Though 
Voltaire  might  have  imbibed  his  deism  in  part  from  Rolingbroke,  it 
was  plainly  not  a  plant  of  English  grov.th  ;  but  it  proved  to  be  sadly 
congenial  at  that  time  to  the  soil  ol  France. 

8.  The  regency  had  wrought  a  great  change  in  the  principles  and 
manners  of  that  lively  people.  Tlie  profligate  habits  of  the  duke  of 
Orleans  opened  a  wide  field  to  libertines  and  freethinkers,  and  natu- 
rally encouraged  them  to  s]ieak  their  m.iiids  more  freely  upon  all  sub- 
jects than  would  otherwise  have  been  consistent  with  the  spirit  of  the 
government.  Religion  and  morals,  indeed,  could  not  have  received  a 
greater  blow  than  from  the  extraordinary  elevation  of  the  infamous 
Dubois  to  the  rank  of  cardinal,  and  to  the  archbishopric  of  Cambray, 
so  lately  filled  by  the  amiable  and  virtuous  Fenelon. 

9.  W  hile  the  morals  of  the  French  were  thus  becoming  daily  more 
depraved,  the  manners  of  the  English  were  evidently  much  improved. 
The  grave  and  austere  character  of  V/illiam  III.,  the  correct  deport- 
ment of  Mary,  and  her  sister,  queen  Anne,  had  effectually  checked 
the  licentiousness  of  the  two  preceding  reigns,  and  given  encourage- 
ment to  a  set  of  writers  peculiarly  capable  of  amending  the  age,  of 
inculcating  true  piety  and  sound  morality,  and  giving  a  better  tone  to 
the  amusements  of  the  public.  Instead  of  the  gross  indelicacies  which 
had  disgraced  the  writings  and  degraded  the  talents,  of  Vanburgh, 
Behn,  Congreve,  and  even  Diyden,  the  taste  and  manners  of  the  nation 
derived  great  improvement  and  advantages  from  tlie  more  chaste  and 
correct  performances  of  Addison,  Steele,  nowe.  Prior,  Pope,  Thomson, 
Akenside,  &c.  The  stage  underweni  a  wholesome  reformation,  and 
in  every  department  of  literature  there  appeared  a  manifest  leaning 
towards  whatever  could  conduce  to  purity  of  sentiment  and  delicacy 
of  feeling. 

10.  Had  Voltaire  carried  back  with  him  from  our  shores,  as  he 
might  have  done,  a  purer  form  of  Christianity,  and  a  better  system  of 
morals,  as  well  as  a  more  correct  philosophy,  and  sounder  principles  of 
government,  he  might  have  conferred  a  la.sting  benefit  on  his  country  ; 
a  benefit  the  more  timely  and  critical,  as  it  would  possibly  have  pre- 
vented some  of  the  worst  evils  which  befel  that  unhappy  riation  in  her 
subsequent  struggles  for  liberty.  Bayle  had  taught  the  French  to 
doubt ;  Voltaire,  having  taken  a  near,  though  imperfect  view  of  Eng- 
land, taught  them  to  think  and  to  inquire  ;  while  a  greater  man  than 
himself  was  contributing,  though  more  slow'y  and  quietly,  to  the 
iame  end. 

11.  Almost  at  the  very  time  that  Voltaire  was  in  England,  Montes- 
quieu visited  the  same  country  ;  but  appears  principalFy  to  have  con- 
fined his  views  to  the  §reat  object  of  his  researches,  the  spirit  of  her 
laws,  and  the  leading  principles  of  her  admirable  constitution.  There 
he  learned  to  adinire,  in  its  purest  form,  a  limited  monarchy,  and  a 
system  of  jurisprudence,  equally  adveise  U<  tyranny  and  licentiousness  j 
equally  frieodly  to  the  wbole«ome  autlioriiy  of  tlie  magistiate,  and  the 


416  MODERN  HISTORY. 

just  ii;?ht?  of  the  people.  Montesquieu,  however,  (though  in  his  Per- 
suin  Letters  he  had  betrayed  a  leaning  to^vards  deism,)  moved  in  a 
line  distinct  horn  that  generally  taken  by  the  philosophers  of  the  day. 
VVliile  Voltaire  very  soon  manifested  a  desire  of  taking  the  lead  of  all 
thie  wits  and  freethinkers,  however  different  their  talents,  their  charac- 
ters, or  their  principles,  Montesquieu  was  not  displeased  to  be  left  to 
himself,  and  to  leave  his  great  work  to  make  its  own  impressions,  how- 
ever slowly,  on  sensible  and  ingenuous  minds.  Its  first  eft'ects  of  any 
iniportance  may,  perhaps,  be  traced  in  the  remonstrances  of  the  par- 
liaments, who  began  to  take  a  higher  tone  after  the  publication  of 
L^ esprit  des  Lois,  and  to  coreider  themselves  more  in  the  light  of  rep- 
resentatives of  the  people. 

12.  A  number  of  very  extraordinary  men  were  beginning  at  the 
same  time  to  draw  upon  themselves  the  attention  of  the  world,  and  to 
employ  their  talents  in  different  lines,  and  often  upon  very  different 
principles,  to  enlighten  the  world,  and  emancipate  it  from  the  thral- 
dom of  ancient  prejudices  and  inveterate  abuses.  Among  these,  how- 
ever, none  were  more  extravagantly  eccentric  than  J.  J.  Rousseau. 
This  extraordinary  man  was  decidedly  for  new  modelling  the  whole 
system  of  political  society,  and  reducing  it  to  principles  w  hich  existed 
only  in  his  own  imagination.  Not  having  ever  seen  a  race  of  savages, 
he  fancied  they  must  be  the  more  perfect  the  nearer  they  were  to  a 
state  of  nature;  and  being  tormented  with  the  restraints  of  civilized 
society,  he  concluded  civilization  itself  to  be  an  evil.  These  sophisms 
served  to  render  him  the  idol  of  the  equalizing  and  destroying  dema- 
gogues of  the  revolution,  it  was  impossible  to  resist  tlie  impressions 
made  by  the  captivating  pictures  he  drew  ;  but  they  seldom  had  any 
better  effect  than  that  ot  rendering  his  votaries  as  dissatisfied  with  the 
world  as  he  hiniseif  was,  and  bewildering  their  imaginations  with 
duubts  and  difficulties  innumerable.  He  knew  "how  to  appreciate  the 
sublinio  morality  of  the  gospel,  (hough  he  could  not  regulate  his  own 
actions  by  it  ;  and  h.-ning  found  in  the  bible,  as  in  all  other  cases, 
something  that  dissatisfied  his  restless  and  irritable  mind,  and  reviling 
what  he  could  not  approve,  or  did  not  sufficiently  understand,  he  cer- 
tainly did  as  much  mischief  to  the  cause  of  revealed  religion,  ca'iii'ig 
!;iinself  a  christian  all  the  while,  as  the  worst  of  his  deistical  contem- 
poraries. His  opinions  and  his  actions,  as  exhibited  in  his  own 
writings,  will  for  ever  render  him  an  object  of  admiration  mingied 
with  pity,  if  not  in  some  instances  with  abhorreiK:e  ! 

13.  But  it  was,  in  no  long  course  of  time,  discovered  that  the  free 
opinions  that  were  afloat,  and  which  were  as  various  as  the  persons 
who  entertained  them,  and  who  had  as  yet  no  common  bond  of  union, 
as  Voltaire,  Rousseau,  Buffon,  Diderot,  D'Alembert,  Duclos,  Helve- 
tius,  Mai-montel,  Condillac,  Raynal,  Volney,  (to  name  but  a  few,) 
should  by  some  means  or  other  be  embodied  and  consolidated,  that 
the  whole  of  their  several  thoughts  and  observations  on  different  sub- 
jects might  be  presented  to  the  world  in  a  mass.  This  was  the  origin 
of  that  great  and  voluminous  undertaking,  the  Encyclopedie,  spoken 
of  before,  planned  by  Diderot  and  D'Alembert ;  and  which,  to  say 
the  least  of  it,  seemed  to  be  a  treasure  of  universal  science,  iar  more 
comprehensive,  at  least,  than  any  thing  of  the  kind  before  attempted, 
being  not  confined  to  what  might  strictly  be  called  the  arts  and 
sciences,  but  extending  to  eveiy  question  of  government,  civil  econo- 
my, and  finance. 

14.  'Jlie  Dictionnaire  Encyclopedique,  amidst  many  faults  and  ex- 
travagaoces,  contained  uiidoubtedly  much  important  matter,  written  is 


MODERN  HISTORY.  417 

so  agreeable  a  style,  as  to  be  admirably  fitted  to  excite  and  promote 
a  thirst  after  general  knowledge,  universal  inquiry  and  investigation, 
a  confidence  in  private  judgment,  and  a  prejudice  against  every  thing 
that  appeared  to  have  no  other  support  than  custom  and  authority. 
Wheat  might  be  torn  up  with  the  tares,  and  tares  often  sown  instead 
of  corn  :  but  it  must  be  acknowledged  that  we  stand  indebted  to  the 
projectors  of  this  work  for  the  detection  and  extirpation  of  many 
errors,  and  the  powerful  stimulus  given  by  their  movements  to  the 
spirit  of  free  inquiry  and  useful  research. 

15.  The  persons  engaged  in  it  have  been  so  generally  called  philos- 
ophers, and  have  been  styled  such  in  so  many  histories  of  the  French 
revolution,  that  it  is  aln;ost  necessary  to  observe  that  the  greater  part 
of  them  bore  little  resemblance  to  those  uho  had  heretofore  been  dig- 
nified with  that  title.  The  regent,  duke  of  Orleans,  though  dissolute 
in  his^  habits  of  life,  was  a  man  of  tn.ste,  talent,  and  information  ;  so 
that  the  savans  of  France,  who  had  h.eretoforo  been  a  retired  order  of 
men,  became  about  this  period  the  life  of  society,  and  the .  ornaments 
of  the  highest  circles  in  tho  metropolis.  Some  few,  indeed,  still  kept 
at  a  distance  from  the  court,  but,  generally  speaking,  such  was  the 
state  of  things  during  the  regency  ;  and  afterwards,  when  Lewis  XV. 
fell  into  that  disgraceful  course  cr  lifp,  w'lich  clouded  his  latter  days, 
and  subjected  him  and  his  inis'u-e^-ses  to  the  censure  of  the  clergy, 
even  Voltaire,  whom  the  king  '/orionnKy  dj'"!ik€d,  and  the  Encyclo- 
paedists, as  enemies  to  ths  cler.Y,  vr,?^  tu!.,.i  into  favour.  They 
were  often  indeed  dismissed  again,  but  never  entirely  driven  from 
court. 

16.  This  change  of  public  opinion,  even  in  the  highest  circles,  in- 
troduced the  learned  into  plr.ce:3ivbere  they  never  appeared  before, 
and  gave  them  a  new  charrcUit.  \  hjle  the  influence  which  the  men 
of  letters  thus  began  to  aci':ire  in  sofiiety,  obliged  the  noblesse  to 
change  their  habits  also,  a?id  io  Liin^^i^  with  those  who  before  formed 
a  distinct  class  ;  it  obliged  them  aLo  to  cuitivate  learning  themselves, 
and  even  the  females  found  it  necessary  to  become  more  or  less 
philosophical. 

17.  In  the  mean  while  some  of  these  modern  philosophers  had  other 
European  courts  set  open  to  them,  particularly  in  the  northern  parts 
of  Europe,  where  a  greater  deji\;c  of  liberty  in  the  article  of  opinion 
already  prevailed,  very  difFerert  from  the  bigoted  and  Machiavelian 
principles  of  Rome  and  Italy,  \Vhich  had  liitherto  borne  sway.  Cath- 
erine II.  of  Russia,  and  Frederic  of  Prussia,  through  a  laudable  desire 
probably  of  improving  and  enlightening,-  their  semi-barbarous  domin- 
ions, invited  thither  some  of  the  ni0f.t  bi';3y  f;f  the  French  literati  ;  but 
with  little  judgment  or  discriminatioii.  Frederic,  besides  Voltaire, 
D'Alembert,  and  Maupertius,  gave  free  admission,  and  even  encour- 
agement,  to  the  atheist  La  Methrie,  the  marquis  D'Argens,  and  the  abbe 
de  Prades  ;  and  Catherine  received,  and  greatly  patronised  in  his 
latter  years,  the  celebrated  Diderot.  Thus,  with  the  knowledge  and 
learning  which  the  new  philosophers  really  possessed,  scepticism  and 
infidelity  were  spread  far  and  wide,  and  there  was  a  sad  mixture  of 
darkness  and  illumination  in  all  they  taught. 

18.  The  French  revolution  has  been  attributed  to  the  literati,  or 
philosophers  of  those  days  ;  but  we  should  greatly  err,  if  we  were  to 
suppose  that  thev  contemplated  generally  such  a  dissolution  of  things 
as  afterwards  took  (ilace  ;  many,  indeed,  were  dead  before  the  revo- 
lution commenc;  I.  Neithei  Voltaire  nor  Montesquieu  were  repub" 
Ucans  ;  the  former  liad  a  supreme  contempt  for  the  populace  j  aD4^ 

53 


418  MODERN  HISTORY. 

by  his  flattery  of  Catherine  II.  and  tlie  marchioness  de  Pompadour, 
would  seem  to  have  had  little  of  the  republican  spirit  in  him.  Indeed 
it  has  been  asserted  of  him,  that  "  he  loved  kii^s."  Raynal  is  said 
to  have  shuddered  when  he  saw  his  o^\ti  violent  imprecations  on  des- 
potism and  tyranny  brought  into  action.  Some,  however,  undoubted 
ly  threw  aside  all  restraints,  openly  declared  themselves  deists,  atheists, 
aic,  and  to  their  abominable  blasphemy  and  infidelity  we  may  rea- 
sonably impute  many  of  the  evils  which  marked  tiiose  dreadful  times : 
but,  in  ti-uth,  the  history  of  opinions  ceases  to  be  connected  after  a 
short  time  with  the  French  revolution.  It  very  soon  became  a  stjug- 
yle  of  passions  and  private  interests,  and  at  length  terminated  in  a 
catastrophe  as  fatal  to  the  literati  as  to  the  throne  and  the  altar.  That 
fatal  instrument,  the  guillotine,  so  much  spoken  of  at  that  time,  was 
stained  with  the  blood  of  some  of  those  veiy  persons  who  had  con- 
tributed most  to  the  advancement  of  knowledge,  and  the  propagation 
of  liberal  ideas. 

19.  The  impulse,  however,  was  now  given  to  two  of  the  most  curi- 
ous, ingenious,  and  inquisitive  natioiis  of  Europe,  and  nothing  could 
pohsibly  exceed  the  rapidity  with  which  every  branch  of  science  has 
since  been  cultivated  ;  in  Britain,  constantly  with  more  steadiness, 
gravity,  and  judgment,  than  in  France,  though  not  with  more  zeal  and 
activity.  The  Germans,  in  the  mean  while,  in  the  northern  parts 
more  particularly,  seem  to  have  devoted  their  time  to  studies  of 
Tather  a  different  description,  being  known  chiefly  for  works  of  in- 
tense research  and  most  profound  learning.  Experimental  philosophy, 
Jiatural  histoiy,  and  cheniistiy,  have  indeed  been  also  cultivated  by 
them  with  considerable  success  ;  but  in  works  of  fancy,  wit,  and 
humour,  they  have  not  acquired  so  much  credit  as  their  neighbours. 
A  singular  disposition  to  indu'ge  in  tales  of  wonder,  chivaliy,  and 
J<night-erTantry,  has  been  manifested  in  most  of  their  works  of  imagi- 
nation ;  and  in  metaphysics,  they  have  produced  systems,  which,  while 
they  befray  an  extraordinary  talent  for  the  investigation  of  such  ab- 
stiuse  subjects,  are  certainly  more  to  be  aidmired  for  their  ingenuity 
than  tb«;n'  utility. 

20.  l\o  country  in  Europe,  perhaps,  can  have  undei^one  greater 
improvements,  during  the  period  of  which  we  have  been  treating,  than 
Russia  ;  but  her  improvement  has  not  been  so  much  progressive  as 
sudden.  The  mighty  genius  of  Peter  the  great  determined  him  to 
introduce  his  own  extensive  empire  at  once  into  the  commonwealth  of 
Europe  ;  and,  instead  of  waiting  to  give  his  subiects  a  capacity  for 
improving  themselves,  as  other  nations  had  done,  he  eagerly  adopted 
all  that  had  been  discovered  elsewhere,  and  converted  his  rude  people 
into  a  civilized  nation,  just  as  far  as  such  methods  could  reach.  He 
taught  them  to  adopt  and  imitate  what  they  were  as  yet  in  no  condi- 
tion to  invent,  or  even  improve,  and  left  it  to  his  successors  to  fill  up 
the  gaps  that  might  remain  unprovided  for  at  the  time  of  his  death. 
His  subjects,  or  rather  slaves,  obeyed  his  dictates,  and  have  continued 
since  to  learn  from  their  neighbours,  till  they  have  attained  to  such 
proficiency  in  the  art«  of  life,  as  to  be  no  longer  regarded  as  a  rude  or 
ignorant  people,  though  all  the  other  countries  of  Europe  had  the  start 
of  them  till  the  very  close  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

21.  Peter  the  great  had,  in  a  small  compass  of*^  time,  some  very 
weak  and  some  very  wise  successors.  The  former  have  not  been 
suffered  to  stand  long  in  the  way  of  the  latter,  and  though  their  re- 
moval has  savoured  little  of  the  civilization  and  improvement  of  which 
ive  have  been  speaking;,  it  cannot  be  denied  that  Russia  has  been  pre- 


MODERN  HISTORY.  4\9 

vented  by  many  singular  occurrences  from  relapsing  into  her  former 
state  of  rudeness  and  barbarity.  Tlie  extremes  of  magnificence  and 
rudeness,  indeed,  are  too  often  found  to  meet ;  and  the  middle  clas« 
has  by  no  means  yet  acquired  that  importance  in  society  which  is  so 
essential  to  every  well-regulated  government  The  state  of  things 
still  exhibits  too  much  of  the  old  narrow  line  of  distinction,  of  lords 
and  vassals  ;  nevertheless,  Russia  has  obtained  much,  and  advanced 
considerably.  Where,  little  more  than  a  century  ago,  wolves  fed  and 
sought  their  prey,  an  immense  and  magniticeiit  city  and  metropolis 
now  stands,  thronged  with  inhabitants  from  all  parts  of  the  globe  ;  but 
perhaps  it  would  (je  well  if  she  would  consent  to  step  back  and  give  a 
solid  and  more  natural  base  to  her  acquirements.  The  system  of 
adoption  and  imitation  has  brought  her  to  a  state  ratber  of  superiicial 
than  of  real  greatness.  She  has  had  her  universities  before  her 
schools  ;  but  it  could  not  well  be  otherwise  in  so  sudden  an  improve- 
ment :  much  remains  to  be  done  before  the  nation  at  large,  in  its  sev- 
eral relations,  social  and  political,  can  be  said  to  be  really  and  effectu- 
ally civilized. 

22,  Sweden,  during  the  eighteenth  century,  produced  many  eminent 
men,  and  contributed  largely  to  the  advancement  of  science.  It  may 
be  sufficient  to  mention,  in  proof  of  this,  the  names  of  Linnaus,  Wal- 
Jerius,  Cronstadt,  Bei^man,  Scheele,  Thunberg,  and  Sparrman. 

23.  The  Danes  have  not  been  idle,  but  have  encouraged  in  many 
ways  the  promotion  of  literature  and  philosophy  ;  mathematics  and 
astronomy,  zoology,  botany,  and  other  sciences,  have  been  cultivated 
with  good  success  ;  and  many  splendid  works  are  extant,  that  reflect 
great  credit  on  the  spirit  and  ardour  of  the  government,  as  well  as  of 
individuals,  and  the  learned  societies  instituted  and  established  there.. 


DISCOVERIES  AND  INVENTIONS. 

1.  Many  new  discoveries  and  inventions  of  lasting  benefit  to  man- 
kind, as  well  as  many  most  essential  improvements  of  old  inventions 
and  disca\eries,  have  marked  the  eighteenth  and  nineteenth  centuries ; 
some  of  the  most  remarkable  of  which  it  will  be  sufficient  merely  to 
name,  as  they  are  already  become  too  common  and  familiar  to  need 
explanation  ;  such  as  inoculation,  and  much  more  recently,  vaccina- 
tion ;  steam-engines  and  steam-boats ;  printing  of  linen  and  cotton 
cloths  ;  paper  for  rooms ;  figured  silks  and  carpets;  spinning  ma- 
chines ;  stereotype  printing,  and  lithographic  engraving ;  musical 
types;  porcelain  and  -pottery;  particularly  Welch  and  iron-stone  china ; 
lightning  conductors  ;  time-pieces ;  pneumatic,  electrical,  and  gahninic 
apparatus  ;  life-boats  and  life-preservers ;  the  speaking-trumpet,  safe- 
ty-lamp, telegraphs,  gas-hghis,  panoramas,  balloons,  reflecting  and 
achromatic  telescopes,  concave  mirrors,  with  various  other  optical  and 
astronomical  instruments. 

2.  Laws  and  governments  have  been  advancing  towards  a  greater 
degree  of  perfection,  though  in  many  countries  very  slowly,  and 
manifestly  under  difficulties  and  impediments  which  time  only  czm 
remove.  The  French  revolution  opened  people's  eyes  to  ancient 
abuses  ;  but  by  inducing  all  the  evils  and  horrors  of  anarch}'-  did  by 
no  means  accomplish  so  much  for  real  liberty,  as  might  have  been 
wished  and  expected  ;  like  other  tumultuary  revolutions,  it  terminated 
io  a  military  despotism,  and  its  effects  on  the  continent  of  Europe 
have  been  hitherto  parti.il,  and  apparently  of  much  less  importance  at 


4«0  MODERN  HISTORY. 

to  the  actual  amelioration  of  things  than  many  persons  expected.  Still 
we  may  justly  enumerate  among  the  changes  conducive  to  the  future 
benefit,  comfort,  and  happiness  of  mankind,  the  steps  takir^  in  sev- 
eral states  to  restore  or  establish  the  representative  system  oi  govern- 
ment ;  the  dissolution  of  many  monastic  institutions,  and  feudal  priv- 
ileges ;  the  check  that  has  been  given  to  arbitraiy  imprisonment, 
torture,  the  horrors  of  the  inquisition,  and  the  African  slave-trade  ; 
the  improvements  that  have  taken  place,  principally  through  the  in- 
terposition of  our  benevolent  countiyman,  Mr.  Howard,  in  the  man- 
agement of  prisons,  and  the  extraordiiiaiy  steps  lately  taken,  especial- 
ly in  the  British  dominions,  for  the  better  education  of  the  poor  and 
Uieir  instruction  in  religion. 

3.  It  would  be  vain  indeed  to  attempt  to  enumerate  the  astonishing 
additions  that  have  been  made  within  these  few  years,  to  the  public 
establishments  tor  the  promotion  of  knowledge,  the  advancement  of 
professional  skill,  and  the  relief  of  the  necessities  of  mankind.  Phil- 
osophical societies  of  all  descriptions  have  been  formed  in  various 
parts,  under  the  most  favourable  circumstances  of  support  and  encour- 
agement. The  proppg.'i.tion  of  Christianity  has  been  attended  to,  and 
promoted  with  extraordinary  zeal,  not  only  by  individuals,  but  by 
missionary  and  Bible-societies,  far  too  numerous  to  mention.  Every 
description  of  medical,  chirurgical,  and  other  assistance,  has  been 
furnished  to  the  poor,  by  a  most  extraordinary  increase  of  hospitals 
and  infirmaries,  dispensaries,  asylums,  and  charity-schools.  The 
naval  and  military  professions  have  had  the  benefit  conferred  on  them 
of  new  and  distinct  academies,  including  a  charitable  provision  for  the 
children  of  those  who  have  perished  in  either  service.  The  improved 
state  of  chemistry  and  mechanical  skill,  has  advanced  many  arls  to  a 
very  high  degree  of  perfection,  and  much  assisted  both  the  manufac- 
turing and  agricultural  industry  ;  nor  should  we  omit  to  mentio!-,  as 
among  the  improveme/Us  of  latter  years,  by  which  our  own  countiy  in 
particular  has  been  benefited  in  the  highest  degree,  the  amendment 
of  the  public  roads,  the  increased  means  and  facilities  of  public  con- 
veyance and  communication,  and  the  advancement  of  inland  navigation 


RELIGION. 

1.  In  regard  to  religion,  from  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  centtiry- 
to  the  year  1,820,  we  may  remark  that  paganism  continues  to  prevail 
over  tlie  greater  part  of  Asia,  Africa,  and  the  new  discovered  islands, 
as  well  as  among  the  Indians  of  America,  North  and  South,  fin  the 
settlements  of  the  Spaniards  and  Portuguese,  the  Roman  Catholic  re- 
ligion has  been  introduced  of  course.)  Mahometanism  prevails  in 
•some  parts  of  India,  in  Persia,  Aralaia,  Egypt,  the  States  of  Barbary, 
Syria,  and  Turkey.  The  Jews  continue  dispersed  over  every  part  of 
the  world,  but  in  a  state  and  condition  far  better  tlan  was  formerly 
the  case  ;  in  Europe  they  are  no  longtr  exposed  to  cruel  and  wanton 
acts  of  oppression  and  persecution,  and  in  some  countries  they  have 
obtained  important  privileges.  lu  Abyssinia  the  majority  of  the 
people  are  said  to  be  christians,  and  thioughout  the  whole  of  the  Eu- 
ropean settlements  of  North  America,  Christianity  is  the  received  re- 
ligion, though  under  a  variety  of  denominations,— Congregajtionalists, 
Presbyterians,  Dutch  reformed  church,  Episcopalians, iBaptists,  Qua- 
kers, fllethodists,  Roman  Catholics,  German  Lutherans^  German  Cat 


MODERN  HISTORY.  421 

vinir's,  Moravians,  Tunkers,  Mennonists,  Universausts,  Swedenbor- 
giaiis,  and  Shakers. 

2.  In  regard  to  religion  or  Christianity,  on  the  continent  of  Europe, 
it  has  been  already  shown  what  rude  att;icks  it  had  to  sustain,  du.  'iig 
the  course  and  progress  of  the  French  rt*r()!ution.  Deism  and  even 
atheism  were  openij'  avowed  in  their  national  assem])]ies  ;  the  im- 
mortality of  the  soul  and  resurrection  of  the  body  scouted  at,  and 
death  pronounced  to  be  an  eternal  sleep.  Paganism  was  in  some  de- 
gree revived,  the  tree  of  liberty  substituted  for  the  cross,  and  thf 
goddess  of  reason  elevated  above  tlie  God  of  Christians.  During  the 
directorial  and  consular  governments,  however,  Catholicism  was  re- 
stored, but  under  ver}-  altered  circumstances  ;  without  its  accompani- 
ments of  monasteries  and  nunneries,  and  very  much  detached  from 
the  swa}'  and  authority  of  die  papa!  see. 

3.  The  protestant  churches,  ot  all  sects  and  denominations,  have 
done  much,  as  was  before  observed,  by  missions  in  every  direction,  to 
spread  the  knov,  ledge  of  Christianity,  but  seldom  with  that  cordiality 
and  unanimity  that  might  have  been  wished,  and  which  could  noi 
have  failed  to  have  given  greater  elTect  to  their  exertions.  Among 
those  who  have  appeared  most  zealous,  though  not  most  discreet,  we 
may  reckon  the  Alo7-uvians  and  Methodists ;  two  sects  or  parties, 
whose  most  avowed  object  it  has  been  to  stem  the  torrent  of  vice  and 
corruption,  prevailing  amongst  professed  christians.  The  methodisfs 
have  generally  called  themselves  of  the  church  of  England,  though  in 
many  material  respects  tlwy  appear  to  have  deviated  from  it,  both  in 
doctrine  and  discipline,  and  have  for  some  time  been  divided  amongst 
themselves  into  two  great  parties,  one  espousing  the  Calvinistic,  the 
other  the  Arminian,  tenets.  It  is  common  to  refer  the  origin  of 
Methodism  to  the  year  1,729,  when  the  two  brothers,  John  and  Charles 
Wesley,  took  the  lead  of  those  who  adhered  to  the  Arminian  doctrines. 
Mr.  George  Whitefield,  who  joined  them  in  1,735,  became,  in  1,741, 
the  head  of  the  Calvinistic  division. 

4.  The  modern  Moravians  take  their  date  from  the  year  1,722, 
when  they  first  settled  at  Hernhut,  in  Upper  Lusatia,  on  the  estates 
of  Nicholas  Lewis,  count  of  Zinzendorf,  who,  in  1,735,  became  their 
bishop.  They  profess  to  receive  the  Augsbui^  confession  ;  are  meek 
and  quiet  in  their  habits  and  principles,  but  have  at  times  adopted  a 
strange  phraseolog}'-,  which  was  thought  to  affect  their  moral  character, 
and  procured  them  many  enemies.  As  missionaries  they  have  been 
extremelj^  active,  particularly  in  the  West  Indies  and  America :  Uiey 
prot'ess  to  be  the  remains  of  the  Hussites. 

5.  The  emperor  Joseph  II.  relieved  his  protestant  subjects  of  all 
denominations  from  many  galling  restrictions,  and  greatly  abridged 
the  power  of  the  pope.  Many  catholic  princes,  even  the  ecclesiasti- 
cal states,  followed  his  example  in  various  particulars.  In  favourijig, 
however,  an  unlimited  freedom  of  opinion  at  such  a  moment,  he  open- 
ed the  door  to  the  introduction  of  deistical  principles,  and  facilitated 
the  formation  of  a  sect  of  illuminati,  which,  during  the  course  and 
progress  of  the  French  revolution,  taught  and  disseminated  doctrines 
adverse  in  the  highest  degree  to  the  orde^'  of  civil  society,  the  rights 
of  property,  and  tne  christian  faith. 

6.  The  papal  authority,  during  the  latter  years  of  the  period  under 
discussion,  has  been  greatly  abridged  in  all  countries  heretofore  sub- 
ject to  it ;  even  in  Spain,  Portugal,  Italy,  and  Sicily  ;  nor  is  it  likely 
to  be  recovered,  notwithstanding  the  attempts  lately  made  to  restore 
partially  the  order  of  Jesuits  and  the  inquisition.    Of  the  indignitie« 

N» 


422  MODERN  HISTORY. 

offered  to  the  last  and  present  pope  by  the  French  we  have  spoken 
elsewhere.  At  one  time  they  so  entirely  took  the  reins  of  government 
at  Rome  into  their  own  hands,  that  the  pope  and  cardinals  were 
obliged  to  take  flight,  in  which  situation  Pius  VI.  died.  His  suc- 
cessor, Pius  VII.,  since  the  final  overthrow  of  Buonaparte,  has  lived 
in  peace  and  quietness,  in  his  capital,  exercising,  notwithstanding  his 
recall  of  the  Jesuits,  a  veiy  tolerant  and  inoffensive  sway.  It  is,  how- 
ever, to  be  lamented,  that,  in  the  instance  of  the  pope,  as  well  as  of 
the  king  of  Naples,  and  others,  their  resentment  of  the  French  usur- 
pations on  their  return  to  their  dominions  has  been  carried  so  far  as  to 
abrogate  evejy  ordinance  of  the  French  Emperor,  however  wise  or 
salutaiy^  and  even  to  undo  what  had  been  begun,  manifestly  tending 
to  the  improvement  of  their  respective  countries. 


HISTORY,  POLITE  LITERATURE,  FINE  ARTS,  Lc 

1.  We  feel  ourselves  rather  at  a  loss  to  give  any  satisfactoiy  account 
of  the  progress  that  has  been  made  in  the  branches  of  knowledge 
pointed  out  by  the  title  of  this  section  :  it  would  far  exceed  our  limits 
to  attehipt  to  enumerate  the  many  historical  works  that  have  been  pub- 
lished during  the  eighteenth  and  nineteenth  centuries,  or  to  go  into  any 
regular  discussion  of  the  particular  merits  of  the  several  poets,  paint- 
ers, musicians,  philosophers,  philologists,  &.c.  &:c.,  who  may  be  said  to 
have  distinguished  themselves  in  the  period  of  which  we  have  been 
treating,  't'o  do  this  with  any  degree  of  justice,  we  should  be  oblig- 
ed, perhaps,  to  divide  them  into  many  classes,  and  assign  to  the  sev- 
eral individuals  of  the  long  list  that  nn'ght  be  produced,  their  respec- 
tive ranks  and  stations,  from  the  highest  degree  of  perfection  to  medi- 
ocrity, or  lower  ;  we  should  have  to  draw  a  comparison  between  them 
and  their  predecessors,  and  consider,  in  various  points  of  view,  every 
advance  they  had  made  in  their  different  callings,  studies,  and  pur- 
«uits  :  but  such  a  discussion  would  be  quite  unsuitable  to  a  work  like 
the  present.  Many  of  those,  indeed,  m  ho  have  contributed  to  enlarge 
the  boundaries  of  knowledge  during  the  eighteenth  and  nineteenth 
centuries,  have  been  already  mentioned  ;  but  there  are  still  some 
names  which  almost  demand  our  notice,  before  we  entirely  close  this 
volume.  It  should,  however,  be  observed,  that  many  very  eminent 
persons,  who  lived  till  long  after  the  commencement  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  belong  to  a  diff;-rent  period,  having  been  the  ornaments  of 
wiiat  is  called  the  age  of  Louis  XIV.  It  may  be  best,  perhaps,  to 
arrange  the  few  we  feel  bound  to  select  from  the  great  mass  of  au- 
thors, artists,  ike,  according  to  their  countries. 

2.  In  Germany  the  following  may  be  said  to  have  acquired  a  high 
reputation  :  Mascov,  Mosheim,  Pfeffel,  Herder,  Muller,  in  History ; 
Schiller  in  History  and  Tragedy;  Klopstock,  Gesner,  Wieland, 
Kotzebue,  Goethe,  in  Poetry  and  Dramatic  writing ;  in  Painting, 
Mengs  ;  Ingenhouz  in  Chemistry,  and  Bode  m  Astronomy  ;  Handel, 
GIucK,  Haydn,  and  Mozart,  in  Music;  Lavater  in  the  fanciful  science 
of  Physiognomy.  Even  the  names  of  Mesmer,  Mainaduc,  Gall,  and 
Spurzneim,  may  require  to  be  mentioned,  as  having  for  some  time,  in 
an  extraordinary  manner,  amazed  the  ignorant,  and  deceived  the 
credulous,  by  theix  strange  systems  of  Anitnal  Magneti^M  and 
Oraniology. 

3.  In  France,  Camlet,  Montfaucon,  the  Count  de  Caylus,  Rollin- 
Vertot,  Rapm»  Goguet,  MUlot,  Raynal,  Mably,  and  tlie  Abbe  Bar- 


MODERN  HISTORY.  425 

Uielemy,  particularly  distinguished  themselves  in  the  line  of  History 
and  Antiquities  ;  to  whom  we  may  now  add,  perhaps  with  reason  and 
justice,  Mad.  de  Stael,  and  M.  La  Cretelle.  M.  Bailly,  one  of  the 
victims  of  tlie  Revolution,  rendered  himself  conspicuous  by  his  very 
curious  Histoiy  of  Astronomy,  and  other  works.  Many  of  his  con- 
temporaries, who  applied  themselves  to  other  branches  of  science, 
have  been  already  mentioned.  Some  of  them  also  fell  by  the  hands 
of  the  public  executioner,  during  the  dreadful  period  of  the  Revolu- 
tion. Their  most  celebrated  painter,  however,  David,  escaped,  but 
with  more  reputation  as  an  artist  than  as  a  man  ;  for  his  ovvn  proceed- 
ings, as  a  revolutionist,  were  base  and  sanguinaiy. 

4.  In  Great  Britain,  we  have  to  boast,  in  the  line  of  History,  of  the 
names  of  Robertson,  Watson,  Hume,  Gibbon,  Lytteiton,  Goldsmith, 
Rcscoe,  Russell,  Gillies,  Ferguson,  Stuart,  Mitford  ;  in  Law,  of  Sir 
William  Blackstone,  whose  Commentaries,  for  elegance  and  perspi- 
cuity of  diction,  stand  unrivalled.  Bolingbroke  and  Swift  are  justly 
held  to  have  iaiprovcd  the  English  language,  in  the  two  main  articles 
of  enei^  and  beauty.  The  style  ot  Dr.  Johnson  is  less  chaste, 
though,  perhaps,  equally  iorcible.  The  name  of  Ailam  Smith  will 
proliabl}'  descend  to  the  latest  posterity,  for  his  masterly  work  on  the 
weaith  of  nations,  a  subject  ir>  which  he  seems  almost  to  have  taken 
the  lead,  as  an  original  writer.  In  Painting,  the  names  of  Hogarth, 
Reynaids,  and  West,  stand  high  for  originality,  taste,  conception,  and 
expression  ;  in  Metaphysics,  Hume,  Hartley,  Berkeley,  Reid,  Baxter, 
and  Priestley,  have  distiiiguiahed  themselves.  To  the  Poets  already 
mentioned  we  must  add  Gay,  Young,  Shenstone,  Collins,  Gray,  3Ia- 
son,  Cowper,  Crabbe,  Scott,  Byron  ;  as  JVovclists,  Richardson,  Smol- 
lett, Fielding,  Bu^ney,  Edgevvorth,  ic.  Garrick  and  Siddons  have 
conferred  immortal  honour  on  the  English  Stage. 

5.  Italy,  though  labouring  under  great  disadvantages,  has  been  by 
no  means  deficient  in  learned  and  scientific  persons,  since  the  close  of 
the  seventeenth  century.  In  history  and  antiquities,  in  poetry,  dra- 
matic works,  natural  history,  drawing,  engraving,  and  sculpture,  the 
following  names  richly  deserve  to  be  delivered  down  to  posterity  : 
Baronius,  Giannone,  Muratori,  Maffei,  Metastasio,  Goldoni,  Algarotti, 
Gozzi,  Tiraboschi,Beccaria,  Spallanzani,  Alfieri,  Bartolozzi,  Cipriani, 
Canova.  France  and  Italy  seem  to  have  a  joint  claim  to  a  living 
author  of  considerable  fame,  M.  Slmondes  de  Sismondi. 

TREATY  OF  VIENNA,  1,015. 

1.  As  Europe,  generally  speaking,  may  be  said  to  continue  at  this 
moment  in  the  state  in  which  it  was  left  by  the  above  treaty,  we  shall 
conclude  with  a  brief  sketch  of  the  changes  that  took  place  at  that 
memorable  period.  The  duchy  of  Warsaw  was  given  to  the  emperor 
of  Russia,  with  permission  to  assume  the  titles  of  czar  and  king  of 
Poland,  some  parts,  however,  being  secured  to  Prussia,  under  the  title 
of  grand  Duchy  of  Posen.  The  town  of  Cracow,  in  Little  Poland, 
on  the  b*nks  of  the  Vistula,  was  declared  to  be  for  ever  a  free,  in- 
dependent, and  strictly  neutral  city,  under  the  protection  of  Austria, 
Russia,  and  Prussia.  The  king  of  Saxony  was  confirmed  in  his  regal 
titles,  but  at  the  price  of  many  important  cessions  to  Pi-ussia,  princi- 
pally that  of  the  duchy  of  Saxony.  Prussia,  besides,  recovered 
Dantzic,  Qjuedlinbui^,  and  many  other  places  ;  yielding,  however,  to 
the  king  of  Great  Britain,  now  become  king  o(  Hanover  also,  many 


424  UNITED  STATES. 

lordship?  and  principalities,  in  other  parts  of  Germany.  A  new  Ger- 
manic confederation  was  established,  the  members  of  whicli  were 
declared  to  be  equal  in  their  rights,  and  bound  to  render  to  each  other 
mutual  assistance.  Their  affairs  to  be  confided,  first  to  a  federative 
diet,  amounting  to  seventeen  votes  ;  and,  2d!y,  to  a  general  assembly, 
forming  sixty-nine  votes  ;  who  are  to  decide  upon  all  regulations 
touching  the  fundamental  laws  of  the  confederation.  The  diet  to 
assemble  at  Fpankfort  on  the  Maine,  and  Austria  to  preside.  The 
three  important  fortresses  of  Landau,  Mentz,  and  Luxembourg,  being 
assigned  over  to  the  confederation. 

2.  The  united  provinces  of  the  Netherlands,  late  the  Belgic  states, 
were  formed  into  a  kingdom,  jointly  with  those  of  Holland,  in  favour 
of  the  house  of  Orange  Nassau,  late  stadtholders ;  and  to  the  same 
sovereign  was  granted  the  duchy  of  Luxembourg,  with  the  title  of 
grand  duke. 

3.  The  integrity  of  the  nineteen  cantons  of  Switzerland  was  ac- 
knowledged, and  guarantied  ;  and  Geneva,  for  the  first  time,  consti- 
tuted a  canton  of  the  Helvetic  confederacy.  The  states  of  Genoa 
were  annexed  to  the  kingdom  of  Sardinia,  in  the  place  of  many  re- 
nunciations on  the  part  of  the  latter  power,  principally  in  favour  of 
Geneva.  The  grand  duchy  of  Tuscany  was  settled  on  the  archduke 
Ferdinand  of  Austria  ;  ana  king  Ferdinand  the  IVth  was  restored  i& 
the  sovereignty  of  the  Two  Sicilies. 


Pj\rt  fourth. 

UNITED    STATES. 

SECTION  I. 

DISCOVERY  OF  AMERICA. 

1.  It  was  somewhat  natural  that  the  distinguished  author  of  the 
Elements  of  Histoiy  should  almost  exclusively  confine  himself  to  the 
great  events  of  the  old  world.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  discovery 
of  America  by  Columbus  embraces  only  a  short  space,  (see  Section 
XLI.)  and  that  North  America,  the  first  settlement  of  the  United 
States,  the  revolution  and  severance  of  those  states  from  the  crown  of 
Great  Britain,  and  the  more  recent  dispute  of  the  States  with  Great 
Britain,  are  dismissed  by  both  authors  in  a  few  words.  (See  Section 
XLII.,  and  Sections  VIII.  and  XX.  of  the  Continuation.)  This  con- 
sideration will  suggest  the  propriety  of  a  more  particular  narration  of 
the  events  which  relate  to  the  United  States,  for  whose  particular  use 
tlie  present  edition  of  this  work  is  intended- 


UNITED  STATES.  425 

2.  The  honour  of  accomplishing  an  exploit  so  sublime  as  (hat  of  (lie 
discoveiy  of  this  western  hemisphere,  was  gained  by  Christopher 
Columbus.  This  great  man,  a  native  of  Genoa,  descended  from  a 
respectable  family,  was  well  qualified  by  nature  and  education  to  be- 
come distinguished  on  the  ocean.  Ardently  inclined  towards  that 
element,  he  went  to  sea  at  the  age  of  fourteen.  After  a  variety  of 
adventures  serving  to  enlarge  his  knowledge  more  than  to  increase  his 
fortune,  he  went  to  Lisbon.  Here,  having  mxinied  the  daughter  of 
Perestrello,  a  Portuguese  navigator  of  much  celebrity,  his  favourite 
passion  of  making  discoveries  Was  rendered  more  irresistible  by  read- 
ing the  journals  of  his  father-in-law,  which  had  fallen  into  his  hands. 

3.  The  attention  of  the  Portuguese  was  at  that  time  directed  to  the 
finding  a  passage  by  water  to  the  East  Indies  ;  and  they  intended  to 
accomplish  this  purpose  by  passing  to  the  south  until  they  reached  the 
southern  extremity  of  Africa,  and  then  taking  an  easterly  course. 
The  spherical  figure  of  the  earth  was  then  known,  and  its  magnitude 
had  been  ascertained  with  some  good  degree  of  accuracy  ;«and  the 
active  mind  of  Columbus,  after  having  attentively  compared  the 
observations  of  modern  navigators  with  the  conjectures  of  the  ancients, 
at  last  came  to  the  conclusion,  that,  by  sailing  directly  to  the  Avest, 
new  countries,  which  it  was  likely  formed  a  part  of  (he  great  continent 
of  Asia,  must  be  discovered,  hfis  opinion  was  strenglliened  by  the 
discovery,  after  a  long  course  of  westerly  wind,  of  pieces  of  carved 
wood,  trees,  and  canes,  and  dead  bodies,  the  natives  of  another  clime, 
driven  on  the  shores  of  the  Madeira  isles  and  the  Azores. 

4.  Fully  satisfied  with  the  truth  of  his  system,  Columbus  was  im- 
patient to  bring  it  to  the  test  of  experiment.  He  first  made  applica- 
tion to  the  senate  of  Genoa  for  patro!iage,  desirous  that  his  native 
countiy  should  reap  the  fruits  of  his  labour  and  ingenuity  ;  but  here 
his  proposals  were  rejected  as  the  dream  of  a  chimerical  projector. 
Not  discouraged  by  this  repulse,  be  laid  his  plans  before  John  king 
of  Portugal,  who  basely  attempted  a  fraud  on  him,  by  despatchiiig  a 
vessel  in  pursuit  of  the  discovery,  after  drawing  from  Columbus  all 
the  information  which  treacheiy  could  devise.  The  pilot  selected  for 
this  purpose,  being  no  less  deficient  in  courage  than  were  his  em- 
ployers in  dignity  and  justice,  returned  to  Lisboji  without  making  any 
discovery. 

5.  Disgusted  with  the  treacheiy,  Columbus  instantly  went  to  Spain, 
and  laid  his  plan  before  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  at  the  samp  f  ime  that 
he  sent  his  brother  Bartholomew  to  England,  for  the  purpose  of  nego- 
tiating for  the  patronage  of  Henry  Vl!.,  reported  to  be  one  of  the 
most  sagacious  and  opulent  princes  of  the  age.  Accident  deprived 
England  of  the  renown  of  this  discovery  ;  the  brother  of  Columbus 
on  his  way  being  captured  by  pirates,  and  detained  in  captivity  many 
years  :  although  arriving  in  England  in  great  imligence,  Henry  re- 
ceived the  overtures  of  Columbus  more  favourably  than  any  other 
monarch,  and  invited  him  to  that  countiy.  But  it  was  too  late.  The 
great  discoverer,  after  combating  many  and  sore  disappointments, 
succeeded  at  length  in  securing  the  Spanish  court,  aided  by  two  rich, 
generous,  and  vigilant  patrons,  Quintanella  and  Santangel.  Ferdinand 
was  still  restrained  by  his  characteristic  caution  and  reserve  ;  but 
Isabella,  alive  to  the  gloiy  which  must  accitie  fiom  the  accomplish- 
ment of  so  grand  an  enterprise,  declared  her  resolution  to  employ 
Columbus  ;  and,  in  the  low  state  of  her  finances,  consequent  on  along 
and  serious  contest  with  the  Moors,  who  had  tiien  but  ju.st  beeo  ex- 
pelled from  Spain,  offered  to  pledge  ber  jewels  in  order  to  complete 

1^02  64 


426  UNITED  STATES. 

the  preparations  of  the  voyage  :  Santangel  however  relieved  the  diffi- 
culty, by  advancing  from  his  private  purse  the  necessary  sum. 

6.  April  17,  1,492,  more  than  seven  years  after  the  date  of  his  first 
application,  an  agreement  with  Columbus  was  concluded.  The  ex- 
pedition was  fitted  out  at  Palos,  a  small  town  of  the  province  of 
Andalusia  ;  but  it  was  badly  suited  to  the  service  for  which  it  was 
intended.  It  consisted  of  three  vessels,  the  Santa  Maria,  the  Finta, 
and  the  Nigna — the  &st  of  inconsiderable  burthen  commanded  by 
Columbus  as  admiral ;  and  the  two  last,  not  siiperior  in  size  to  large 
boats,  by  two  brothers,  Martin  and  Vincent  rinzon :  the  whole  pro- 
vided with  ninety  men,  and  victualled  for  twelve  months. 

7.  August  3,  Columbus  set  sail.  He  touched  at  the  Canary  islands, 
where  he  refitted  his  crazy  vessels,  and  departed  from  Gomera, 
Sept.  6.  Here  he  took  his  course  due  west,  leaving  the  track  of  all 
former  navigators,  and  stretched  boldly  into  seas  unknown.  Veiy 
soon  his  sailors,  alarmed  at  the  distance  they  had  proceeded  without 
finding  the  expected  land,  began  to  mutiny,  and  placed  Columbus  in  a 
situation  in  which  any  other  man  would  have  yielded  to  their  entreaties 
to  return.  Fertile  in  expedients,  possessing  a  thorough  knowledge  of 
mankind,  an  insinuating  address,  and  a  happy  talent  at  governing,  he 
succeeded  day  after  day  in  beguiling  the  discontented  seamen  far 
beyond  their  own  determinations,  until  every  succeeding  hour  present- 
ed stronger  and  stronger  indications  that  land  could  be  at  no  great 
distance.  For  some  days  the  sounding  line  had  reached  the  bottom  ; 
the  flocks  of  birds  increased,  and  some  of  them  of  a  kind  supposed  to 
fly  not  far  from  shore  ;  the  clouds  around  the  sun  assumed  a  new 
appearance ;  the  air  was  more  mild,  and,  during  the  night,  the  wind 
became  unequal  and  variable.  On  the  evening  of  Oct.  11,  he  ordered 
the  ships  to  lie  to,  in  the  fear  of  running  ashore.  That  night  Colum- 
bus observed  a  light,  which  seemed  to  be  carried  about  from  place  to 
place  ;  and  a  little  after  midnight,  was  heard  from  the  Pinta  the  joyful 
cry  of  Land  ! 

8.  When  the  morning  dawned,  ah  island  was  seen  about  two  leagues 
to  the  north  :  its  verdant  fields  were  well  stored  with  wood,  presenting 
the  aspect  of  a  delightful  country.  All  the  boats  were  immediately 
manned  and  armed.  The  Spaniards  rowed  towards  the  shore  with 
their  colours  displayed.  As  they  approached  the  beach,  they  saw  it 
covered  with  a  multitude  of  people,  whose  attitudes  and  gestures  dis- 
covered wonder  and  amazement.  Columbus  was  the  first  who  set  foot 
en  this  new  world  which  he  had  discovered.  His  men  tbllowed ;  and 
all  kneeling,  kissed  the  ground  that  they  had  long  desired,  but  never 
expected  to  behold  :  here  he  erected  a  crucifix,  returned  thanks  to 
God,  and  with  the  usual  formalities  took  possession  of  the  country. 
To  this  island,  called  by  the  natives  Guanahana,  Columbus  gave  the 
name  of  St.  Salvador :  it  is  one  of  the  large  cluster  called  the  Baha- 
mas, more  than  three  thousand  miles  west,  but  only  four  degrees  south 
of  Gomera,  the  port  of  the  Canaries  which  he  last  left. 

9.  After  discovering  several  other  islands,  amongst  which  Were 
Cuba  and  Hayti  ;  and  using  every  precaution  to  secure  the  benefit  of 
a  first  discoveiy,  by  erecting  a  fort  and  leaving  a  party  of  men  on  the 
island  of  Hayti  ;  on  the  4th  of  January,  1,493,  Columbus  set  sail  for 
Europe.  The  shattered  condition  of  his  vessels  would  have  rendered 
the  voyage  at  any  time  unsafe  ;  but  a  succession  of  stonns  had  well 
nigh  committed  to  the  bosom  of  the  deep,  and  with  it  the  secret  of 
his  discovery,  his  little  flotilla.     The  whole,  however,  arrived.  _ 

10.  At  first  it  was  generally  supposed,  from  a  similarity  in  tbfe 


UNITED  STATES.  427 

productions,  that  the  discovered  country  was  a  part  of  those  vast  re- 
gions of  Asia,  comprehended  under  the  general  name  of  India.  The 
name  of  India  was  given  to  it  by  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  ;  and,  after 
the  error  which  gave  rise  to  the  opinion  was  detected,  the  name  of 
West  Indies  has  remained,  and  the  aborigines  are  called  Indians. 

11.  In  l,498j  Columbus,  on  his  third  voyage,  reached  the  continent, 
and  landed  in  several  places  in  the  provinces  of  Paria  and  Cumana. 
But  he  was  deprived  of  the  honour  of  associating  his  name  with  this 
vast  portion  of  the  earth,  being  supplanted  by  Amerigo  Vespucci,  a 
native  of  Florence,  who,  in  1,499,  went  on  a  voyage  to  America,  and 
who  published  an  account  of  his  adventures  so  ingeniously  framed  as 
to  make  it  appear  that  he  had  the  glory  of  first  discovering  the  conti- 
nent of  the  new  world. 

12.  On  the  20th  ol  November,  1,497,  Vasco  de  Gama,  employed  by 
the  king  of  Portugal,  first  doubled  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  which 
opened  a  passage  to  the  East  Indies ;  and  twenty-three  years  after 
the  first  discovery  of  America  by  Columbus,  Magellan,  a  native  of 
Portugal,  in  the  service  of  Spain,  penetrated  into  the  Pacific  ocean, 
by  the  strait  which  bears  his  name,  situated  at  the  southern  extremity 
©i  the  American  continent. 


SECTION  II. 
DISCOVERIES  BY  THE  ENGLISH.     SETTLEMENT  OF  VIRGINIA. 

1.  The  English  were  the  second  people  that  discovered  the  new 
world,  and  the  first  that  discovered  the  continent  of  America.  On  the 
24th  of  June,  1,497,  Giovanni  Caboto,  (or  Cabot,)  and  his  son  Sebas- 
tian, who  were  commissioned  by  Henry  VIII.  to  sail  in  quest  of  new 
countries,  discovered  a  large  island,  to  which  they  gave  the  name  of 
Prima  Vesta,  or  first  seen  ;  now  called  Newfoundland.  From  this, 
they  steered  to  the  north,  in  search  of  a  passage  to  India  ;  but  finding 
no  appearance  of  a  passage,  they  tacked  about,  and  ran  as  far  as 
Florida,  the  island  of  Cuba,  as  he  relates,  being  on  his  left. 

2.  On  the  accession  of  Elizabeth  to  the  crown  of  England,  a  period 
commenced,  highly  auspicious  tc  mercantile  extension.  The  coast  of 
Labrador  was  explored  by  Martin  Frobisher,  under  her  auspices,  in 
the  years  1,576  '7-'8  ;  and  sir  Francis  Drake,  about  this  time,  accom- 
plished his  celebrated  voyage  around  the  globe. 

3.  In  1,5,84,  sir  Walter  Kaleigh,  a  favourite  at  that  time  of  the 
queen,  despatched  two  small  vessels,  under  the  command  of  Philip 
Amidas  and  Arthur  Barlow,  which  reached  the  coast  of  North  Carolina 
on  the  4th  of  July,  making  their  passage  in  sixty-seven  days  by  way 
of  the  Canary  islands  and  the  West  Indies.  On  their  return  Amidas 
and  Barlow  gave  a  splendid  description  of  the  country  ;  of  its  beauty, 
fertility,  mildness  of  climate,  and  serenity  of  atmosphere  ;  and  Eliz- 
abeth gave  to  the  country  the  name  of  Vii-ginia,  as  a  memorial  that 
this  happy  land  was  discovered  under  a  maiden  queen. 

4.  In  1,585,  sir  Walter  Raleigh  fitted  out  a  squadron  of  seven  small 
vessels,  with  one  hundred  and  eighty  adventurers,  which  sailed  from 
Plymouth,  under  the  command  of  sir  Richard  Greenville.  This 
colony  was  left  on  the  island  of  Roanoke,  under  the  care  of  captain 
Lane  ;  but  through  bad  management,  turning  all  their  attention  to  tM 


428  UNITED  STATES. 

search  for  gold  and  silver,  they  were  soon  assailed  by  a  hvo-fold 
calamity,  the  hostility  of  the  natives  and  the  prospect  of  famine.  Sir 
Francis  Drake,  on  his  return  from  the  West  Indies,  at  the  unanimous 
request  of  the  colonists,  carried  them  back  to  England,  and  thus  ended 
the  ill-conducted  experiment,  after  a  trial  of  nine  months. 

5.  Early  in  the  following  year,  three  more  vessels  arrived  at  the 
same  spot,  with  one  hundred  and  fifty  settlers.  In  about  one  month 
after,  the  daughter  of  captain  White,  who  commanded  the  expedition, 
and  the  wife  of  Ananius  Dare,  one  of  his  assistants,  gave  birth  to  the 
first  English  female  child,  which  was  named  Virginia.  Misfortune 
pui-sued  this  infant  settlement.  The  threatened  Spanish  armada 
engrossing  the  attention  of  the  parent  country,  the  colony  received  no 
supplies,  and  the  inhabitants  perished  miserably  by  famine,  or  by  the 
hands  of  their  surrounding  enemies. 

6.  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  being  engaged  in  other  ambitious  under- 
takings, so  vast  and  various  as  were  beyond  his  power  to  accomplish, 
and  becoming  cold  to  the  unprofitable  scheme  of  effecting  settlements 
in  America,  assigned  his  interest  in  that  country  to  sir  Thomas  Smith 
and  a  company  of  merchants  in  London,  in  1,596.  These  were  satis- 
lied  for  the  present  to  pursue  a  pettj'^  traffic  with  the  natives,  and  made 
no  attempt  to  take  possession  or  the  soil. 

7.  But  in  the  succeeding  reign  of  James,  who  having  concluded  an 
amicable  treaty  with  Spain,  and  terininated  a  tedious  war,  the  period 
w,-'.s  more  auspicious  for  settlements  in  America.  The  attention  of  the 
monarch  was  called  to  this  subject  by  the  efforts  of  distinguished 
geographers  and  men  of  science.  James  divided  into  districts  of 
nearly  equal  extent,  that  portion  of  North  America  which  stretches 
trom  the  34fh  to  the  45th  degree  of  north  latitude,  excepting  the 
territory  of  any  other  christian  prince  or  people  already  occupied  ; 
one  called  the  First,  or  South  Colony,  the  other  the  Second,  or  North 
Colony  of  Virginia.  In  1 ,6i)6,  he  authorized  certain  gentlemen,  most- 
ly residents  of  London,  to  settle  in  a  limited  district  of  the  former  ; 
an  equal  extent  of  the  latter  be  allotted  to  several  gentlemen  of 
Bristol,  Plymouth,  and  other  parts  of  the  west  of  England.  These 
grants  laid  the  first  foundation  of  states  which  in  a  few  centuries  were 
'lestined  to  become  rivals  to  Uie  mother  country  in  wealth,  in  science, 
and  in  power.  The  supreme  government  of  the  colonies  was  vested 
in  a  council  resident  in  England,  to  be  nominated  by  the  king  ;  the 
subordinate  jurisdiction  in  a  council  which  was  to  reside  in  America, 
and  also  to  be  named  by  the  crown,  asid  act  conformably  to  its  in- 
structions. Whatever  was  required  for  their  sustenance,  or  for  the 
support  of  commerce,  he  permitted  to  be  shipped  from  England  free 
t>f  duty,  during  the  space  of  seven  years  ;  and  as  an  incitement  to  in- 
dustrj%  granted  them  the  liberty  of  trading  with 'other  nations,  appro- 
priating the  duties  to  be  laid  on  foreign  traffic  for  twenty-one  years,  as 
a  timd  for  their  exclusive  benf^fit. 

0.  A  vessel  of  one  hundred  tons,  and  two  barks,  urider  the  command 
of  captain  Newport,  sailed  with  one  hundred  and  five  men,  destined 
to  'eiTiain  in  the  countrj'  :  among  these  was  a  Mr.  Percy,  brother  of  the 
ea;  1  of  Northumberland,  and  several  officers  who  had  served  with  rep- 
uif  lion  in  the  precedii^  reign.  The  first  land  that  was  discovered  was 
a  promontory,  the  soHthern  bound**y  of  the  Chesapeake,  April,  1,607  : 
this  was  named  cape  Henry,  in  h(ji««Dur  of  the  prince  of  Wales.  The 
spacious  inlet  was  entered,  and  the  expedition  coasted  the  southern 
shore,  and  up  a  river  sixty  miles,  called  by  the  natives  Powhatan,  to 
which  the  English  gave  "the  name  of  James  river,  in  honour  of  their 


UNITED  STATES.  429 

sovereign.     Here  a  site  was  fixed  for  the  infant  settlement,  which  was 
named  James  Town. 

9.  Imprudent  in  their  conduct  towards  the  natives,  this  feeble  socie- 
ty was  early  invoived  in  war.  Scarcity  of  provisions  introduced  dis- 
eases ;  and  in  a  few  months  half  their  oiiginal  number  was  swept  away, 
and  the  remainder  left  sickly  and  dejected. 

10.  The  government  soon  devolved  on  captain  John  Smith,  who 
was  originally  one  of  the  council  appointed  by  the  king,  but  who  had 
unjustly  been  deprived  of  his  authority  by  the  colonists.  This  gentle- 
man, who  was  emphatically  the  father  of  V^irginia,  was  a  native  of 
Lincolnshire:  he  had  distinguished  himself  in  feats  of  courage  and 
chivalry,  particularly  while  engaged  in  the  Hungarian  army  against 
the  Turks.  His  undaunted  temper,  deeply  tinctured  with  the  ro- 
mantic spirit  of  the  times,  was  happily  adapted  to  the  present  trying 
situation  of  the  colony.  Soon  after  he  had  been  callers  as  their  leader, 
while  hunting  in  the  woods,  he  was  attacked  by  two  hundred  Indians, 
who  poured  in  upon  him  a  continued  flight  of  arro\vs.  After  peribim- 
ing  wonderful  feats,  he  sunk  in  the  unequal  contest,  and  was  made  a 
prisoner.  Charmed  by  his  arts  and  his  valour,  they  released  him 
from  captivity.  Afterwards  he  was  beset  by  three  hundred  more  of 
these  ferocious  people,  pursued  into  a  marsh,  and,  after  he  had  thrown 
away  his  arms,  which  he  could  no  longer  use  by  reason  of  the  cold,  he 
v.'as  taken  and  carried  in  triumph  to  Powhatan,  the  principal  chieftain 
of  Viiginia.  Here  the  doom  of  death  was  pronounced  upon  him,  and 
he  was  about  to  receive  the  fatal  blo\v,  wiien  the  favourite  daughter  of 
Powhatan,  interposed  in  his  behalf.  This  amiable  child  (not  then 
thirteen  years  of  age)  not  only  prevented  the  execution  of  Smith  by 
her  entreaties  and  tears,  but  caused  him  to  be  set  at  liberty,  and  sent 
him,  from  time  to  time,  seasonable  presents  of  provisions. 

11.  The  colony  was  now  reduced  to  thirty-eight  persons.  Soon 
after,  however,  succours  arrived  from  England,  and  an  addition  ol  one 
hundred  new  planters  was  added  to  their  number.  But  the  culture  of 
the  land,  and  other  useful  emp'jyments,  were  neglected,  in  the  futile 
idea  tliat  gold  had  been  discovered  issuing  from  a  small  stream  which 
emptied  into  James  river.  The  effects  of  the  delusion  were  soon 
severely  felt  in  the  prospect  of  approaching  famine.  In  the  hope  of 
obtaining  relief,  Smith,  in  a  small  open  boat,  and  with  a  feeble  crew, 
went  in  search  of  aid  from  the  Indians.  In  two  different  excursions, 
that  occupied  upwards  of  lour  months,  he  visited  all  the  countries  on 
the  eastern  and  western  shores  of  die  Chesapeake  bay,  entering  the 
principal  creeks,  and  tracing  the  rivers  as  far  as  their  falls,  ancl  ob- 
tained a  supply  of  food  for  the  suffering  colony.  In  these  tours,  he 
sailed  upwarcfs  of  three  thousand  miles,  amidst  almost  incredible 
hardships,  and  brought  back  with  him  an  account  of  that  large  tract  of 
country,  now  con^prehended  in  the  two  states  of  Virginia  and  Maiy- 
land,  so  full  and  correct,  that  his  map  is  the  original  from  which  all 
subsequent  delineations  have  been  formed  until  lately. 

12.  About  this  period,  the  old  charter  being  found  inconvenient  aiid 
oppressive,  a  new  charter  was  granted  by  James,  by  which  the  boun- 
daries of  the  colony  were  enlarged  ;  the  counril  in  Virginia  was  abolish- 
ed, and  the  government  vested  entirely  in  one  residing  in  London,  the 
members  of  which  were  to  be  chosen  by  the  proprietors,  and  these  to 
nominate  a  governor,  who  was  to  reside  in  Virginia  and  carrj'  their 
orders  into  execution.  Lord  Delaware  was  at  first  appointed  to  this 
office  ;  but  as  this  nobleman  could  not  immediately  leave  England, 
tUe  power  was  vested  in  sir  Thomas  Gates  and  sir  George  Soniers, 


430  UNITED  STATES. 

who  were  despatched  from  England  with  five  hundred  planters.  A 
violent  hurricane  separated  the  fleet  on  their  way  ;  and  the  ships  with- 
out the  officers  only  arrived  at  James  Town.  Presently  every  thing 
was  reduced  to  a  state  of  anarchy  ;  captain  Smith,  at  once  the  shield 
and  the  sword  of  the  colony,  being  disabled  by  an  accidental  explosion 
of  gun-powder,  the  wretchedness  which  followed  is  beyond  descrip- 
tion ;  and  the  arri^  al  of  Gates  and  Somers,  who  had  been  cast  away 
on  one  of  the  Bermuda  islands,  although  it  saved  the  wretched  sur- 
vivors at  James  Town  from  immediate  death,  was  unable  to  preserve 
thoin  until  the  autumn.  Nothing  remained  but  to  seek  immediate 
assistance  ;  and  with  only  sixteen  days'  provision,  the  colony  set  sail, 
in  hopes  of  reaching  the  banks  of  Newfoundland,  and  getting  relief. 
But  before  they  had  arrived  at  the  mouth  of  the  river,  they  met  lord 
Delaware,  who  brought  a  large  supply  of  sustenance,  new  settlers, 
and  every  thing  requisite  either  for  cultivation  or  defence.  Under 
the  skilful  administration  of  this  nobleman,  the  colony  began,  once 
more,  to  assume  a  promising  appearance.  He  was  succeeded  by  sir 
'I'homas  Dale,  who  concluded  a  treaty  of  friendship  with  the  Powha- 
tans,  one  of  the  most  powerful  and  warlike  tribes  of  Virginia. 

13.  Pocahontas,  the  amiable  female  who  had  preserved  the  life  of 
captain  Smith,  Irequently  visited  the  English  settlements  ;  and  daring 
this  intercourse,  she  was  betra3'ed  on  board  a  vessel,  and  there  im- 
prisoned. Her  father,  who  loved  her  with  the  most  ardent  affection, 
was  obliged  to  discontinue  hostilities  on  such  conditions  as  were  dic- 
tated by  his  treacherous  enemy.  She  was  afterwards  solicited  by 
Mi-.  Rolfe,  a  respectable  planter,  in  marriage.  Powhatan  consented, 
and  the  marriage  was  celebrated  with  extraordinary  pomp.  From 
this  lime,  tlie  most  friendly  intercourse  subsisted  between  the  colonists 
and  the  Indians.  Rolfe  and  his  wife  went  to  England,  where,  by  the 
introduction  of  captain  Smith,  Pocahontas  was  received  by  the  court 
with  the  respect  due  to  her  birth ;  she  was  instructed  in  the  christian 
religion,  and  publicly  btiptized.  About  returning  to  America,  Poca- 
hontas died  at  Gravesend  ;  leaving  one  son,  from  whom  are  sprung 
some  of  the  most  respectable  f'imilies  of  Virginia. 

14.  Hitherto  no  individual  right  of  property  in  lands  was  establish- 
ed :  all  was  hoUlen  and  dealt  out  in  conuiion.  But  the  governor,  in 
1,616,  divided  a  considerable  extent  of  land  into  small  lots,  ajid  grant- 
ed one  of  these  for  ever  to  each  individual  ;  from  which  period  the 
colony  rapidly  extended.  The  culture  of  tobacco,  since  beconie  the 
great  staple  of  Virginia,  was  introduced  ;  but  the  eager  demand  for 
the  article  in  England  caused  for  some  time  a  scarcity  of  food  in  the 
colony 

15.  About  this  time,  a  Dutch  ship  from  the  coast  of  Guinea,  having 
sailed  up  James  river,  sold  to  the  planters  a  part  of  her  negroes  ; 
which  race  has  been  augmented  in  Virginia  by  successive  importations 
and  by  natural  increase,  till  it  forms  more  than  one  third  part  of  the 
population. 

16.  In  1,619,  sir  George  Yeardley,  the  governor  impelled  by  that 
popular  spirit  of  freedom  which  has  ever  been  the  characteristic  of 
Americans,  called  the  first  general  assenibly  which  was  held  in  Vir- 
ginia. At  this  time  eleven  corporations  sent  representatives  to  the  con 
rention,  w^ich  was  permitted  to  assume  legislative  power,  the  natural 
privilege  of  man.  The  supreme  authority  was  lodged  partly  in  the 
governor,  partly  in  a  council  of  state  appointed  by  the  company,  and 
in  a  general  assembly,  composed  of  representatives  of  the  people.  A 
natural  effect  of  the  happy  change  was  an  increase  of  agriculture. 


UNITED  STATES.  4Sl 

The  company  extended  the  trade  of  the  colony  to  Holland  and  other 
countries.  This  measure  produced  the  first  difference  of  sentiment 
between  the  colony  and  the  parent  slate.  .Jealous  at  seeing' a  com- 
modity, (tobacco,)  for  which  the  denuind  was  daily  increasing,  con- 
ducted to  foreign  ports  beyond  its  control,  thereby  causing  a  diminu- 
tion of  revenue,  the  latte-r  endeavoured  to  check  this  colunial  enterprise, 
without  considering  that  the  restrairit  was  a  breach  of  the  sacred  prin- 
ciples of  justice. 

17.  The  suspicion  of  the  monarclv  James  was  soon  roused,  and  the 
charter,  by  decision  of  the  king's  bench,  was  declared  forfeit,  and  the 
company  dissolved.  Charles  1.  adopted  all  his  father's  maxims  in 
respect  to  Virginia,  which  during  a  great  part  of  his  reign  kn»  w  no 
other  law  than  the  royal  will.  But  the  colonists  resistir/g,  Ckorles 
yielded  to  the  popular  voice  :  he  recalled  Harvey,  the  obnoxious 
governor,  and  appointed  sir  William  Berkeley,  a  man  of  great  abili- 
ties, prudent,  virtuous,  and  pop"lar  ;  whose  influence  was  directed  in 
finally  restoring  to  the  people  much  the  same  share  in  the  government 
as  they  had  enjoyed  previously  to  the  revocation  of  the  charter. 

18.  Ai'ter  the  execution  of  the  king,  and  the  establishment  of  the 
commonwealth  under  Cromwell,  through  the  influence  of  t!je  governor, 
the  colonists  continued  to  adhere  to  their  loyalty  to  the  king.  In  1,651, 
the  English  commonwealth  took  vigorous  measures  to  reijuce  the  Vir- 
ginians to  obedience.  A  numerous  squadron,  with  land  forces,  was 
despatched  for  this  purpose.  Berkeley  resisted,  but  was  unable  to 
maintain  an  unequal  contest,  and  was  soon  defeated.  The  people 
were,  however,  allowed  to  retain  the  privileges  of  citizens ;  but 
Berkeley  retired  as  a  private  citizen.  Cromnell's  parliament  framed 
acts  prohibiting  all  intercourse  between  the  colonies  and  foreign  states, 
and  allowing  no  trade  but  in  English  ships.  On  the  death  of  Mathews, 
the  last  governor  appointed  by  Cromwell,  the  Virginians  burst  out  in 
new  violence.  They  called  sir  William  Berkeley  from  his  retirement, 
boldly  erected  the  royal  standard,  and  proclaimed  Charles  II.,  son  of 
their  late  monarch,  to  be  their  lawful  sovereign.  Charles  was,  how- 
ever, soon  placed  on  the  throne,  and  the  Virginians  were  thus  saved 
from  the  chastisement  to  which  they  were  exposed  by  their  previous 
declaration  in  his  favour.  But  the  new  king  and  parlianient  rewarded 
their  fidelity  by  increasing  the  restraints  upon  colonial  commerce  ! 

13.  The  number  of  inhabitants  in  Virginia  in  1,688,  exceeded  sixty 
thousand,  and  its  population  in  the  previous  twenty-eight  years  was 
doubled.  In  1,691,  the  college  of  William  and  Mary  was  founded. 
To  aid  in  its  erection  and  support,  the  sovereigns  whose  name  it 
bears,  gave  nearly  two  thousand  pounds  out  of  their  private  purse,  and 
granted  twenty  thousand  acres  of  land,  and  a  duty  on  tobacco,  for  its 
further  encouragement. 


SECTION  III. 

SETTLEMENT  OF  MASSACHUSETTS,  RHODE  ISLAND,  CON- 
NECTICUT, NEW  HAMFSHIRE,  MAINE,  MARYLAND,  NORTH 
AND  SOUTH  CAROLINA,  NEW  YORK,  NEW  JERSEY,  PENN- 
SYLVANIA, DELAWARE,  AND  GEORGIA. 

1.  The  partition  of  the  great  territory  of  Virginia  into  North  and 
South  colonies  ..sn  already  been  mentiwied.     Still  more  feeble  were 


432  UNITED  STATES. 

the  operations  of  the  Plynioulh  company,  to  whom  was  assigned  the 
conduct  of  the  northern  division,  ahhoiigh  animated  by  the  zeal  of  sir 
John  Popham,  chief  juytice  of  Entrlnnd,  sir  Ferdinando  Gorges,  and 
other  public  spirited  gcntlemeii  of  the  west. 

2.  In  the  year  1,607,  ihe  s:ine  in  which  Jomes  Town  was  founded, 
a  small  settlement  was  commenced  on  the  river  SrpEidfihoc,  now  called 
the  Kennebec  ;  but  (lii.s  was  scmjh  abandoned.  Some  fishii:g  ve.'seis 
visited  Cape  Cod  several  times;  aniong  them.,  one  comrr.ander'  by 
captain  Smith,  who  returned  with  a  high-wrought  description  of  the 
coast  and  country  :  exhibiting  a  n:!ap  of  the  bays,  harbours,  &:c.,  on 
which  he  inscribed  "  New  England  ;"  the  prince  of  Wales,  delighted 
with  the  representations  of  Smith,  immediately  confijined  the  name. 

3.  To  the  operations  of  religion,  rather  than  to  the  desire  of  pccn- 
niajy  em.olument,  are  the  various  settlements  of  New  England  indebt- 
ed tor  their  origin.  The  sacred  rights  of  conscience  and  of  private 
judgment  were  not  then  properly  i.mderstood  ;  nor  was  the  charity 
and  mutual  forbearance  taught  christians  by  their  divine  master  prac- 
tised in  any  countiy.  Every  church  em.ployed  the  hand  of  power  in 
supporting  its  owri  doctrines,  and  opposing  the  tenets  of  another.  In 
reforming  the  rituals. and  exterior  symbols  of  the  church  of  England, 
Elizabeth,  lest  by  too  wide  a  departure  from  the  Romish  clnirch  she 
might  alarm  the  jjopulace,  had  allowed  many  of  the  ancient  ceremonies 
to  remain  unaltered.  With  several  of  these  a  large  number  of  her 
subjects  being  dissatisfied,  they  wished  to  address  their  Creator  ac- 
cording to  their  own  oi)inions,  but  were  subjected  to  very  rigorous 
penalties.  Those  who  dissented  from  the  established  church  obtained 
the  general  name  of  Puritans,  a  term  applied  to  them  because  they 
wished  for  a  purer  form  of  discipline  and  worship.  Among  the  most 
popular  and  strenuous  declaimers  against  the  established  church  were 
the  Brownists,  a  sect  formed  about  1,581,  by  Robert  Brown,  who  after- 
wards renounced  his  pr.MicipJes  of  separation,  and  took  orders  in  the 
church  against  which  he  had  so  loudly  declaimed.  The  Rev.  John 
Robinson,  the  father  of  the  first  settlement  of  New  England,  is  said  to 
have  been  a  follower  of  Brown,  but  afterwards  renounced  the  principles 
of  the  Brownists,  and  became  the  founder  of  a  new  sect,  denominated 
Independents.*  Mr.  Robinson  athrmed  that  all  christian  congregatifins 
were  so  many  independent  religious  societies,  that  had  a  right  to  be 
governed  by  their  own  laws,  independent  of  any  foreign  jurisdiction. 
Being  persecuted  in  England,  he,  with  many  others  embracing  his 
opinions,  removed  to  Holland,  where  they  formed  churches  upon  their 
own  principles.  Remaining  there  some  years,  the  society  were  de- 
sirous to  remove  to  some  other  place  :  they  turned  their  thoughts  to 
America,  and  applied  to  James,  who  though  he  refused  to  give  them 
any  positive  assurance  of  toleration,  seems  to  have  intimated  some 
promise  of  passive  indulgence. 

*  By  several  respectable  historians  of  this  country,  the  Independents 
have  been  connected  with  the  Brownists,  between  the  opinions  and  prac- 
tices of  whom  was  a  wide  difference.  The  Independents  excelled  the 
Brownists  in  the  moderation  of  their  sentiments,  and  in  the  order  of  their 
discipliue.  Ihty  possessed  candour  and  charity,  believing  that  true  re- 
ligion and  solid  piety  might  flourish  in  those  communities  under  the  juris- 
dictioa  of  bishops,  or  the  governments  of  synods  or  presbyteries.  Tliey 
approved  of  a  regular  ministry.  While  the  Brownists  allowed  promiscu- 
ously all  ranks  and  orders  of  men  to  teach  in  public,  the  Independents  re- 
quired a  proper  examination  of  the  capacity  and  talents  of  their  teachers. 


UNITED  STATES.  453 

*.  They  readily  procured  a  tract  of  land  from  the  Plymouth  com- 
pany. One  hundred  and  twenty  persons  sailed  from  Plymouth  in 
1,620,  their  destination  being  Hudson's  river  :  by  some  treachery  of 
the  Dutch,  who  then  contemplated  and  aftenvards  effected  a  settlement 
at  that  place,  they  were  carried  to  the  north,  and  landed  on  cape  Cod, 
tne  eleventh  of  November  of  that  year.  They  chose  for  their  resi- 
dence a  place  called  by  the  Indians  Patuxet,  to  which  they  gave  the 
name  of  New  Plymouth.  Before  spring,  half  their  number  were  cut 
off  by  famine  or  disease.  In  a  few  days  after  they  landed,  captain 
Standish  was  engaged  in  skirmishing  with  the  Indians  ;  and  the  many 
disasters  which  followed,  together  with  the  implacable  hostility  of  the 
Indians,  which  always  has  subsisted,  are  perhaps  more  owing  to  the 
imprudence  of  the  first  settlers,  than  to  the  bad  disposition  of  the 
natives. 

5.  This  colony,  like  that  of  Virginia,. at  first  held  their  goods  and 
property  in  common  ;  and  their  progress  was  retarded  as  well  by  this 
circumstance,  as  by  the  impulse  of  imaginary  inspiration,  which  reg- 
ulated all  their  actions.  At  the  end  of  ten  years,  these  well  meaning 
people,  when  they  became  incorporated  with  their  more  powerful 
neighbours  of  Massachusetts  bay,  did  not  exceed  three  hundred. 

6.  In  the  year  1,629,  Mr.  White,  a  non-conformist  minister  al 
Dorchester,  having  formed  an  association,  purchased  from  the  Ply 
mouth  company  a  tract  extending  in  length  from  three  miles  north  of 
Merrimack  river  to  three  miles  south  of  Charles  river,  and  in  breadtb 
from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Southern  ocean  ;  and  obtained  a  charter  frorej 
Charles,  similar  to  that  given  to  the  two  Virginian  companies  by  James 
Five  ships  were  fitted  out,  on  board  of  which  were  embarked  upward* 
of  tliree  hundred  souls,  amongst  whom  were  several  eminent  non- 
conforming ministers.  On  their  arrival,  they  found  the  remnant  of  a 
smrdl  party  that  had  left  England  the  preceding  year,  under  the  con 
duct  of  Ml'.  Endicott,  who  had  been  appointed  by  his  companion? 
deputy  governor.  They  were  settled  at  a  place  called  by  the  Indians 
Naumkea^,  to  which  he  had  given  the  scripture  name  of  Salem.  The 
new  colonists  immediately  formed  a  church,  elected  a  pjsstor,  teacher, 
and  elder,  disregarding  the  intentions  of  the  king.  They  disencum- 
bered their  public  worship  of  every  superfluous  ceremony,  and  re- 
duced it  to  the  loAvest  standard  of  calvinistic  simplicity. 

But  much  as  we  respect  that  noble  spirit  which  enabled  them  to  part 
with  their  native  soil,  we  must  condemn  the  persecuting  spirit  of  the 
colonists  themselves.  Some  of^'the  colonists,  retaining  a  high  venera- 
tion for  the  ritual  of  the  church  of  England,  refused  to  join  the  colonial 
state  establishment,  and  assembled  separately  to  worship  :  Endicott 
called  before  him  two  of  the  principal  offenders,  expelled  them  from 
the  colony,  and  sent  them  home  in  the  first  ships  returning  to  England. 

7.  The  government  of  the  colony  was  soon  transferred  to  America, 
and  vested  in  those  members  of  the  company  who  should  reside  there. 
John  Winthrop  was  appointed  governor,  and  Thomas  Dudley  deputy 
governor,  with  eighteen  assistants.  In  the  course  of  the  next  year, 
1,630,  fifteen  hundred  persons  anived  in  Massachusetts  from  England, 
amongst  whom  were  several  distinguished  families,  sotjae  of  them  in 
easy,  and  others  in  affluent  circumstances  ;  and  Boston,  Charlestovvn, 
Dorchester,  Roxbury,  and  other  towns,  were  settled. 

8.  The  first  general  court,  held  at  Charlestown,  ventured  to  deviate 
ffom  tlieir  charter  in  a  matter  of  great  moment :  a  laiv  was  passed, 
declaring  that  none  should  be  freemen,  or  be  entitled  to  any  share  ii» 
the  gevemment,  except  &ose  who  had  been  received  as  members  pf 

Co  65 


434  UNITED  STATES. 

the  church.  The  fanatical  spirit  continued  to  increase.  A  minister 
of  Salem,  named  Roger  Williams,  having  conceived  an  aversion  to 
the  cross  of  St.  Geoi^e,  a  symbol  in  the  English  standard,  declaimed 
against  it  with  great  vehemence,  as  a  relic  of  superstition  ;  and  Endi- 
cott,  in  a  transport  of  zeal,  cut  out  the  cross  from  the  ensign  displayed 
before  the  governor's  gate.  This  frivolous  matter  divided  the  colony  ; 
but  the  matter  was  at  length  compromised  by  retaining  the  cross  in 
the  ensigns  of  forts  and  vessels,  and  erasing  it  from  the  colours  of  the 
militia. 

9.  In  1,636,  Williams  was  "banished  from  Salem  ;  and,  accompanied 
by  many  of  his  hearers,  the  exile  went  south,  purchased  a  tract  of 
land  of  the  natives,  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  Providence ;  and  a 
Mr.  Coddington,  with  seventy-six  others,  exiled  from  Boston,  bought 
a  fertile  island  on  Narraganset  bay,  that  acquired  the  name  of  Rhode- 
Island.  Mr.  Coddington  embraced  the  sentiments  of  the  Quakers,  or 
Friends  ;  he  received  a  charter  from  the  British  parliament,  in  which 
it  was  ordered,  that  "  none  were  ever  to  be  molested  for  any  difference 
of  opinion  in  religious  matters  :"  yet,  the  very  first  assembly  conven- 
ed under  this  authority,  excluded  Roman  catholics  from  voting  at 
elections,  and  from  every  office  in  the  government ! 

10.  To  similar  causes  the  state  of  Connecticut  is  indebted  for  its 
origin.  Mr.  Hooker,  a  favourite  minister  of  Massachusetts,  with 
about  one  hundred  families,  after  a  fatiguing  march,  settled  on  (he 
western  side  of  the  river  Connecticut,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  Hart- 
ford, Springfield,  and  Weathersfield.  Their  right  to  this  teiritory 
was  disputed  by  the  Dutch,  who  had  settled  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Hudson,  and  by  the  lords  Say-and-Seal  and  Brook,  who  had  com- 
menced the  settlement  called  Say-Brook.  The  Dutch  were  soon  ex- 
pelled ;  and  the  others  uniting  with  the  colony,  all  were  incorporated 
by  a  royal  charter. 

11.  New-Hampshire  was  first  settled  in  the  spring  of  1,623,  under 
the  patronage  of  sir  Ferdinando  Gorges,  captain  John  Mason,  and 
several  others,  who  sent  over  David  Thompson,  a  Scot,  Edward  and 
William  Hilton,  and  a  number  of  people,  furnished  with  the  requisite 
supplies.  One  company  landed  at  a  place  called  Little  Harbour  ;  the 
others  settled  at  Dover.  Mr.  Wheelwright,  a  clei^^man  banished  from 
Massachusetts,  founded  Exeter,  in  1,638. 

12.  Maine  was  not  permanently  settled  until  1,635.  Gorges  ob- 
tained a  grant  of  this  territory,  which  remained  under  its  own  s:overn- 
ment  until  1,652,  when  its  soil  and  jurisdiction,  as  far  as  the  middle  of 
Casco  bay,  was  claimed  by  Massachusetts. 

13.  The  mutual  hostility  of  the  English  and  Indians  commenced 
with  the  first  settlement ;  but  it  was  not  until  the  year  1,637,  that  a 
systematic  warfare  was  begun.  The  Pequods,  who  brought  into  the 
field  more  than  a  thousand  warriors,  were  extenninated  in  a  few 
months  by  the  combined  troops  ©f  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut. 
In  the  night,  the  Pequods  were  attacked,  near  the  head  of  Mistic,  bj 
the  Connecticut  troops  and  Narraganset  Indians,  commanded  by  cap- 
tain Mason  :  in  a  few  moments,  five  or  six  hundred  lay  gasping  in 
their  blood,  or  were  silent  in  the  arms  of  death.  "  The  darkness,  of 
the  forest,"  observes  a  New-England  author,  "  the  blaze  of  the 
dwellings,  the  ghastly  looks  of  the  dead,  the  groans  of  the  dying,  the 
shrieks  of  the  women  and  children,  the  yells  of  the  friendly  savages, 
presented  a  scene  of  sublimity  and  terror  indescribably  dreadful.' 

14.  In  1,643,  an  alliance  for  mutual  defence  was  formed  between  the 
New-England  colonies,  excepting  Rhode-Islarid,  which  Massachusetts 


UNITED  STATES.  436 

was  unwilling  to  admit.     This  alliance  cantinued  until  the  charters 
were  annulled  by  James  the  second, 

15.  Up  to  1,638,  twenty-one  thousand  British  subjects  had  settled 
in  New-England  ;  and  the  country  had  be^un  to  extend  the  fisheries, 
and  to  export  corn  and  lumber  to  the  West  Indies.  In  1,656,  the  per- 
secution of  the  Quakers  was  at  its  height.  A  number  of  these  inoffen- 
sive people  having  arrived  in  the  Massachusetts  colony,  from  England 
and  Barbadoes,  and  given  oft'ence  to  the  clergy  of  the  established 
church  by  the  novelty  of  their  religion,  were  imprisoned,  and  by  the 
first  opportunity  sent  away.  A  law  was  passed,  which  prohibited 
masters  of  ships  from  bringing  <^uakers  into  Massachusetts,  and  them- 
selves from  coming  there,  under  a  graduated  penalty,  rising,  in  case 
of  a  return  from  banishment,  to  death.  In  consequence,  several  were 
hanged !  These  proceedings  are  still  the  more  reprehensible  and  re- 
markable, when  contrasted  with  a  previous  declaration  of  their  govern- 
ment, which  tendered  "  hospitality  and  succour  to  all  cnristian 
strangers,  flying  from  wars,  famine,  or  the  tyranny  of  persecution." 
The  anabaptists  were  also  persecuted  ;  many  were  disfranchised,  and 
some  were  banished. 

16.  On  the  accession  of  James  II.,  several  uf  the  New-England 
colonies  were  deprived  of  their  charters  ;  but  these,  with  various  un- 
important modifications,  were  restored  after  the  revolution.  Sir 
William  Phipps,  a  native  of  Maine,  who  rose  to  wealth  and  power  in 
a  manner  the  most  extraordinary,  was  the  first  governor  of  Massachu- 
setts under  the  new  charter.  With  a  force  of  seven  hundred  men,  he 
wrested  from  the  French,  L'Acadie,  now  called  Nova  Scotia.  He. 
-fior.riiJi  ;..adc  a;)  uiisucccssiui  airempt  on  Quebec,  with  the  loss  of 
one  thousand  men.  The  new  charter,  whilst  it  curtailed  the  liberties, 
extended  the  territory  of  Massachusetts  ;  to  it  were  now  annexed  New 
Plymouth,  Maine,  and  Nova  Scotia,  with  all  the  country  between  the 
latter  and  the  river  St.  Lawrence  ;  also  Elizabeth  islands,  Martha's 
\'ineyard,  and  Nantucket.  The  people,  however,  had  just  reason  to 
complain  that  they  no  longer  chose  their  governor,  under  whose  control 
was  the  militia,  and  who  levied  taxes  without  their  consent,  and  tried 
capital  offences. 

17.  About  this  time  the  pillars  of  society  were  shaken  to  the  foun- 
dation, in  and  about  Salem,  by  imaginary  witchcraft.  The  delusion 
commenced  at  Salem  village,  now  Danvers,  in  the  family  of  Rev. 
Samuel  Paris.  Two  young  girls,  one  a  daughter  of  Mr.  Paris,  aged  9  ; 
the  other  a  niece,  aged  11,  were  affected  with  singular  nervous  dis- 
orders, which,  as  they  baffled  the  skill  of  the  physician,  were  thought 
to  proceed  from  an  "  evil  hand."  The  children  were  believed  by 
the  neighboui-s  to  be  bewitched,  and  the  belief,  sanctioned  by  the 
opinion  of  the  physician,  became  general  throughout  the  vicinity. 
The  more  the  girls  were  noticed  and  pitied,  the  more  singular  and 
extravagant  was  their  conduct.  Upon  the  advice  of  the  neighbouriug 
ministers,  two  or  three  private  fasts  were  first  kept ;  afterw  ards  a  pub- 
lic one  in  the  village  and  other  congregations ;  and  finally,  the  general 
court  appointed  a  fast  through  the  colony.  This  course  gave  the 
occurrences  a  solemn  aspect,  and  probably  contributed  to  the  public 
credulity,  till  the  supposed  witchcraft  had  extended  throughout  a  great 
part  of  the  county  of^  Essex.  The  infatuation  prevailed  from  March 
to  October,  1,692,  during  which  time  tw«nty  persons,  men  and  women, 
were  executed.  It  was  then  that  suspicion  roused  from  its  lethargy  ; 
condemnation  ceased  ;  the  accusers  were  silent ;  thos«  under  sentence 
ivere  reprieved,  and  afterwards  pardoned. 


436  UNITED  STATES. 

18.  In  the  years  1,627  and  '38,  '63  and  '70,  New-England  expe- 
rienced violent  earthquakes.  In  the  year  1,638,  Harvard  college, 
near  Boston,  the  oldest  seminary  of  learning  in  the  United  States,  was 
fcunded.  Four  hundred  pounds  were  voted  to  it  by  the  general  court ; 
and  this  sum  was  nearly  doubled  by  a  bequest  from  Mr.  John  Harvard, 
a  minister  of  Charlestown.  This  institution  is  now  the  most  richly 
endowed  of  all  the  American  colleges.  Yale  college,  at  New -Haven, 
Tvas  founded  in  1,701,  ten  years  after  that  of  William  and  Mary,  in 
Virginia  ;  and  Dartmouth  college,  in  New-Hampshire,  was  founded 
in  1,769.  The  first  printing  press  established  in  the  British  colonies 
was  in  1,639,  at  Cambridge,  superintended  by  Stephen  Daye  ;  but 
erected  chiefly  at  the  expense  of  Mr.  Glover,  an  English  clei^yman, 
who  died  on  his  passage  to  America. 

19.  Maryland,  the  first  colony  that,  from  its  beginning,  was  directly 
governed  as  a  province  of  the  British  empire,  was  founded  by  sir 
George  Calvert,  baron  of  Baltimore,  in  Ireland  :  a  Roman  catholic 
nobleman,  born  in  England.  He  first  went  to  V^irginia  ;  but  meeting 
an  unwelcome  reception  there,  on  account  of  his  religion,  he  fixed  his 
attention  to  the  lands  north  of  the  Potomac,  and  obtained  a  grant  of 
them  from  Charles  1.  This  country  was  called  Maryland,  in  honour 
of  the  queen,  Henriiitta  Maria.  The  religious  toleration  established 
by  the  charter,  the  first  draft  of  v^hich  is  said  to  have  been  written  by 
sir  George  himself,  is  honourable  to  his  memory.  The  grant  was 
given  to  his  eldest  son,  Cecilius,  who  succeeded  to  his  titles  ;  but 
Leonard  Calvert,  brother  to  Cecilius,  was  the  first  governor,  and  made 
the  first  stand,  at  an  island  in  the  Potomac,  which  he  named  St. 
Clements,  in  1,633.  He  made  several  purchases  of  the  Indians,  with 
wnom  lie  cuiiivaieu  a  cohst-lut  frlcr^^h'P,  ?'  ^''I'  ^"  ♦.^•^  FctC^T."",  »" 
on  both  shores  of  the  Chesapeake.  Never  did  any  people  enjoy  more 
happiness  than  the  inhabitants  of  Maryland.  Whilst  Virginia  harass- 
ed all  who  dissented  from  the  English  church,  and  the  northern  colonies 
all  who  dissented  from  the  puritans,  the  Roman  catholics  of  Maryland, 
a  sect  who  in  the  old  world  never  professed  the  doctrine  of  toleration, 
received  and  protected  their  brethren  of  eveiy  christian  church,  and 
its  population  was  rapidly  increased. 

20.  About  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century,  some  emigrants, 
chiefly  from  Virginia,  began  a  settlement  in  the  county  of  Albemarle  ; 
and  soon  afterwards,  another  establishment  was  commenced  at  cape 
Fear,  by  adventurers  from  Massachusetts.  These  were  held  together 
by  the  laws  of  nature,  without  any  written  code,  for  some  time.  But 
Charles  II.  compelled  the  colonists  to  become  subservient  to  his  rule, 
and  granted  to  lord  Clarendon  and  others  the  tract  of  land  which  now 
composes  North  and  South  Carolina  :  perfect  freedom  in  religion  was 
granted  in  the  charter.  The  first  settlement  was  placed  under  the 
command  of  sir  William  Berkeley,  governor  of  Virginia,  who  assigned 
his  authority  to  Mr.  Drummond.  In  1,761,  the  proprietors  extended 
their  settlements  to  the  banks  of  Ashley  and  Cooper  rivers,  where 
Charleston  now  stands  ;  and  eventually  this  became  the  separate  state 
of  South  Carolina.  The  culture  of  cotton  commenced  here  in  1,700, 
and  that  of  indigo  in  1,748, 

21.  New- York  was  first  settled  by  the  Dutch,  and  was  by  them 
held  for  about  half  a  centuiy.  It  was,  however,  claimed  by  England 
as  the  fii-st  discoverer.  Peter  Stuyvesant,  the  third  and  fast  Dutch 
governor,  began  his  administration  in  1,647,  and  was  distinguished  no 
less  for  his  fidelity  than  his  vigilance.  In  1,664  the  colony  surrendered 
to  the  English  ;  and  the  whole  territoiy  now  comprising  New- York 


UNITED  STATES.  437 

New-Jersey,  together  with  Pennsylvania,  Delaware,  and  a  part  of 
Connecticut,  was  assigned  by  Charles  II.  to  his  brother  the  duke  of 
York.  The  Dutch  inhabitants  remained  ;  Stuyvesant  retained  his 
estate,  and  died  in  the  colony.  The  cou.'*ry  was  governed  by  the 
duke's  officers  until  1,688  ;  when  representatives  of  the  people  wei* 
allowed  a  voice  in  the  legislature. 

22,  In  1,664,  the  duke  of  York  sold  that  part  of  his  grant  now  call- 
ed New-Jersey  to  lord  Berkeley  and  sir  George  Carteret.  It  had 
previously  been  settled  by  Hollanders,  Swedes,  and  Danes.  The 
county  of  Bergen  was  the  first  inhabited  ;  and  very  soon  the  to%\nis  of 
Elizabeth,  Newark,  Middleton,  and  Shrewsbury  were  settled.  The 
college,  originally  established  at  Newark,  was,  in  1,748,  finally  fixed 
at  Princeton  :  its  chief  benefactor  was  governor  Belcher.  Among  the 
governors  of  New-Jersey  was  the  celebrated  Barclay,  author  of  the 
Apology  for  the  Quakers,  of  which  sect  a  large  number  had  establish' 
ed  themselves  there. 

23.  Pennsylvania  was  founded  by  William  Penn,  son  of  a  distin- 
guished admiral  of  the  same  name.  From  principle  this  excellent 
man  joined  the  Quakers,  then  an  obscure  and  persecuted  sect.  As 
one  of  the  members,  and  a  preacher.  Penn  was  repeatedly  imprisoned : 
but  he  plead  his  own  cause  with  great  boldness,  and  procured  his  own 
acquittal  from  an  independent  jury,  who  with  himself  were  imprisoned 
until  an  unjust  penalty  was  paid.  I-n  1,681,  he  purchased  of  Charles 
the  tract  now  called  Pennsylvania,  for  an  acquittance  of  sixteen  thou- 
sand pounds  due  to  his  father  ;  and  soon  after,  he  obtained  from  the 
duke  of  York  a  conveyance  of  the  town  of  New-Castle,  with  the 
country  which  now  forms  the  state  of  Delaware.  The  first  colony, 
who  were  chiefly  of  his  own  sect,  began  their  settlement  above  the 
confluence  of  the  Schuylkill  and  Delaware  rivers.  In  August,  1,682, 
this  amiable  man  embarked,  with  about  two  thousand  emigraiits,  and 
in  October,  arrived  in  the  Delaware.  Besides  his  own  people,  he 
was  aided  in  the  first  settlement  by  Swede-;,  Dutch,  Finlanders,  and 
other  English.  The  first  legislative  assembly  was  held  at  Chester,  at 
that  time  called  Upland.  Among  the  first  laws  was  one  which  de- 
clared "  that  none,  acknowledging  one  God,  and  living  peaceably  in 
society,  should  be  molested  for  his  opinions  or  his  practice  ;  nor  be 
compelled  to  frequent  or  maintain  any  ministiy  whatever."  Philadel- 
phia was  begun  in  1,683  ;  and  in  1,699,  it  contained  seven  hundred 
houses,  and  about  four  thousand  inhabitants.  During  the  first  seventy 
years  of  this  settlement,  no  instance  occurred  of  the  Indians  killing 
unarmed  people.  The  wise  and  good  man,  Penn,  made  every  exer- 
tion and  sacrifice  to  promote  the  peace  and  prosperity  of  his  favourite 
colony  ;  and  between  the  persecution  he  had  to  encounter  in  England 
and  the  difficulties  in  Pennsylvania,  his  life  was  a  continued  scene  of 
vexation — his  private  fortune  was  materially  injured  by  the  advances 
he  made — he  was  harassed  by  his  creditors,  and  obliged  to  undergo  a 
temporary  deprivation  of  his  personal  liberty.  He  died  in  London,  in 
1,718,  leaving  an  inheritance  to  his  children,  ultimately  of  immense 
value,  which  they  enjoyed  until  the  revolution,  when  it  was  assigned 
to  the  commonwealth  for  an  equitable  sum  of  money.  In  the  interval 
between  1,730  and  the  war  of  the  revolution,  in  this  state,  there  was  a 
great  influx  of  emigrants,  principally  from  Germany  and  Ireland  ;  and 
these  people  early  brought  the  useful  arts  and  manufactures  into  Penn 
eylvania.  To  the  Germans,  she  is  indebted  for  the  spinning  and 
weaving  of  linen  and  woollen  cloths  ;  to  the  Irish,  for  various  trades 
indispensable  to  useful  agricultuK. 

Oo2 


438  UNITED  STATES. 

24.  Delaware  was  first  settled  in  1,627,  by  the  Swedes  and  Fin- 
landers,  and  the  colony  bore  the  name  of  New-Sweden.  It  was 
aftei-wards  conquered  by  the  Dutch  from  New-York,  and  remained 
subservient  to  that  colony  until  it  passed  into  the  hands  of  the 
English. 
"^5,  Georgia  was  the  last  settled  of  the  thirteen  colonies  that  re- 
volted from  Britain.  It  received  its  name  from  George  II.  In 
November,  1,732,  one  hundred  and  sixteen  persons  embarked  at 
Gravesend,  under  general  Oglethorpe  ;  and  early  in  the  ensuing  year 
airived  at  Charleston.  From  this  port  they  proceeded  to  their  destin- 
ed territory,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  Savannah.  The  Spaniards 
laid  claim  to  this  territorj',  and  made  extensive  preparations  to  attack 
it.  But  through  the  finesse  of  Oglethorpe  in  practising  an  innocent 
deception,  their  plans  were  defeated.  For  many  years,  this  settle- 
ment languished  from  a  variety  of  causes.  General  Oglethorpe  was 
distinguished  as  a  soldier,  a  statesman,  and  a  philanthropist.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  American  revolution,  he  was  offered  the  command  of 
the  British  army  in  America,  but  this  from  principle  he  declined. 
After  the  contest  was  decided,  he  died  at  the  age  of  ninety-seven 
years,  being  the  oldest  general  in  the  British  service. 


SECTION  IV. 

WAR  WITH  FRANCE,  AND  CONQUEST  OF  CANADA.  DIS- 
PUTES WITH  GREAT  BRITAIN,  AND  WAR  OF  THE  REVO- 
LUTION. 

1.  Nearly  coeval  with  the  first  English  settlement  at  James  Town, 
in  Virginia,  Vv'as  the  establishment  of  a  French  colony  at  Quebec,  on 
tlie  great  river  St.  Lawrence.  The  question  of  boundary  between 
England  and  France,  had  long  been  a  subject  of  unavailing  negotia- 
tion. France,  beside  having  Canada  in  the  north,  had  also  discovered 
and  settled  on  Mississippi  in  the  south  ;  and  in  1 ,753,  she  strove,  by  a 
military  chain,  the  links  of  which  were  to  be  formed  by  outposts 
stretching  along  the  Ohio  and  the  lakes,  to  connect  these  two  extrem- 
ities, and  thus  restrain  the  British  colonists  to  a  small  territory  on  the 
Atlantic  ocean,  if  not  entirely  expel  them  from  the  country.  The 
question  ol  jurisdiction  remained  to  be  decided  by  the  sword.  Re- 
peated complaints  of  violence  having  come  to  the  ears  of  the  governor 
of  Virginia,  he  determined  to  send  a  suitable  person  to  the  French 
commandant  at  fort  Du  Quesne,  (now  Pittsburgh,)  demanding  the 
reason  of  his  hostile  proceedings,  and  insisting  that  he  should  evacuate 
the  fort  which  he  had  recently  erected.  For  this  arduous  undertaking 
George  Washington,  a  major  of  militia,  then  little  more  than  twenty- 
one  years  of  age,  offered  his  services.  The  execution  of  this  task 
seems  to  have  been  accomplished  with  all  that  prudence  and  courage 
which  were  so  eminently  displayed  by  this  hero  in  after  life.  At 
imminent  peril,  being  waylaid  and  fired  at  by  Indians,  he  not  only 
faithfully  accomplished  the  errand  on  which  he  had  been  sent,  but 
gained  extensive  information  of  the  distances  and  bearings  of  places, 
and  of  the  number,  size,  and  strength  of  nearly  all  the  enemy's 
fortresses. 

2.  The  reply  of  the  French  commander  brought  matters  to  a  crisis ; 
and  in  1,764,  the  Virginian  assembly  organized  a  regiment,  to  support 


UNITED  STATES.  439 

the  claims  of  the  English  over  the  territory  in  dispute  :  of  this  regi- 
ment a  Mr.  Fry  was  appointed  colonel,  and  the  young  Washington 
lieutenant  colonel.  Colonel  Fry  d\-ing,  the  command  of  the  whole 
devolved  on  Washington.  The  French  having  been  strongly  rein- 
forced, Washington  was  obliged  to  fall  back,  was  attacked  in  works 
which  he  had  not  time  to  complete,  and,  after  a  brave  defence,  wag 
obliged  to  capitulate  ;  the  enemy  allowing  him  to  march  out  with  the 
honours  of  war,  and  to  retire  unmolested  to  the  inhabited  parts  of 
Virginia. 

3.  The  next  year,  1,755,  general  Braddock  was  sent  fro>n  Europe 
to  Virginia,  with  two  regiments,  where  he  was  joined  by  ■as  many 
provincials  as  made  his  force  amount  to  twenty-two  hundred.  \  Brad- 
dock  was  a  brave  man,  but  lacked  that  courtesy  which  could  coilciliate 
the  Americans,  and  that  modesty  which  should  profit  from  the  knowl- 
edge of  those  who  better  knew  the  ground  over  which  he  was  to  pass, 
and  the  mode  of  French  and  Indian  warfare,  than  himself.  He  push- 
ed on  incautiously,  until,  within  a  few  miles  of  fort  Du  Qiiesne,  he  fell 
into  an  ambush  of  French  and  Indians.  In  a  short  time,  Washington, 
who  acted  as  aid  to  Braddock,  and  whose  duty  called  him  to  be^oii 
horseback,  was  the  only  person  mounted  who  was  left  alive,  or  not 
wounded.  The  van  of  the  army  was  forced  back,  and  the  wh(l)le 
thrown  into  confusion.  The  slaughter  was  dreadful.  Braddock  was 
mortally  wounded.  What  was  remarkable,  the  provincial  troops  pre- 
served their  order,  and  covered  the  retreat  under  Washington  ;  while 
the  regulars  broke  their  ranks,  and  could  not  be  rallied. 

4.  Three  successive  campaigns  procured  nothing  but  expense  and 
disappointment  to  the  English.  With  an  inferior  force,  the  French 
had  succeeded  in  every  campaign  ;  and  gloomy  apprehensions  were 
entertained  as  to  the  destiny  of  the  British  colonies.  But  in  1,756,  a 
change  of  ministry  in  England  took  place.  William  Pitt  was  placed 
at  the  helm.  To  despair,  succeeded  hope  ;  and  to  hope,  victory 
Supplies  were  granted  with  liberality,  and  given  without  reluctance 
soldiers  enlisted  freely,  and  fought  with  enthusiasm.  In  a  short  time, 
the  French  were  dispossessed,  not  only  of  all  the  territories  in  dispute, 
but  of  Quebec,  and  her  ancient  province  of  Canada  ;  so  that  all  which 
remained  to  her  of  her  numerous  settlements  in  North  America,  was 
New-Orleans,  with  a  few  plantations  on  the  Mississip|)i.  Full  of 
youth  and  spirit,  the  gallant  general  Wolfe,  who  led  the  European  and 
colonial  troops  to  victory,  fell  before  the  walls  of  Quebec,  in  the 
moment  of  success.  In  1,762,  hostilities  having  raged  nearly  eight 
years,  a  general  peace  was  concluded  :  France  ceded  Canada,  and 
Spain  relinquished,  as  the  price  of  recovering  Havana,  which  had 
been  taken  by  the  British,  both  the  Floridas  to  Great  Britain. 

5.  Although  the  American  colonies  had  principally  contributed  to 
the  great  extension  of  the  power  of  Great  Britain,  co-operating  with 
the  vigilance  of  more  than  four  hundred  cruisers  on  the  sea,  and 
furnishing  more  than  twenty-four  thousand  soldiers  ;  yet  the  latter  re- 
garded her  plantations  as  mere  instruments  in  her  hands.  On  the 
contrary,  the  high  sentiments  of  liljerty  and  independence  nurtured  id 
the  colonies  from  their  local  situation  and  habits,  were  increased  by 
the  removal  of  hostile  neighbours.  Ideas  favourable  to  independence 
increased;  and  whilst  combustible  materials  were  collecting  in  the 
new  world,  a  brand  to  enkindle  them  was  preparing  in  the  old. 

6.  In  1,765,  under  the  auspices  of  the  minister,  George  Grenville, 
the  obnoxious  stamp  act  passed  in  the  British  parliament ;  by  which 
tb«  instruments  of  writing  in  daily  use  were  to  be  null  and  void,  unless 


440  UNITED  STATES. 

executed  on  paper  or  parchment  stamped  with  H  specific  duty  :  law, 
documents,  leases,  deeds,  and  indentures,  newspapers  and  advertise- 
ments, almanacs  and  pamphlets,  executed  and  printed  in  America- 
all  must  contribute  to  the  British  treasury.  The  bill  did  not  pass 
without  the  decided  opposition  of  patriots  in  the  British  legislature, 
who  foretold  the  result,  and  who  declared  that,  the  colonies  being 
planted  by  British  oppression,  and  having  assisted  the  mother  country, 
that  the  mother  had  no  claim  on  the  child  to  derive  from  it  a  revenue. 
The  bill  did  not  take  effect  until  seven  months  after  its  passage  ;  thus 
giving  the  colonists  an  opportunity  of  leisurely  examining  and  viewing 
the  subject  on  everj-  side.  They  were  struck  with  silent  consterna- 
tion ;  but  the  voice  of  opposition  was  first  heard  in  Virginia.  Patrick 
Henry,  on  the  20th  ot  May,  brought  into  the  house  of  burgesses  in 
that  colony  a  number  of  resolutions,  which  were  adopted,  and  which 
concluded  with  declaring,  "  That  every  individual,  who,  by  speaking 
or  acting,  should  assert  or  maintain,  that  any  person  or  body  of  men, 
except  the  general  assembly  of  the  province,  had  any  right  to  impose 
taxation  there,  should  be  deemed  an  enemy  to  his  majesty's  colony." 
These  resolutions  were  immediately  disseminated  through  the  other 
provinces  ;  the  tongues  and  the  pens  of  well-informed  men  labouied 
in  the  holy  cause — the  fire  of  liberty  blazed  forth  from  the  press.  The 
assembly  of  Massachusetts  passed  a  resolution  in  favour  of  a  continental 
congress,  and  fixed  a  day  for  its  meeting  at  New-York,  in  October. 
The  other  colonies,  with  the  exception  of  four,  accepted  this  invita- 
tion, and  assembled  at  the  appointed  place.  Here  they  agreed  on  a 
declaration  of  their  rights.  There  was,  however,  a  considerable  de- 
gree of  timidity  evinced  in  this  congress.  The  boldest  and  most  im- 
pressive aiguments  were  offered  by  James  Otis  of  Massachusetts, 

7.  The  time  arrived  for  the  act  to  take  effect ;  and  the  aversion  to 
it  was  expressed  in  still  stronger  terms  throughout  the  colonies.  By  a 
common  consent,  its  provisions  were  disregarded,  and  business  was 
conducted,  in  defiance  of  the  parliament,  as  if  no  stamp  act  was  m 
existence  :  associations  were  formed  against  importing  British  manu- 
factures until  the  law  should  be  repealed  ;  and  lawyers  were  prohib- 
ited from  instituting  any  action  for  money  due  to  any  inhabitant  oi 
England,  The  spirited  conduct  of  the  colonists,  aftecting  the  interests 
of  the  British  merchants,  had  the  desired  effect.  Warm  discussions 
took  place  in  the  British  parliament ,  and  the  ablest  speakers  in  both 
houses  denied  the  justice  of  taxing  the  colonies.  The  opposition 
could  not  be  withsto(xi  ;  and  in  March,  1,766,  the  law  was  repealed, 

8.  Simultaneously,  however,  with  repealing_  this  act,  the  British 
parliament  passed  another,  declarins:  that  the  British  parliament  had 
a  right  to  make  laws  binding  the  cofonies  in  all  cases  whatever  ;  and 
soon  after  another  bill  was  passed,  imposing  in  the  colonies  duties  on 
glass,  paper,  painters'  colours,  and  tea.  The  fire  of  opposition  was 
now  rekindled  with  additional  ardour,  by  the  same  principle,  exhibited 
in  its  new  form.  The  best  talents  throughout  the  colonies  were 
engaged,  in  the  public  prints  and  in  pamphlets,  to  work  up  the  public 
feeling  against  the  arbitrarj'  measures  of  the  British  parliament.  New 
associations  were  formed  to  suspend  the  importation  of  British  manu- 
factures. The  Massachusetts  assembly,  haviiig  passed  resolutions  to 
this  effect,  drew  forth  the  marked  difipksasure  of  the  crown  ;  and,  on 
their  refusal  to  cancel  their  resolutions,  were  diesolved. 

9.  In  1,768,  Mr.  Hancock's  sloop  Liberty  was  seized  at  Boston,  for 
not  entering  all  the  wines  she  had  brought  from  Madeira  :  this  inflamed 
the  populace  to  a  high  degree  of  resentment.    Soon  afterwards,  tw« 


UNITED  STATES.  441 

British  regiments,  and  some  armed  vessels,  were  sent  to  Boston,  to 
assist  the  revenue  officers.  The  parliament,  encouraged  by  the  ex- 
pectation of  quelling  the  refractory  by  their  arms,  continued  to  dis- 
solve the  opposing  assemblies  ;  but  the  colonies  remained  firm  in  their 
purposes. 

10.  Lord  North  succeeded  the  duke  of  Grafton,  as  British  premier 
in  1,770  ;  and  the  act  was  repealed  imposing  a  duty  on  glass,  paper, 
and  painters'  colours  ;  but  that  on  tea  was  retained.  Some  slight 
prospect  of  allaying  the  difficulties  succeeded.  But  on  the  second  of 
March  an  affray  took  place  in  Boston,  between  a  private  soldier  and 
an  inhabitant.  This  was  succeeded,  in  a  few  days  afterwards,  by  a 
mob  meeting  a  party  of  British  soldiers  under  arms,  ^vho  were  dared 
to  fire,  and  who  at  length  did  fire,  and  killed  five  persons.  The  cap- 
tain who  commanded,  and  the  troops  who  fired,  were  afterwards  tried 
for  murder,  and  acquitted. 

11.  Things  continued  in  this  mode  of  partial  irritation  until  1,773, 
when  the  British  East  India  company  ■\vere  authorized  to  export  their 
tea  to  all  places,  free  of  duty.  As  this  would  enable  them  to  sell  that 
article  cheaper  in  America,  with  the  government  exactions,  tlian  they 
had  before  sold  it  without  them,  it  was  confidently  calculated  that  teas 
might  be  extensively  disposed  of  in  the  colonies.  Large  consignments 
of  tea  were  sent  to  various  parts,  and  agents  appointed  for  its  disposal. 
The  consignees,  in  several  places,  were  compelled  to  relinquish  their 
appointments.  Popular  vengeance  prevented  the  landing  at  New- 
York  or  Philadelphia.  In  Boston  it  was  otherwise.  The  tea  for  the 
supply  of  that  port  was  consigned  to  the  sons  and  particular  friends  of 
governor  Hutchinson.  The  tea  Avas  landed  by  the  strenuous  exeitinn^* 
rM  thp  ^nv«.rn«r  orw^  -^Zt^nees.  tiul  soon  a  part>'  oi"  men,  dressed  as  • 
Indians,  boarded  tlie  tea  ships,  broke  open  the  cargoes,  and  threw  the 
contents  into  the  sea.  Enraged  against  the  people  of  Boston,  the  par- 
liament resolved  to  take  legislative  vengeance  on  that  devoted  town. 
Disregarding  the  forms  of  the  British  constitution,  by  which  none  are 
to  be  punished  without  trial,  they  passed  a  bill,  closing,  in  a  commer- 
cial sense,  its  port :  its  custom  house  and  trade  were  soon  after  re- 
moved to  Salem.  The  charter  of  the  colony  was  new  modelled,  so 
that  the  whole  executive  government  was  taken  from  the  people,  and 
tlie  nomination  to  all  important  offices  vested  in  the  crown  ;  and  it  was 
enacted,  that  if  any  person  was  indicted  for  any  capital  offence  com- 
mitted in  aiding  the  magistrates,  he  might  be  sent  to  Great  Britain  or 
another  colony  for  trial.  Property,  liberty,  and  life,  were  thus  subject 
to  ministerial  caprice.  The  parliament  went  still  further,  and  passed 
an  act  extending  the  boundaries  of  Canada,  southward  to  the  Ohio, 
westward,  to  the  Mississippi,  and  northward,  to  the  borders  of  the 
Hudson's  bay  company,  assimilating  its  laws  with  the  French,  which 
dispensed  with  the  trial  by  jury,  and  rendering  the  inhabitants  passive 
agents  in  the  hands  of  power. 

12.  The  flame  was  now  kindled  in  every  breast ;  and  associations 
were  formed,  and  committees  of  correspondence  were  established, 
which  produced  a  unity  of  thought  and  action  throughout  the  colonies. 
General  Gage,  the  British  commander-in-chief,  arrived  in  Boston,  in 
1,774,  with  more  troops,  with  the  avowed  intention  of  dragooning  the 
refractory  Bostonians  into  compliance.  A  general  sgrmpathy  was 
excited  for  the  suffering  inhabitants  of  Boston  :  addresses  poured  in 
from  all  quarters ;  Marblehead  offered  to  the  Boston  merchants  the 
use  of  her  wharves,  and  Salem  refused  to  adopt  the  trade,  the  offer  of 
which  had  been  proffered  as  a  temptation  to  her  cupidity.    Affair* 

56 


442  UNITED  STATES. 

rapidly  approached  a  crisis.  The  preparations  for  offence  and  defence, 
induced  general  Gage  to  fortify  Boston,  and  to  seize,  on  the  powder 
lodged  at  the  arsenal  at  Charlestown. 

13.  In  September,  deputies  from  most  of  the  colonies  met  in'*con- 
gress,  at  Philadelphia.  These  delegates  approved  of  the  conduct  of 
the  people  of  Massachusetts  ;  wrote  a  letter  to  general  Gage  ;  pub- 
lished a  declaration  of  rights  ;  fonned  an  association  not  to  import  or 
use  British  goods  ;  sent  a  petition  to  the  king  of  Great  Britain  ;  an 
address  to  the  inhabitants  of  that  kingdom  ;  another  to  the  inhaljitants 
of  Canada  ;  and  another  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  co  onies.  In  the 
beginning  of  the  next  year,  (1,775,)  was  passed  the  Jisheiy  bill,  by 
which  the  northern  colonies  were  forbidden  to  fish  on  the  banks  of 
Newfoundland  for  a  certain  time.  This  bore  hard  upon  the  commerce 
of  these  colonies,  which  was  in  a  great  measure  supported  by  the 
fishery. 

14.  Soon  after,  another  bill  was  passed,  which  restrained  the  trade 
of  the  middle  and  southern  colonies  to  Great  Britain,  Ireland,  and  the 
West  Indies,  except  under  certain  conditions.  These  repeated  acts 
of  oppression  on  the  part  of  Great  Britain,  alienated  the  affections  of 
America  from  her  parent  and  sovereign,  and  produced  a  combined 
opposition  to  the  whole  system  of  taxation.  Preparations  began  to  be 
made  to  oppose  by  force  the  execution  of  these  acts  of  parliament. 
The  militia  of  the  country  were  trained  to  the  use  of  arms — great 
encouragement  was  given  to  the  manufacture  of  gunpowder,  and 
measures  were  taken  to  obtain  all  kinds  of  military  stores. 

15.  In  February,  colonel  Leslie  was  sent  with  a  detachment  of 
troops  irom  Sosion,  io  take  possession  of  sumr  carnior.  at  Salem.  But 
the  people  had  intelligence  of  the  design — took  up  the  drawbridge  in 
that  town,  and  prevented  the  troops  from  passing,  until  the  cannon 
were  secured  ;  so  that  the  expedition  failed.  In  April,  colonel  Smith 
and  major  Pitcairn  were  sent  with  a  body  of  troops,  to  destroy  the 
military  stores  which  had  been  collected  at  Concord,  about  twenty 
miles  from  Boston.  At  Lexington  the  militia  were  collected  on  a 
green,  to  oppose  the  incursion  of  the  British  forces.  These  were  fired 
upon  lay  the  British  troops,  and  eight  men  killed  on  the  spot. 

16.  The  militia  were  dispersed,  and  the  troops  proceeded  to  Con- 
cord ;  where  they  destroyed  a  few  stores.  But  on  their  return  they 
were  incessantly  harassed  by  the  Americans,  who,  inflamed  with  just 
resentment,  fired  upon  them  from  houses  and  fences,  and  pursued  them 
to  Boston.  Here  was  spilt  \he  first  blood  in  the  war  which  severed 
America  from  the  British  empire.  Lexington  opened  the  first  scene 
of  the  great  drama,  which,  in  its  progress,  exhibited  the  most  illustri- 
ous characters  and  events,  and  closed  with  a  revolution,  equally 
glorious  for  the  actors,  and  important  in  its  consequences  to  the  human 
race.  This  battle  roused  all  America.  The  militia  collected  from 
all  quarters,  and  Boston  was  in  n  few  days  besieged  by  twenty  thou- 
sand men.  A  stop  was  put  to  all  intercourse  between  the  town  and 
country,  and  the  inhabitants  were  reduced  to  great  want  of  provisions. 
General  Gage  promised  to  let  the  people  depart,  if  they  would  deliver 
up  their  arms.  The  people  complied  ;  but  when  the  general  had 
obtained  their  arms,  the  perfidious  wretch  refused  to  let  the  people  go. 

17.  In  the  mean  time,  a  small  number  of  men,  under  the  command 
®f  colonel  Allen  and  colonel  Easton,  without  any  public  orders,  sur- 
prised and  took  the  British  garrison  at  Ticonderoga,  without  the  loss 
of  a  man. 

18.  In  June  following,  our  troops  attempted -to  fortify  Bunker's  hilj, 


UNITED  STATES.  443 

which  lies  in  Charlestown,  and  but  a  mile  and  a  half  from  Boston. 
They  had,  durin*  the  night,  thrown  up  a  small  breastwork,  which 
sheltered  them  from  the  tire  of  the  British  cannon.  But  the  next 
morning,  the  British  army  was  sent  to  drive  them  from  the  hill  ;  and 
landing  under  cover  of  their  cannon,  they  set  fire  to  Charlestown,  which 
was  consumed,  and  marched  to  attack  our  troops  in  the  entrenchments. 
A  severe  engagement  ensued,  in  which  the  British  suffered  a  very 
great  loss,  both  of  officers  and  privates.  They  were  repulsed  at  first, 
and  thrown  into  disorder  ;  but  they  finally  carried  the  ibrtification 
with  the  point  of  the  bayonet.  The  Americans  suffered  a  small  loss 
compared  with  the  British  ;  but  the  death  of  the  brave  general  Warren, 
who  fell  in  the  action,  a  martyr  to  the  cause  of  his  countr}',  was  severe 
ly  felt  and  universally  lamented. 

19.  About  this  time,  the  continental  cor^ress  appointed  Georgo 
Washington,  Esq.  to  the  chief  command  of  the  continental  army 
This  gentleman  had  been  a  distinguished  and  successful  officer  in  tnc 
preceding  war,  and  he  seemed  destined  by  Heaven  to  be  the  saviour 
of  his  country.  He  accepted  the  appointment  with  a  diffidence  which 
was  a  proot  of  his  prudence  and  his  greatness.  He  refused  any  pay 
for  eight  years'  laborious  and  arduous  service  ;  and  by  his  matchless 
skill,  fortitude,  and  perseverance,  conducted  America,  through  inde- 
scribable difficulties,  to  independence  and  peace.  While  true  merit  is 
esteemed,  or  virtue  honoured,  mankind  will  never  cease  to  revere  the 
memory  of  this  hero ;  and  while  gratitude  remains  in  the  human 
breast,  the  praises  of  Washington  shall  dwell  on  every  American 
tongue. 

20.  General  Washington,  with  other  officers  appointed  by  cong^ss, 
arrived  at  Cambridge,  and  took  command  of  the  American  anny  in 
July.  From  this  time,  the  affairs  of  America  began  to  assume  the 
appearance  of  a  regular  and  general  opposition  to  the  forces  of  Great 
Britain. 

21.  In  autumn,  a  body  of  troops,  undet  the  command  of  general 
Montgomery,  besieged  and  took  the  garrison  at  St.  Jolin's,  which 
commands  the  entrance  into  Canada.  The  prisoners  anrounted  to 
about  seven  hundred.  General  Montgomery  pursued  his  success,  and 
took  Montreal,  and  designed  to  push  his  victories  to  Quebec.  A  body 
of  troops,  commanded  by  Arnold,  was  ordered  to  march  to  Canada, 
by  the  river  Kennebec,  and  through  the  wilderness.  After  suffcriiig 
every  hardship,  and  the  most  distressing  hunger,  they  arrived  in 
Canada,  and  were  joined  by  general  IVfontgomery,  before  Quebec. 
This  city,  which  was  commanded  by  governor  Carleton,  was  imme- 
diately besieged.  But  there  being  little  hope  of  taking  the  town  by 
a  siege,  it  was  determined  to  storm  it.  The  attack  was  made  on  the 
last  day  of  December,  but^oved  unsuccessful,  and  fatal  to  the  brave 
general,  who,  with  his  aid,  was  killed  in  attempting  to  scale  the  walls. 
Of  the  three  divisions  which  attacked  the  town,  one  only  entered,  and 
that  was  compelled  to  surrender  to  superior  force.  After  this  defeat, 
Arnold,  who  now  commanded  the  troops,  continued  some  months  before 
Quebec,  although  his  troops  suffered  incredibly  by  cold  and  sickness. 
But  the  next  spring  the  Americans  were  obliged  to  retreat  from  Canada. 

22.  About  this  time  the  lai^e  and  flourishing  town  of  Norfolk,  in 
Virginia,  was  wantonly  burntby  order  of  lord  Dunmore,  the  royal 
governor.  General  Gage  went  to  England  in  September,  and  was 
succeeded  in  command  by  general  Howe.  Falmouth,  a  considerable 
town  in  the  province  of  Maine,  in  Massachusetts,  shared  the  fate  of 
Norfolk  ;  being  laid  in  ashes  by  order  of  the  Br iti'A  admiral. 


444  UNITED  STATES. 

23.  The  British  king  entered  into  treaties  with  some  of  the  German 
princes  for  about  seventeen  thousand  men,  who  were  to  be  sent  to 
America  the  next  year,  to  assist  in  subduing  the  colonies..  The  British 
parliament  also  passed  an  act,  forbidding  all  intercourse  with  America ; 
and  while  they  repealed  the  Boston  port  and  fishery  bills,  they  declar- 
ed all  American  property  on  the  high  seas  forfeited  to  the  captors. 
This  act  induced  congress  to  change  the  mode  of  carrjing  on  the  war  ; 
and  measures  were  taken  to  annoy  the  enemy  in  Boston.     For  this 

Eurpose,  batteries  were  opened  on  several  hills,  from  whence  shot  and 
onibs  were  thrown  into  the  town.  But  the  batteries  which  were 
opened  on  Dorchester  point  had  the  best  effect,  and  soon  obliged 
general  Howe  to  abandon  the  town.  In  March,  1,776,  the  British 
troops  embarked  for  Halifax, «and  general  Washington  entered  the 
town  in  triumph. 

24.  In  the  ensuing  summer,  a  small  squadron  of  ships,  under  the 
command  of  sir  Peter  Parker,  and  a  body  of  iroops  under  the  gene- 
rals Clinton  and  Cornvvallis,  attempted  to  take  Charleston,  the  capital 
o<  South  Carolina.  The  sh'ps  made  a  violent  attack  upon  the  fort  on 
Sullivan's  island,  but  were  repulsed  with  great  loss,  and  the  expedition 
was  abandoned. 

25.  In  July,  congress  published  their  declaration  of  independence, 
which  for  ever  separated  America  from  Great  Britain.  This  great 
event  took  place  two  hundred  and  eighty-four  years  after  the  first  dis- 
cover}- of  America  by  Columbus — one  hundred  and  seventy  from  the 
first  effectual  settlements  in  Virginia — and  one  hundred  and  fifty-six 
from  the  first  settlement  of  Plymouth  in  Massachusetts,  which  were 
the  earliest  English  settlements  in  America.  Just  after  this  declara- 
tion, general  Howe,  with  a  powerful  force,  arrived  near  New-York, 
and  landed  the  troops  ujion  Slaten  Island.  General  Washington  was 
m  New-York,  with  about  thirteen  thousand  men,  encamped  either  in 
the  city,  or  in  the  neighbouring  fortifications. 

26.  The  operations  of  the  British  began  by  the  action  on  Long 
Island,  in  the  month  of  August.  The  Americans  were  defeated,  and 
general  Sullivan  and  lord  Sterling,  with  a  large  body  of  men,  were 
made  prisoners.  The  night  after  the  engagement,  a  retreat  was 
ordered,  and  executed  with  sucli  silence,  that  the  Americans  left  the 
island  without  alarming  their  enemie.<,  and  without  loss.  In  Septem- 
ber, the  city  of  New- York  was  abandoned  by  the  American  army,  and 
taken  by  the  British. 

27.  In  November,  fort  Washington,  on  York  Island,  was  taken,  and 
more  than  two  thousand  men  made  prisoners.  Fort  Lee,  opposite  to 
fort  Washington,  on  the  Jei-sey  shore,  was  soon  after  taken,  but  the 
garrison  escaped.  About  the  same  time,  general  Clinton  was  sent, 
with  a  body  of  troops,  to  take  possession  of  Rhode  Island,  and  suc- 
ceeded. In  addition  to  all  these  losses  and  defeats,  the  American 
army  si^ered  by  desertion,  and  more  by  sickness,  which  was  epidemic, 
and  very  mortal. 

28.  The  northern  army,  at  Ticonderoga,  was  in  a  disagreeable 
situation,  particularly  after  the  battle  on  lake  Champlain,  in  which  the 
American  force,  consisting  of  a  few  light  vessels,  under  the  command 
of  Arnold  and  general  Waterbury,  was  totally  dispersed.  But  general 
Carleton,  instead  of  pursuing  his  victory,  landed  at  Cro>vn  Pointy  re- 
connoitered  our  posts  at  Ticonderoga  and  Mount  Independence,  and 
returned  to  winter  quarters  in  Canada. 

29.  At  the  close  of  this  year,  the  American  army  was  dwindled  to  a 
handiul  of  men ;  and  g^teral  Lee  was  taken  prisoner  in  New-Jersey. 


UNITED  STATES.  445 

Far  from  being  discouraged  at  these  losses,  congress  took  measures  to 
raise  and  establish  an  army.  Fn  this  critical  situation,  general  Wash- 
ington surprised  and  took  a  large  body  of  Hessians,  who  were  canton- 
ed at  Trenton  ;  and  soon  after,  another  body  of  the  British  troops,  at 
Princeton.  The  address  in  planning  and  executing  these  enterprises, 
reflected  the  highest  honour  on  the  commander,  and  the  success  reviv- 
ed the  desponding'  hopes  of  America.  The  loss  of  general  Mercer,  a 
gallant  officer,  at  Princeton,  was  the  principal  circumstance  that  allay- 
ed the  joy  of  victory. 

30.  The  following  year,  (1,777,)  was  distinguished  by  very  memo- 
,rable  events  in  favour  of  America.     On  the  opening  of  the  campaign, 

governor  Trj'on  was  sent,  with  a  bod}''  of  troops,  to  destroy  the  stores 
at  Danburv',  in  Connecticut.  This  plan  was  executed,  and  the  town 
mostly  bunit.  The  enemy  fuffcred  in  their  retreat,  and  the  Americans 
lost  general  Wooster,  a  brave  and  experienced  officer.  General  Pres- 
cott  was  taken  from  his  quarters  on  Rhode  Island,  by  the  address  and 
enterprise  of  colonel  Barton,  and  conveyed  prisoner  to  the  continent. 
General  Buigoj'ne,  who  com.mnnded  the  northern  British  army,  took 
possess'on  of  Ticonderoga,  \vhich  had  been  abr^idoned  by  the  Ameri- 
cans, lie  pushed  his  successes,  crossed  lake  Geoj'ge,  snd  encamped 
upon  the  banks  of  the  Hudson,  near  Saratoga.  His  "progress  was 
however  checked  by  the  defeat  of  colonel  Bpum,  near  Bennington,  in 
which  the  undisciplined  militia  of  Vermont,  under  general  Stark,  dis- 
played unexampled  braverj^  and  captured  almost  the  whole  detach- 
ment. The  militia  assembled  from  all  parts  of  New -England,  to  stop 
the  progress  of  general  Buigoyne.  These,  with  the  regular  troops, 
formed  a  respectable  army,  commanded  by  general  Gates.  After 
two  severe  actions,  in  which  the  generals  Lincoln  and  Arnold,  behaved 
with  uncommon  gallantry,  and  were  wounded,  general  Burgoyne  found 
himself  enclosed  with  brave  troops,  and  was  forced  to  surrender  his 
whole  arm}',  amounting  to  seven  thousand  men,  into  the  hands  of  the 
Americans.  This  happened  in  October.  This  event  difiused  a  uni- 
versal joy  over  America,  and  laid  a  foundation  for  the  treaty  with 
France.  '" 

31.  But  before  these  transactions,  the  main  body  of  the  British 
forces  had  embarked  at  New-York,  sailed  up  the  Chesapeake,  and 
landed  at  the  head  of  Elk  river.  The  army  soon  began  their  march 
for  Philadelphia.  General  Washington  had  determined  to  oppose 
them,  and  for  this  purpose  made  a  stand  upon  the  heights  near  Brandy- 
wine  creek.  Here  the  armies  engaged,  and  the  Americans  were  over- 
powered, and  suffered  great  loss.  The  enemy  soon  pursued  their 
march,  and  took  possession  of  Philadelphia  towards  the  close  of  Sep- 
tember. Not  long  after,  the  two  armies  were  again  engaged  at  Ger- 
mantown,  and  in  the  beginning  of  the  action  the  Americans  had  the 
advantage  ;  but  by  some  unlucky  accident,  the  fortune  of  the  day 
was  turned  in  favour  of  the  British.  Both  sides  suffered  considerable 
loss  ;  on  the  side  of  the  Americans  was  general  Nash. 

32.  In  an  attack  upon  the  forts  at  Mud  Island  and  Red  Bank,  the 
Hessians  were  unsuccessful,  and  their  commander,  colonel  Donop, 
killed.  The  British  also  lost  the  Augusta,  a  ship  of  the  line.  But 
the  forts  viere  afterwards  taken,  and  the  navigation  of  the  Delaware 
opened.  General  Washington  was  reinforced  with  part  of  the  troops 
which  had  composed  the  northern  army,  under  general  Gates  ;  and 
both  armies  retired  to  winter  quarters. 

33.  In  October,  the  same  month  in  which  general  Burgoyne  was 
taken  at  Saratoga,  general  Vaughan,  with  a  small  fleet,  sailed  up 


446  UNITED  STATES. 

Hudson's  river,  and  wantonly  burnt  Kingston,  a  beautiful  Dutch  settle' 
ment,  on  the  west  side  of  the  river. 

34.  The  beginning  of  the  next  year  f  1,778)  was  distinguished  by  a 
treaty  of  alliance  between  France  and  America  ;  by  whicli  we  obtain- 
ed a  powerful  ally.  When  the  English  ministry  ivere  informed  that 
this  treaty  was  on  foot,  they  despatched  commissioners  to  Ar.'^rica, 
to  attempt  a  reconciliation.  But  America  would  not  now  accept  their 
offers.  Early  in  the  spring,  count  de  Estaing,  with  a  fleet  of  fifteen 
sail  of  the  line,  >vas  sent  by  the  court  of  France  to  assist  America. 

35.  General  Howe  Jeft  the  army,  and  returned  to  England  ;  the 
command  then  devolved  upon  sir  Henry  Clinton.  In  June,  the'  British 
army  left  Philadelphia,  and  marched  for  New-York.  On  their  march 
tlie}^  were  much  annoyed  by  the  Americans ;  and  at  Monmouth  a  very 
regular  action  took  place  between  part  of  the  armies ;  the  enemy  were 
repulsed  with  great  loss  ;  and  had  general  Lee  obeyed  his  orders,  a 
signal  victoiy  must  have  been  obtained.  General  Lee,  for  his  ill  con- 
duct that  day,  was  suspended,  and  was  never  afterwards  permitted  to 
join  the  army. 

36.  In  August,  general  Sullivan,  with  a  large  body  of  troops,  at- 
tempted to  take  possession  of  Rhode  Island,  but  did  not  succeed. 
Soon  after,  the  stores  and  shipping  at  Bedford,  in  Massachusetts,  were 
burnt  by  a  party  of  British  troops.  The  same  year,  Savannah,  the 
capital  of  Georgia,  was  taken  by  the  British,  under  the  command  of 
colonel  Campbell.  In  the  tollov/ing  year,  ( 1,779,)  general  Lincoln 
was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  southern  army.  Governor 
Tiyon  and  sir  Geoi^e  Collier  made  an  incursion  into  Connecticut, 
and  burnt,  with  wanton  barbarity,  the  towns  of  Fairfield  and  Norwalk. 

37.  But  the  Anierican  arms  were  crowned  with  success  in  a  bold 
attack  upon  Stony  Point,  which  was  surprised  and  taken  by  general 
Wayne,  in  the  night  of  the  15th  of  July.  Five  hundred  men  were 
made  prisoners,  wilh  a  small  loss  on  either  side.  A  party  of  British 
forces  attempted,  this  summer,  to  build  a  fort  on  Penobscot  river,  for 
♦he  purpose  of  cutting  timber  in  the  neighbouring  foiests.  A  plan  was 
laid,  by  Massachusetts,  to  dislodge  them,  and  a  considerable  fleet  col 
lected  for  the  purpose.  But  the  plan  failed  of  success,  and  the  whole 
marine  force  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  British,  except  some  vessels, 
which  were  burnt  by  tlie  Americans  themselves. 

38.  In  October,  general  Lincoln  and  count  de  Estaing  made  an 
assault  npMu  Savannah  ;  but  they  were  repulsed  with  considerable 
loss.  In  this  action,  the  celebrated  Polish  count  Polaski,  who  had  ac- 
quired the  reputation  of  a  brave  soldier,  was  mortally  wounded.  In 
this  summer,  general  Sullivan  marched,  with  a  body  of  troops,  into 
the  Indian  country,  and  burnt  and  destroyed  all  their  provisions  and 
settlements  that  fell  in  his  way. 

39.  On  the  opening  of  the  campaign,  the  next  year,  (1,780,)  the 
British  troops  left  Rhode  Island.  An  expedition  under  general  Clin- 
ton and  lord  Cornwallis,  was  undertaken  against  Charleston,  South 
Carolina,  where  general  Lincoln  commanded.  This  town,  after  a  close 
iiege  of  about  six  weeks,  was  surrendered  to  the  British  commander  ; 
and  general  Lincoln,  and  the  whole  American  garrison,  were  made 
prisoners. 

40.  General  Gates  was  appointed  to  the  command  in  the  southern 
department,  and  another  army  collected.  In  August,  lord  Cornwallis 
attacked  the  American  troops  at  Camden,  in  South  Carolina,  and  rout- 
ed them  with  considerable  loss.  He  afterwards  marched  through  the 
fouU)«rD  stat«»«  asd  supposed  them  entirely  subdued.    Th»  saraa 


UNITED  STATES.  41'7 

taimmer,  the  British  troops  made  frequent  incursiom  from  New-York 
into  the  Jerseys ;  ravaging  and  plundering  the  country.  In  some  of 
iRese  descents,  the  Rev.  Mr.  Caldwell,  a  respectable  clergyman  and 
\\^rm  patriot,  and  his  lady,  were  inhumanly  murdered  by  the  savage 
soldiery. 

41.  In  July,  a  French  fleet,  under  Monsieur  de  Temay,  with  a 
body  ol  land  tbrces,  commanded  by  count  de  Kochiimbeau,  arrived  at 
Rhode  Island,  to  the  great  joy  of  the  Americans. 

42.  This  year  was  also  distinguished  by  the  infamous  treason  of 
Arnold.  General  Washington  having  some  business  to  transact  at 
Weatherslield,  in  Connecticut,  left  Arnold  to  command  the  important 
post  of  West  Point,  which  guards  a  pass  in  Hudson's  river,  about  sixty 
miles  from  New-York.  Arnold's  conduct  in  tl>e  city  of  Philadelphia, 
the  preceding  winter,  had  been  censured,  and  the  treatment  he  receiv- 
ed in  consequence  had  given  him  offence.  He  determined  to  have 
revenge  ;  and  ibr  this  {fuipose  he  enteied  into  a  negotiation  with  sir 
Hemy  Clinton,  to  deliver  West  Point  and  the  army  into  the  hands  of 
the  British.  While  general  Washington  was  absent,  he  dismountetJ 
the  cannon  in  some  of  tl)e  forts,  and  took  other  steps  to  render  the 
taking  of  the  post  easy  tor  the  enemy.  But  by  a  providential  discov 
eiy,  the  whole  plan  was  defeated.  Major  Andre,  aid  to  general 
Clinton,  a  brave  officer,  who  had  been  up  the  river  as  a  spy,  to  con- 
cert the  plan  of  operations  with  Arnold,  was  taken,  condemned  by  a 
court-marlial,  and  executed.  ,  Arnold  made  his  escape  by  getting  or» 
board  the  Vulture,  a  British  vessel  which  lay  in  the  river.  His  con- 
duct has  stamped  him  with  infamy,  and,  like  all  traitors,  he  is  despised 
by  ail  mankind.  General  Washington  arrived  in  camp  just  after 
Arnold  had  made  his  escape,  and  restored  order  in  the  garrison. 

43.  After  the  defeat  of  general  Gates,  in  Carolina,  general  Green 
was  appointed  to  the  command  in  the  southern  department.  From 
this  period,  things  in  this  quarter  wore  a  more  favourable  aspect. 
Colonel  Tarleton,  the  active  commander  of  the  British  legion,  was 
defeated  by  general  Morgan,  the  intrepid  commander  of  the  riflemen. 
After  a  variety  of  movements,  the  two  armies  met  at  Guilford,  in  North 
Carolina.  Here  was  one  of  the  best  fought  actions  during  the  war. 
General  Greene  and  lord  Cornwallis  exerted  themselves,  at  the  head 
of  their  respective  armies,  and,  although  the  Americans  were  obliged 
to  retire  from  die  field  of  battle,  yet  the  British  army  suffered  an  im- 
mense loss,  and  could  not  pursue  the  victory.  This  action  happened 
on  the  15th  of  March,  1,781. 

44.  In  the  spring,  Arnold,  who  was  made  a  brigadier-general  in  the 
British  service,  with  a  small  number  of  troops,  sailed  for  Virginia,  and 
plundered  the  country.  This  called  the  attention  of  the  French  fleet 
to  that  quarter,  and  a  naval  engagement  took  place,  between  the 
English  and  French,  in  which  some  of  the  English  ships  were  much 
damaged,  and  one  entirely  disabled. 

45.  Alter  the  battle  at  Guilford,  general  Greene  moved  towards 
South  Carolina,  to  drive  the  British  from  their  posts  in  that  state 
Heie  lord  Rawdon  obtained  an  inconsiderable  advantage  ove* 
Americans,  near  Camden.  But  general  Greene  more  than  recovered- 
this  disadvantage,  by  the  brilliant  and  successful  action  at  the  Eutavy 
springs  ;  where  general  Marion  distinguished  himself,  and  the  brave 
colonel  \7ashington  was  wounded  and  taken  prisoner.  Lord  Corn- 
wallis finding  general  Greene  successful  in  Carolina,  marched  to  Vir- 
ginia, collected  his  forces,  and  fortified  himself  in  Yorktown.  In  the 
mean  time,  Arnold  made  an  incarsion  into  Connecticut,  burnt  4  part 


4m  UNITED  STATES. 

of  New-London,  took  fort  Griswold  by  storm,  and  put  the  garrison  to 
the  sword.  The  garrison  consisted  chiefly  of  men  suddenly  collected 
from  the  little  town  of  Groton,  which,  by  the  savage  cruelty  of  the 
British  officer  who  commanded  the  attack,  lost,  in  one  hour,  almost 
all  its  heads  of  families.  The  brave  colonel  Ledyard,  who  command- 
«d  the  fort,  was  slajn  with  his  own  sword,  after  he  had  surrendered. 

46.  The  inarquis  de  la  Fayette,  the  brave  and  generous  nobleman, 
whose  services  command  the  gratitude  of  ev€ry  American,  had  been 
despatched  from  the  main  army  to  watch  the  motions  of  lord  Coni- 
wallis,  in  Virginia.  About  the  last  of  August, ^count  de  Grasse  arrived 
with  a  large  fleet  in  the  Chesapeake\and  blocked  up  the  British  troopa 
at  Yorktown.  Admiral  Greaves,  with  a  British  fleet,  appeared  off  the 
Capes,  and  an  action  succeeded,  1  ut  it  was  iwt  decisive.  General 
Washington  had,  before  this  time,  moved  the  main  body  of  his  army, 
together  with  the  French  troops,  to  the  southward  ;  and,  as  soon  as  he 
heard  of  the  arrival  of  the  French  fleet  in  th^  Chesapeake,  he  n)ade 
rapid  marches  to  the  head  of  the  Elk,  where  embarking,  the  troops 
soon  arrived  at  Yorktown.  A  close  siege  immediately  commenced, 
and  was  carried  on  with  such  vigour  by  the  combined  forces  of  Amer- 
ica and  France,  that  lord  Comwallis  was  obliged  to  surrender.  This 
glorious  event,  \which  took  place  on  the  19th  of  October,  1,781,  de- 
cided the  contest  in  favour  of  America,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  a 

feneral  peace.  \  A  few  months  after  the  surrender  of  Cornwallis,  the 
tritish  evacuated  all  their  posts  in  South  Carolina  and  Gcoigia,  and 
retired  to  the  main  army  in  New-York. 

47.  The  next  spring  (1,782^  sir  Guy  Carlton  arrived  in  New- York, 
and  took  command  of  the  British  army  in  America.  Immediately 
after  his  arrival,  he  acquainted  general  Washington  and  congress,  that 
negotiations  for  a  peace  had  been  commenced  at  Paris.  On  the  30th 
of  November,  1,782,  the  provisional  articles  of  peace  were  signed  at 
Paris,  by  which  Great  Britain  acknowledged  the  independence  and 
sovereignty  of  the  United  States  of  America. 

''°  Thus  ended  a  Irng  and  arduous  conflict,  in  which  Great  Britain 
jexpended  near  a  nundred  millions  of  money*i  with  a  hundred  thousand 
lives,  and  w^on  nothing.  \  America  endured  every  cruelty  and  distress 
from  her  enemies  ;  lost  many  lives,  and  much  treasure — but  delivered 
herself  from  a  foreign  dominion,  and  gained  a  rank  among  the  nations 
of  the  earth. 


SECTION  V. 

ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  STATE  AND  NATIONAL  GOVERN- 
MENTS.     WARS   WITH  TRIPOLI  AND  THE  INDIANS,  &c. 

1.  The  important  revolution,  as  regarding  the  dependance  of  the 
aolonies  on  Great  Britain,  required  a  correspondinsr  alteration  m  their 
governments.  Conventions  were  assembled  in  the  several  states, 
which  formed  new  constitutions,  agreeably  to  the  strictest  principles 
of  republicanism  ;  retaining  whatever  was  desirable  in  the  original 
institutions,  and  at  the  same  time  providing  additional  security  agains. 
■hrranny  or  corruption.  The  statute  and  common  laws  of  England, 
iormerly  observed  in  the  provincial  courts  of  justice,  remain  in  prac- 
tice as  before.  The  inestimable  privilege,  of  British  origin,  a  trial 
by  jury  ;  the  freedom  of  the  press,  with  tiie  additional  right,  in  case 
(>(  prosecuting  for  a  libel,  of  giving  the  truth  in  evidence  ;  are  de- 


UNITED  STATES.  44^ 

Ciarfed  to  De  fundamental  principles.  The  goremments  resemble,  ih 
their  principal  organization,  the  frame  of  the  new  federal  constitution : 
they  consist  of  three  branches — a  governor,  a  senate,  and  a  lower 
house  of  representatives.  The  elections  recur  frequently,  in  which, 
in  most  of  the  states,  ev^ry  freeman  has  a  right  to  participate. 

2.  As  yet  the  general  government  was  not  established  on  a  solid 
foundation.  The  articles  of  union,  formed  under  the  pressure  of  com- 
mon danger,  were  found  inadequate  to  the  efficient  management  of  the 
same  country  in  the  selfish  periods  of  peace  and  security.  No  efficient 
fund  had  been  provided  to  pay  the  interest  of  the  national  debt,  and 
the  public  securities  fell  to  one  tenth  of  their  nominal  value.  An  open 
resistance  to  the  government  was  m;ide  in  Massachusetts,  headed  by  a 
person  of  the  name  of  Shays.  Danger  increased,  and  the  Iriends  of 
rational  liberty  became  alarmed. 

3.  The  Virginia  legislature,  in  1,787,  in  accordance  W'ith  a  motion 
made  by  James  Madison,  made  a  proposal  to  the  oUier  states  to  meet 
in  convention  for  the  purpose  of  digesting  a  system  of  government 
equal  to  the  exigencies  of  the  union.  The  convention  met  at  Phila- 
delphia,^May  25.  1,787,  and  chose  general  Washington  president; 
and,  after  deliberating  with  closed  doors  until  the  17{h  of  September, 
agreed  on  a  new  plan  of  national  government  :  this  was  afterwards 
ratified  by  the  several  states.  This  new  constitution  not  only  fixes  the 
national  government  on  a  republican  basis,  but  guaranties  to  each  state 
of  the  family  a  repubKcan  form  of  government,  and  binds  the  whole 
to  protect  each  against  foreign  invasion  or  domestic  violence.  Gen- 
eral Washington  w^as  unaniniously  chosen  first  president  under  the  new 
constitution.  IMarch  4,  l,789,>.the  first  congress  under  the  new  consti- 
tution assembled  at  New- York  ;  and,  in  1,790,  duties  were  levied  on 
imported  merchandise,  to  replenish  an  empty  treasury.  The  public 
debt  incurred  during  the  revolutionary  war  was  funded,  and  brought 
at  once  to  its  par  value.  A  national  bank  was  established,  not  how- 
ever without  opposition.  Mn  excise  duty  laid  on  domestic  spirits,  pro- 
duct J  an  insurrection  in  the  western  part  of  Pennsylvania 'J  but  the 
laws  were  executed,  and  on  the  intervention  of  an  armed  force,  tran- 
quillity was  restored  without  bloodshed. 

4.  Two  new  states  were  admitted  into  the  confederacy,  viz. :  Ver- 
mont in  1,791,  and  Kentuckj^  in  1,792.  A  war  with  the  Creek  Indians, 
whose  fighting  men  amounted  to  about  six  hundred,  some  time  existed 
on  the  frontier  of  Georgia :  peace,  however,  was  restored  there  in 
1,790.  A  sanguinary  warfare,  with  various  success,  was  for  some  time 
kept  up  with  the  north-western  Indians,  in  1,791,  general  Harmar 
was  defeated,  in  the  Ohio  country,  with  tlie  loss  of  three  hundred  and 
sixty  men  killed.  General  St.  Clair,  at  the  head  of  two  thousand 
militia  and  regulars,  was  suijsequently  worsted,  near  the  Indian  villai^es 
on  the  Miami,  with  the  loss  of  thirty-eight  officers,  and  nearly  six 
hundred  privates.  St.  Clair  was  succeeded  by  general  Wayne,  wha 
completely  routed  the  savage  foe,  and  drove  the  Indians  out  of  the 
country.  In  the  year  after,  Wayne  negotiated  a  satisfactory  treaty 
of  peace  with  the  hostile  Indians  ;  and  at  this  time  commenced  a 
buman^  system  for  ameliorating  their  condition. 

5.  ^Whilst  the  United  States  were  employed  in  quelling  the  refrac- 
tory,'aod  restraining  the  inroads  of  a  subtle  enemy  within  their  own 
bosom,  new  sources  of  difficulty  discovered  themselves  in  the  great 
convulsions  of  Europe.  The  French  revolution  had  commenced,  and 
that  nation  was  under  the  wild  misrule  of  its  directory.  Claims  for 
assistance  were  made  on  the  United  States. }  Genet,  the  French  envoy, 

P  p  2  .  67 


45©  UNITED  STATES. 

having  arrived  at  Charleston,  undertook  to  authorize  the  arming'  of 
vessels  in  that  port,  and  the  enlisting  of  men  ;  giving  commissions,  in 
the  name  ol  the  French  government,  to  cruise  at  sea,  and  commit  hos- 
tilities on  land,  against  nations  with  whom  the  United  States  were  at 
peace.  The  British  minister  remonstrated.  The  president  issued 
orders  for  defeating  the  unwanantable  interference  of  the  French  am- 
bassador. Genet  threatened  an  appeal  to  the  people,  but  was  soon 
after  recalled.  Afterwards,  the  French  directory  authorized  the  in- 
discriminate capture  of  all  vessels  sailing  under  the  flag  of  the  United 
States  ;  and  ordered  the  American  envoys  to  leave  France.  Two 
severe  actions  occurred  in  the  West  Indies,  between  the  American 
frigate  Constellation,  of  thirty-eight  guns,  and  the  French  frigate 
L'lnsurgente,  of  forty,  and  the  same  frigate  and  the  La  Vengeance,  of 
/ifty  guns,  in  which  L'lnsurgente  was  captured,  and  La  Vengeance 
worsted. 

6.  In  1,797,  John  Adams  was  chosen  president  ;  and  in  the  year 
afi^r,  Washington  was  called  to  the  head  of  the  army,  in  the  prospect 
of  a  protracted  war  with  France.     But  speedily  after  the  overthrow 

\  of  the  directory  government,  all  the  disputes  between  France  and  the 
United  States  were  amicably  arranged. 

7.  Aithough,  since  the  definitive  treaty  of  Paris,  there  occurred  no 
open  hostilities  between  England  and  the  United  States,  yet  they  were 
far  from  being  on  terms  of  amity  and  conciliation.  On  various  pre- 
texts, the  English  i^tained  possession  of  the  forts  on  the  south  side  of 
the  lakes,  forming  the  northern  boundary  of  the  United  States  ;  and 
irritation  was  continually  excited  by  the  English  insisting  on  the  right 
of  seaicKing  American  ships  for  enemy's  property.  Mr.  Jay  was  de- 
puted envoy  to  London,  and  negotiated  a  trea*^y,  in  1,795,  which  set- 
tled the  ditierences  between  the  two  nations,  but  the  terms  of  which 
were  much  opposed  in  the  United  States. 

8.  December  14,  1,799,  died  the  illustrious  Washmgton,  of  an  in- 
flammatory sore  throat  and  fever,  contracted  from  a  slight  exposure  to 
the  wet  weather,  after  an  illness  of  only  about  twenty-four  hours. 

9.  The  seat  of  government  had  been  removed  from  New- York  to 
Philadelphia,  both  of  which  places  being  deemed  inconvenient,  pro- 
vision was  made,  at  the  second  session  after  the  formation  of  govern- 
ment, for  the  removal  of  the  government  to  a  district  on  the  Potomac, 
which  was  ceded  to  the  United  States  by  Virginia  and  Maryland  ;  and, 
in  *1, 800,  the  public  offices  were  removed  to  the  infant  capital,  on 
which  magnificent  buildings  had  been  erected.  This  city  bears  the 
name  of  Washington,  and  die  district  diat  of  Columbia. 

10.  The  war  with  Tripoli  commenced  in  1,801,  by  an  engagement 
of  the  Enterprise,  captain  Sterrelt,  with  a  Tripolitan  corsair,  off  Malta, 
in  which  the  American  was  victorious.\  Commodore  Murray,  the 
following  year,  in  the  frigate  Constellation,  was  attacked,  while  cruis- 
ing off  Tripoli,  by  a  formidable  number  of  gun  boats,  but  obliged 
them  to  retire  in  confusion.  In  1,803,  the  Philadelphia  frigate,  cap- 
tain Bainbridge,  ran  upon  a  rock,  in  the  very  jaws  of  the  pirates;  wag 
obliged  to  strike,  and  her  officers  and  crew,  amounting  to  three  hun- 
dred, were  made  prisoners.  This  vessel  was,  however,  recaj)tured 
and  burnt,  while  lying  in  the  harbour  of  Tripoli,  February  16,  1,804, 
by  captain  Stephen  Decatur,  jr.,  and  seventy  men-rone  ol  the  tnoat 
daring  and  gallant  exploits  on  record.  From  the  3d  to  the  29th  of 
August  following,  commodore  Preble  made  three  general  attacks  upon 
the  Tripolitan  batteries.  The  barbarian  enemy  continued  tp'^r^at 
the  American  prisoners  with  ihe  most  atrocious  cruelty.    Anytl^r 


UNITED  STATES.  451 

expedient  wa^*  tried  by  the  American  g^overnment.  General  Eiiton 
was  despatched  to  co-operate  with  Hamet,  who  had  been  diiven  tiom 
the  governnient  of  Tripoli  by  the  usurpation  of  his  brother.  Travel- 
ling to  Egypt,  he  found  the  exile,  and  proceeding  tifty-two  days 
through  a  hideous  desert,  he  arrived  betore  Uerne,  a  city  in  the 
regency  of  Tripoli,  and  carried  the  town  at  the  point  of  the  bayonet. 
Twice  did  the  enerny  attempt  to  retake  the  Umn  ;  i/ut,  against  iearl'ul 
odds,  they  were  repulsed  by  Eaton.  This  brought  the  reigning 
bashaw  to  terms  ;  a  peace  was  concJuded  by  colonel  Lear,  and  the 
prisoners  long  detained  in  captivity,  were  released. 

11.  Tennessee  in  1,796,  and  Ohio  in  1,800,  were  added  to  the  states 
of  the  union.  In  1,803,  Louisiana  \tas  purchased  from  the  French 
government,  for  the  sum  of  [titteen  millions  of  dollars  ;  and  in  1,812,  a 
portion  of  this  extended  territory  was  erected  into  a  state  by  that  name. 
By  this  cession,  the  United  States  have  acquired  a  territory  of  vast 
magnitude,  and  extraordinaiy  fertility,  from  which  new  states  will 
continue  to  be  incorporated. 

12.  In  the  autumn  of  1,806,  Aaron  Burr  was  detected  in  an  enter- 
prise of  great  moment,  the  separation  of  the  western  states  from  the 
union,  and  the  subjugation  of  New-Orieans  :  his  plan  was  defeated  by 
the  vigilance  of  the  government  ;  Burr  was  arrested  on  a  cljarge  of 
high  treason — but  no  overt  act  being  proved  on  him,  he  was  released. 


SECTION  VI. 
WAR  WITH  GREAT  BRITAIN,  &c. 

T.  We  come  now  to  treat  of  those  interesting  events  which  brought 
an  a  second  contest  between  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States. 
The  custom  of  searching  American  vessels  on  the  ocean,  and  impress 
ing  from  them  British  seamen,  had  long  been  practised  by  the  English. 
But  liitherto  the  custom  had  been  confined  to  private  vessels  :  now,  it 
was  extended  in  some  instances  to  public  armed  vessels.  Four  seamen 
deserters  from  the  British  navy,  were  reported  to  have  entered  the 
service  of  the  United  States,  and  to  have  been  received  on  board  the 
frigate  Chesapeake,  at  the  time  lying  at  Hampton  roads,  preparing  tot 
the  Mediterranean.  Admiral  Berkeley  ordered  captain  Humphries, 
of  the  Leopard,  to  follow  the  Chesapeake  beyond  the  waters  of  the 
United  States,  and  demand  the  deserters  :  this  he  did,  and,  after 
demanding  the  seamen,  tired  a  broadside  upon  the  American  frigate. 
This  unexpected  attack  so  disconcerted  captain  Barron,  that  he  im- 
mediately struck  the  colours  of  the  Chesapeake,  and  permitted  the 
four  seamen  to  be  taken  without  resistance.  The  Leopard  carried 
fifty,  the  Chesapeake  only  thirty-six  guns.  On  board  the  latter,  lour 
men  were  killed  and  sixteen  wounded.  One  of  the  impressed  seamen 
was  afterwards  hanged,  and  one  died  in  prison  :  and  there  was  reason 
for  supposing  that  three  of  them  were  native  Americans.  Captain 
Barron,  for  neglect  of  duty,  was  suspended  from  command  for  five 
years.  This  tragical  occurrence  produced  a  general  indignation. 
The  British,  however,  disavowed  admiral  Berkeley's  orders,  and  re- 
moved him  from  the  station,  but  soon  after  appointed  him  to  a  more 
important  one. 

2.  New  systems  of  blockade  were   invented  by  the-  belligereDts, 
commenciug  with  the  French  decree  of  Berlin,  of  November  21, 


452  UNITED  STATES. 

1,806  :  January  7,  1,807,  came  the  British  order  promfehing  coasvirw 
trade  ;  November  11,  the  celebrated  British  orders  in  council  ;  ana 
December  7,  the  French  Milan  decree.  December  22,  of  the  same 
year,  congress,  on  the  recommendation  of  Mr.  Jefferson,  then  presi- 
dent, ordered  an  embargo,  prohibiting-  the  exportation  of  every  article 
from  the  United  States.  March  4,  1,809,  the  embargo  was  removed, 
and  non-intercourse  substituted.  April  19,  an  arrangement  was  made 
with  Mr.  Erskine,  which  induced  the  American  government  to  renew 
the  trade  with  England  ;  this  arrangement  was  subsequently  disavow- 
ed by  the  British  government.  The  insulting  deportment  of  the  suc- 
ceeding negotiator,  Mr.  Jackson,  heightened  the  resentment  of  the 
republic  ;  and  a  rencounter  between  the  American  and  British  ships 
of  war,  President  and  Little  Belt,  increased  the  unfriendly  sentiments 
of  England. 

3.  Mr.  Foster,  a  new^  British  minister,  offered  honourable  reparation 
for  the  indignity  on  the  Chesapeake  ;  but  no  change  could  be  procur- 
ed in  the  systems  practised  by  Great  Britain  and  France  against 
American  trade.  The  United  States  now-  offered  to  either  of  the 
belligerents,  or  both,  as  soon  as  they  ceased  to  violate  the  neu'ual 
commerce  of  the  republic,  that  the  non-intercourse  arrangement 
should  be  discontinued.  The  French  artfully  embraced  the  offer,  by 
information  that  the  French  Berlin  and  Milan  decrees  had  been  re- 
voked ;  and  non-intercourse  with  France  was  discontinued  by  procla- 
mation of  the  president. 

4.  War  was  declared  by  the  United  States  against  Great  Britain, 
June  18,  1,812,  too  late  to  avail  themselves  of  the  retraction  of  the 
British  orders  in  council,  which  followed  the  repeal  of  the  Berlin  and 
Milan  decrees.  The  congress  voted  an  addition  to  the  regular  army, 
of  twenty -five  thousand  men  ;  authorized  a  loan  of  eleven  millions  ; 
and  nearly  doubled  the  duties  on  imports. 

5.  Previous  to  the  declaration  of  >var,  indications  of  hostility  had 
appeared  among  the  Indians  on  the  frontiers  bordering  on  Canada. 
A  body  of  troops,  under  governor  Harrison,  was  attacked  on  the  7th 
of  November,  1,811,  near  a  branch  of  the  Wabash,  by  a  lai^er  body 
of  Indians,  who  were  defeated,  not  without  considerable  loss  to  the 
Americans.' 

6.  On  the  12th  of  July,  general  Hull,  governor  of  the  Michigan 
territory,  crossed  from.  Detroit  into  the  province  of  Canada,  with  a 
considerable  force.  In  this  situation,  he  soon  received  intelligence  of 
the  capture  of  the  American  post  at  llichillimackinac.  On  the  '8th 
of  August,  he  returned  to  Detroit,  followed  by  the  British  general 
Brock,  with  his  regulars  and  Indians  ;  and  he  soon  surrendered  to  the 
British,  not  only  his  army,  but  included  the  whole  territoiy  of  Michi- 
gan in  the  articles  of  capitulation.  He  was  afterwards  tried,  and 
found  guilty  of  cowardice  and  neglect  of  duty,  and  sentenced  to  be 
shot :  but,  in  consideration  of  his  revolutionary  services,  and  his  age, 
the  court  recommended  him  to  mercy,  and  the  president  withdrew  the 
punishment  of  death.  He  has  since  endeavoured,  by  letters  address- 
ed to  the  people  of  this  country',  to  justify  his  conduct ;  and  with  many 
persons  his  endeavours  have  been  successful. 

7.  On  the  19th  of  August,  the  Constitution  frigate,  captain  Hull) 
captured  the  British  frigate  Guerriere,  captain  Dacres,  after  an  aCtion 
of  thirty  minutes  :  loss  of  the  Guerriere,  fifteen  killed,  sixty-four 
wounded,  and  twenty-one  missing — that  of  the  Constitution,  seven 
killed  and  seven  wounded.  October  25,  the  frigate  i'nUed  State*, 
captain  Decatur,  met  the  Briti^  frigate  Macedonian,  «ff  the  w«st«in 


UNITED  STATES.  453 

isles,  and  captured  her  after  an  action  of  one  hour  and  a  half:  British 
loss,  thirty-six  killed  and  sixty-eight  wounded — American  loss,  seven 
killed,  five  wounded.  The  next  naval  achievement  was  the  capture 
of  the  British  brig  Frolic  by  the  American  sloop  Wasp,  commanded 
by  captain  Jones  :  British  loss,  thirty  killed  and  fifty  woundetl — 
American,  five  killed,  five  wounded.  In  December,  the  Constitution, 
captain  Bainbridge,  again  met  the  enemy,  and  the  frigate  Java  was 
captured  :  British  loss,  sixty  killed,  and  one  hundred  and  one  wound- 
ed— American,  nine  killed,  twenty -five  wounded.  Besides  these  vic- 
tories of  public  ships,  numerous  privateers  swarmed  the  ocean,  and 
before  the  meeting  of  congress,  in  November,  nearly  two  hundred  and 
fifty  vessels  were  captured  from  the  eneniy. 

B.  In  November,  general  Van  Rensselaer,  with  about  one  thousand 
troops,  crossed  the  Niagara  river  into  Upper  Canada,  and  attacked 
the  British  at  Queenstown  ;  and,  after  an  obstinate  engagement,  was 
obliged  to  surrender,  with  a  loss  of  sixty  killed,  and  about  one  hundred 
wounded.     In  this  engagement  the  British  general  Brock  was  killed. 

9.  Early  in  1,813,  an  action  was  fought  at  the  river  Raisin,  between 
an  American  detachment,  under  general  Winchester,  and  a  British  and 
Indian  force  under  colonel  Proctor.  The  Americans  were  defeated,  and 
the  greater  part  of  five  hundred  prisoners  were  immediately  massacred, 
Proctor  being  unable  or  unwilling  to  protect  them. 'as  he  had  expressly 
stipulated!  Soon  after,  general  Harrison  was  attacked  and  besieged, 
by  the  combined  British  and  Indians  at  fort  Meigs.  A  desultory  war 
was  kept  up  for  some  time.  Colonel  Dudley  was  detached  from  the 
fr)rt,  to  attack  the  enemy's  battery  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river. 
He  succeeded  in  capturing  the  batterj',  but  his  troops,  imprudently 
p.irsuing  the  enemy,  were  soon  surrounded  by  an  Indian  army,  three 
times  their  number,  headed  by  the  Indian  general  Tecumseh  ;  a  des- 

{)erate  fight,  and  a  scene  of  slaughter  almost  as  terrible  as  that  at 
laisin,  ensued.     Of  eight  hundred  men  composing  the  detachment, 
only  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  escaped. 

10.  On  the  21st  of  February,  the  British  attacked  Ogdensburgh,  on 
the  river  St.  Lawrence,  with  a  force  of  twelve  hundred,  and  compelled 
the  Americans  to  evacuate  the  place.  In  April,  the  Americans,  under 
general  Pike,  landed  at  York,  in  Upper  Canada  ;  aiKi,  after  some  se- 
vere fighting,  succeeded  in  capturing  or  destroying  a  large  amount  of 
public  stores.  The  British  lost  seven  hundred  and  fifty  men,  in  killed, 
wounded,  and  captured.  The  brave  Pike  was  mortally  wounded,  by 
llie  explosion  of  a  magazine,  which  had  been  purposely  set  on  fire. 
The  ohiect  of  the  expedition  being  gained,  the  American  forces  evac- 
uated York  on  the  1st  of  May,  and  re-embarked. 

11.  Fort  George,  commanded  fw  general  Vincent,  was  taken  by 
the  American  forces,  under  genera!  jBoyd  and  colonel  Miller,  May  27, 
after  a  sharp  conflict.  The  British  lost,  in  killed  and  wounded,  about 
two  hundred  and  fifty  men,  besides  six  hundred  prisoners — their  an- 
tagonists, thirty-nine  killed  and  one  hundred  and  eight  wounded. 
Soon  aftenvards,  generals  Chandler  and  Winder,  who  had  advanced 
wfth  a  considerable  force,  were  attacked  in  the  night,  by  g»-'-icral 
Vincent,  who  had  been  reinforced,  between  fort  George  and  Burling- 
ton bay,  and,  in  a  scene  of  confusion,  were  both  made  prisoners  ;  theii 
voops  retired  to  fort  George. 

12.  Captain  James  Lawrence,  of  the  Hornet,  fell  in  with,  and  cap- 
tured, the  British  sloop  of  war  Peacock,  Febiuary  24.  The  action 
lasted  eight  minutes  ;  and  the  British  captain  and  several  others  were 
killed,  and  tw^nty-nioe  wounded — the  Hornet  had  three  wouodeA 


454  UNITED  STATES. 

The  Peacock  sunk  soon  after  the  action,  and  thirteen  British  sailors 
went  down  with  her.  Captain  Lawrence  was  afterwards  appointed  to 
the  command  of  the  ill-fated  Chesapeake,  then  lyin^  in  Boston  harbour. 
The  British  frigate  Shannon,  commanded  by  captain  Broke,  had  been 
for  some  time  in  the  bay,  seeking  an  engagement  with  an  American 
frigate.  Lawrence,  burning  with  impatience  to  meet  the  enemy,  did 
not  wait  to  inquire  into  the  relative  condition  of  the  vessels.  The 
Shannon  had  a  picked  crew,  and  was  accoutred  for  the  express  pur- 
pose of  engaging  an  American  frigate  of  the  largest  size.  The  Ches- 
apeake, not  of  the  laig-est  description  of  frigates,  had  recently  dis- 
chaig;ed  a  part  of  her  crew,  and  enlisted  others  :  several  of  her  officers 
weie  sick.  Lawrence  sailed  on  the  first  of  June  ;  and  when  he  c:une 
within  sight  of  the  Shannon,  addressed  his  crew,  but  they  listened  with 
no  enthusiasm  :  some  complained  that  they  had  not  received  their 
prize  money — murmurs  and  dissatisfaction  were  general  ;  in  fact  the 
crew  were  almost  in  a  state  of  mutiny.  The  Chesapeake  closed  with 
the  enemy  and  gave  the  first  broadside  ;  and  at  the  first  fire  of  the 
Shannon,  captain  Lawrence  was  mortally  wounded.  A  second  an^l  a 
third  broadside  gave  the  Britis'h  a  decided  advantage,  which  was  fol- 
lowed up  by  boarding  the  Chesapeake.  A  scene  of  carnage  ensued  ; 
captain  Lawrence  was  carried  below,  exclaiming,  as  he  lett  the  deck, 
"  Dtm't  give  up  the  ship."  Every  officer  qualified  for  command  in 
the  Chesapeake,  was  either  killed  or  disabled  :  about  eighty  were 
killed,  and  as  many  wounded.  Of  the  British,  twenty-three  were 
killed  and  fifty-six  wounded.  The  captured  frigate  was  carried  in 
triumph  to  Halifax.  The  brilliant  achievements  of  Wellington  and 
Nelson  scarcely  called  forth  moi-e  lively  expressions  of  exultation  in 
England,  than  did  the  capture  of  the  Chesapeake.  The  tower  guns 
at  London  were  fired  on  reception  of  the  news,  and  the  prince  regent 
conferred  oji  captain  Broke  the  order  of  knighthood. 

lo.  On  the  4th  of  August,  the  American  sloop  of  war  Argus  was 
captured  by  the  Pelican,  a  vessel  of  her  own  class,  but  said  to  be  two 
guns  superior.  Captain  Allen,  commander  of  the  Argus,  was  mortally 
wounded  at  the  fii-st  broadside  of  the  enemy.  In  the  following  month, 
the  American  brig  Enterprize  captured  the  Boxer,  a  vessel  superior 
in  effective  force.  The  only  person  killed  on  board  the  Eiiterprize 
was  her  gallant  commander,  lieutenant  Burroughs,  and  thirteen  were 
wounded.  The  British  loss  was  greater :  among  the  slain  was  captain 
Blythe,  who  commanded  the  Boxer,  and  who  was  buried  by  the  side 
of  his  antagonist  in  the  town  of  Portland,  off  whose  harbour  the  action 
was  fought. 

14.  But  the  most  brilliant  achievement  this  year  was  that  of  the 
youthful  Perry  on  lake  Erie.  The  British  force  consisted  of  six  ves- 
«els,  having  sixty-three  guns  ;  that  of  the  Americans,  of  nine  vessels 
and  fifty-six  guns.  The  conflict  was  tremendous.  The  flag  ship  of 
Perry  suffi^red  dreadfully  in  die  loss  of  men,  and  was  on  the  point  of 
sinking  :  he  left  the  ship  in  the  midst  of  the  hottest  fire,  and  proceed- 
ed to  another  vessel  ;  and  after  three  hours  confhct,  the  laurel  of 
victory  was  assigned  to  Perry  ;  the  triumph  was  complete — not  a  single 
Tessel  of  the  enemy  escaped.  This  action  took  place  on  the  10th  of 
September,  and  made  the  Americans  masters  of  the  lake.  The  gallant 
Ferry  announced  this  victory  in  the  following  laconic  epistle  to  general 
Harrison  :  "  We  have  met  the  enemy  and  they  are  ours — two  ships, 
two  brigs,  one  schooner,  and  one  sloop." 

15.  Chesapeake  bay  was  blockaded  by  the  British  during  the  spring 
of  this  year,  and  several  predatoiy  incursions  by  their  troops  were 


UNITED  STATES.  455 

ma  'cs.  Much  property  was  plundered  and  destj-oyed,  and  many  dis- 
graceful scenes  occurred,  particularly  at  Hampton  and  Havre  de 
Grace. 

16.  An  attack  was  made,  May  29,  on  Sackett's  harbour  by  about  one 
thousand  British,  who  were  repulsed  with  considerable  loss.  General 
Brown  commanded  the  American,  and  sir  George  Prevost  the  British 
troops.  About  the  same  time  the  British  attacked  Craney  Island, 
near  Nortolk,  and  were  defeated  with  loss. 

17.  General  Dearborn,  the  American  commander,  retired  from  ser- 
vice this  year.  Fort  Sandusky  was  invested  by  a  large  force  of  British 
and  Indians  :  and  he  exploit  of  major  Croghan  in  repulsing  the  assail- 
ants with  great  loss,  called  lorth  general  admiration.  In  October, 
Detroit  was  abandoned  by  the  British,  on  the  approach  of  a  larg« 
army  under  general  Harrison  ;  who,  soon  after,  deteated  the  enemy 
under  the  command  of  general  Proctor,  in  Upper  Canada  ;  in  this 
battle  the  celebrated  Tecumseh  was  killed. 

18.  Little  was  done  this  year  towards  the  conquest  of  Canada. 
General  Wilkinson  descendeu  the  St.  Lawrence  from  lake  Ontario  in 
November ;  and  an  engagement  took  place  at  Wiliiamsburgh.  in 
which  the  Americans  were  repulsed  witli  the  loss  of  three  hundred 
killed,  wounded,  and  prisoners.  A  disagreement  between  the  generals 
Hampton  and  Wilkinson,  prevented  that  concert  which  was  necessaiT 
to  secure  success  ;  the  design  of  attacking  Montreal  was  relinquishea, 
and  the  army  retired  to  winter  quarters.  Fort  George  was  evacuated 
in  the  month  of  December  ;  and  misconceiving  his  instructions,  general 
M'Clure,  who  commanded  the  fortress,  set  tire  to  the  village  of  New- 
ark. Miagara  was  afterwards  surprised  and  retaken  by  the  British. — 
The  British  crossed  over  to  the  American  side,  and  in  resentment  for  tlie 
destruction  of  Newark,  burnt  Bulfalo  and  some  other  villages,  and  laid 
waste  the  whole  frontier. 

19.  The  Creek  Indians,  who  had  been  for  some  time  in  open  hos- 
tilities with  the  United  States,  were  completely  subdued  this  season 
and  the  succeeding  spring,  principally  by  troops  commanded  by  gen- 
eral Andrew  Jackson. 

20.  In  Januaiy,  1,814,  propositions  having  been  made  by  the  prince 
regent  for  a  negotiation,  Messrs.  Russell  and  Clay  were  appointed  to 
join  Messrs.  Adams,  Bayard,  and  Gallatin,  already  in  E-jrope,  as 
commissionei-s  to  meet  such  as  the  British  government  might  appoint ; 
and  Messrs.  Gambler,  Golbourn,  and  William  Adams  were  appointed 
to  meet  them.  The  place  of  assembling  was  first  fixed  at  Gottenburg, 
but  afterwards  changed  to  Ghent  in  Flanders  j  where  the  comraission- 
«rs  met  in  August. 

21.  The  frigate  Essex,  captain  David  Porter,  after  having  lor^ 
Cruised  in  the  Pacific  and  captured  a  great  number  of  British  vessels, 
was  herself  captured  in  the  harbour  of  Valparaiso,  by  the  British 
frigate  Phebe  and  the  sloop  Clierub.  The  Peacock  captured  the 
British  brig  Epervier,  April  29,  after  an  action  of  forty-two  minutes. 
The  Hornet  sloop  of  war  captured  the  English  national  brig  Penguin ; 
and  the  old  Constitution,  under  captain  Stewart,  overcame  the  united 
forces  of  the  Cyane  and  Levant. 

22.  In  the  beginning  of  July,  fort  Erie  was  taken  by  the  Americans. 
On  tlie  4th  of  July,  a  brilliant  victory  was  gained  by  general  Brown 
at  Chippewa.  On  the  25th,  one  of  the  most  sanguinary  battles  on  rec- 
ord took  place  at  Bridgewater :  in  this  action  the  American  generali 
Scott,  Ripley,  and  Porter,  with  colonel  Miller,  majors  Hindman,  Jes- 
wp,  LeaveQwortb,   and    M'Neil,  distiuguisbed  tbeajselves.      The 


456  UNITED  STATES. 

British  forces  were  led  by  generals  Drummond  and  Rial.  The  battle 
lasted  from  four  o'clock,  P.  M.  until  midnight.  The  British  lost  nine 
hundred,  killed,  wounded,  and  prisoners :  the  American  loss  was  less~ 
The  latter  maintained  their  ground  ;  while  the  former  retired. 

23.  The  town  of  Eastport  in  the  bay  of  Passamaquoddy,  was  this 
year  taken  by  a  British  naval  force ;  and  soon  after  the  British  took 
possession  oi  Castine  and  all  that  part  of  the  new  state  of  Maine,  lying 
between  that  place  and  Penobscot  river,  and  compelled  many  ol  the 
inhabitants  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  Great  Britain.  The 
British  this  year  landed  marauding  parties,  at  Saybrook,  Wareham, 
Scituate,  and  other  places,  and  destroyed  much  shipping  :  in  an  at- 
tempt on  Stonington,  they  were  beaten  off  by  the  gallant  inhabitants 
with  loss. 

24.  From  the  16th  to  the  20th  of  August,  about  sixty  sail  of  the 
British  arrived  in  the  Chesapeake,  intending  to  invade  the  States  in 
earnest.  More  thnn  fii'ty  of  them  landed  at  Benedict,  on  the  Patuxent, 
about  forty  miles  from  Washington.  On  the  22d  the  British  flankers 
reached  Hood  Yard,  tourteen  miles  from  Washington.  Commodore 
Barney  here  blew  up  a  flotilla  of  gun  boats  to  prevent  their  falling  into 
the  hands  of  the  enemy.  On  the  23d  the  British  forces,  estimated  at 
six  thousand,  reached  Bladenslnngh,  about  six  miles  from  Washington. 
Here  a  short  engagement  took  place  ;  but  the  greater  part  of  the 
American  militia  fled.  Commodoie  Barney,  with  a  few  eighteen 
pounders  and  about  four  hundred  men,  made  a  gallant  resistance  from 
Bladensburg  to  tlie  city  ;  but  he  was  ■wounded  and  taken  prisoner. 
The  British  here  destroyed  the  capitol,  the  president's  house,  and 
several  other  public  buildings,  mutilated  the  monument  in  the  na^y 
■yard,  and  committed  many  excesses.  In  the  night  of  the  25th,  tlie 
British  retired,  gained  their  shipping  by  rapid  marches,  and  embark- 
ed on  board  their  ships  on  the  27th.  ^  Several  British  ships  under  cap- 
tain (jrordon,  at  tlie  same  time,  ascendefl  the  Potomac,  appeared  be- 
fore Alexandria,  robbed  the  defenceless  inhabitants  of  a  vast  quantity 
©f  flour  and  other  plunder;  and  escaped  down  the  river  without  mo- 
lestation. 

25.  August  14,  General  Drummond  was  repulsed  in  an  attack  on 
fort  Erie,  after  a  severe  conflict,  with  a  loss  of  live  hundred  and  eighty 
two  in  kiHed,  wounded,  and  prisoners,  two  hundred  and  twenty-one 
being  killed  ;  American  loss  in  killed  and  wounded,  two  hundred  and 
forty-five. 

26.  On  Sunday,  the  11th  of  September,  admiral  Cochrane  appeared 
off  Baltimore  with  about  fifty  sail.  The  laiger  vessels  landed  at 
North  Point,  ten  miles  from  the  city,  about  seven  thousand  troops 
under  general  Ross  and  admiral  CockI)urn.  The  next  day,  as  they 
advanced  towards  the  city,  they  were  met  by  general  Strieker  with 
«bout  three  thousand  militia,  and  a  severe  engagement  took  place,  in 
fvhich  the  British  general  was  killed.  The  Americans  were  however 
repulsed  by  superior  numbers  ;  and  on  Tuesday  evening,  the  British 
■dvanced  to  within  about  two  miles  of  the  American  entrenchments. 
But  so  strong  was  the  American  force,  and  so  valiantly  had  they  fought 
the  preceding  day,  that  the  British  retreated  before  morning,  and 
hastily  re-embarked,  A  grand  attack  was  made  on  Tuesday  on  fort 
M'Henry,  on  the  other  side  of  the  city  and  commanding  the  water 
passage  to  it,  from  frigates,  boml.\  rmd  rocket  vessels,  which  lasted  the 
whole  day  and  a  part  of  the  night,  doing  but  little  damage.  In  the 
night  about  a  thousand  of  the  enemy  landed  between  the  fort  and  the 
«ity,  but  were  soaa  repulsed.    The  loss  of  the  Araericans  in  killed, 


UNITED  STATES.  457 

Wounded,  and  prisoner?,  was  two  hundred  and  thirteen  :  that  of  the 
British  is  not  known.  The  enemy,  thus  discomfited,  moved  down  the 
-bay. 

27.  The  governor-general  of  Canada,  sir  George  Prevost,  w!'h 
'rom  twelve  to  fourteen  thousand  rnen,  made  an  attack  on  Plattshu'>h, 
iSeptember  11.  At  the  same  time  a  naval  engagement,  on  i;ike  CLani- 
plain,  took  place  in  sight  of  the  land  forces.  The  American  flefl 
having  eighty-six  guns  and  eight  hundred  and  Uveiiiy-six  men,  wa? 
commanded  by  captain  M'Donoiigh  ;  the  Piitish,  consisting  of  ninety- 
five  guns  and  one  thousand  and  fitly  men,  was  commanded  bv  com 
modore  Downie.  The  action  ended  in  the  surrender  of  the TPi.tish 
vessels,  viz.  one  frigate,  one  brig,  and  two  sloops  of  war.  ?oii,e  of 
their  gallies  were  sunk  ;  others  escaped.  American  loss,  iiftj  -two 
killed,  fifty-eight  wounded  :  British  loss,  eightj'-four  killed,  one 
hundred  and  ten  wounded.  At  the  same  time  that  the  fleets  were 
engaged,  governor  Prevost  attacked  the  forts  at  Plattsouigh  with  his 
land  tbrces,  throwing  shells,  balls,  and  rockets  :  he  attempted  to  cross 
the  Saranac,  but  was  repulsed  at  thiee  diiTerent  places.  So  efiectual 
was  the  fire  of  the  Americans,  that,  before  sunset,  the  batteries  he  had 
erected  were  all  silenced;  and  at  nine  o'clock  in  the  evening  his 
whole  army  began  a  rapid  retreat,  leaving  many  wounded,  and  much 
am.munition,  provision,  and  baggage.  The  American  loss  this  day. 
and  in  skirmishes  previous  on  land,  was  thirty-nine  killed,  sixty-two 
wounded,  and  twenty  missing:  the  loss  of  the  British",  in  killed 
wounded,  and  deserters,  besides  those  on  board  the  fleet,  was  estimat 
ed  at  two  thousand  five  hundred.  General  Alexander  Macomb  com 
manded  the  American  land  forces. 

28.  As  on  Erie  and  Champlain,  so  on  the  lake  Ontario,  each  party 
strove  for  a  na^  al  ascendency.  Several  large  ships  were  built  by  the 
Americans  at  Sackett's  harbour,  and  by  the  British  at  Kingston.  The 
American  fleet  was  commanded  by  captain  Chnuncey,  and  the  British 
by  commodore  Yeo.  As  at  no  time,  one  side  equalled  the  other  in 
strength,  so  at  all  times  one  avoided  as  the  other  sought  for  an  engage- 
ment. A  partial  action  once  took  place  ;  but  the  British  commander, 
at  that  time  supposing  his  force  inferior,  took  the  advantage  of  cir 
cumstances  to  make  his  port.  One  of  the  British  vessels  ready  foi 
sea  at  the  close  of  the  war  manned  nearly  one  hundred  guns ;  ancl  two 
of  the  largest  class  of  vessels  in  the  world  were  at  the  sam*>  tim? 
erecting  at  Sackett's  harbour. 

29.  Tn  a  sortie  from  fort  Erie,  under  the  command  ot  general  drttih 
Brown,  alter  a  severe  engagement,  the  British  were  defeated  \vith  the 
loss  of  nearly  a  thousand,  in  killed,  wounded,  and  prisoners :  the 
American  loss  exceeded  five  hundred. 

30.  The  frigate  President,  commodore  Decatur,  sailed  from  New- 
York,  January  14, 1,815,  and  was  the  next  day  pursued  by  four  frigates 
and  a  brig  of  the  enemy.  An  engagement  took  place  between  the 
foremost  of  the  pursuing  vessels,  the  Endymion  and  the  President  ; 
after  a  severe  action  of  two  hours,  the  Endymion  was  silenced  and 
beaten  off.  The  Pamone  and  Tenedos  in  one  hour  coming  up,  the 
President  was  obliged  to  surrender. 

31.  One  of  the  most  splendid  events  on  the  part  of  the  Americans 
closed  the  late  w'ar :  it  was  the  discomfiture  and  repulse  of  the  British 
at  New-Orleans.  A  very  large  British  force  entered  lake  Pontchar- 
train,  near  New-Orleans,  early  in  December,  1,814,  defeating,  after 
an  obstinate  conflict  the  small  American  naval  force  stationed  there. 
The  British  were  coniiiianded  by  general  Packenham,  one  o£  Welliiffir- 

Ciq  58 


458  UNITED  STATES. 

ton's  invincjbles  who  had  conquered  the  great  Napoleon  :  the  Ameri- 
can army  was  led  by  g-eneral  Andrew  Jackson.  Several  skirmishes 
took  place,  in  which  the  British  were  almost  the  exclusive  sufferers. 
On  Sunday  morning-  early,  January  8,  a  grand  attack  was  made  by 
the  British  on  the  American  troops  in  tlieir  entrenchments.  After  an 
engagement  of  more  than  an  hour,  the  enemy  were  cut  to  pieces  to  a 
degree  almost  beyond  example,  and  i\ed  in  confusion,  leaving-  on  the 
field  of  battle  their  dead  and  wounded.  The  British  loss  was  seven 
hundred  killed,  fourteen  hundred  wounded,  and  five  hundred  prisoners : 
the  generals  Packenliam  and  Keane,  w-ere  among  the  slain,  and  gen- 
eral Cobb  was  dang-erously  wounded.  The  American  loss  was  said  tc 
be  only  seven  killed  and  six  wounded !  The  attack  was  not  renewed, 
and  in  a  short  time  after,  the  British  left  the  west. 

32.  Up  to  the  close  of  1,814,  the  British  ministry,  calculating  to 
bring  the  Americans  to  their  terms,  had  discovered  an  indisposition  to 
treat  with  the  commissioners  of  the  United  States  ;  but  the  defeat  of 
the  British  before  Plattsburgh,  gave  a  new  turn  to  the  negotiation,  and 
a  treaty  of  peace  was  signed  at  Ghent,  December  24,  1,814.  Both 
nations  agreed  to  appoint  commissioners  to  settle  disputed  boundan'es. 
No  allusion  was  made  in  the  treaty  to  the  causes  of  the  war.  Security 
against  their  recurrence  rests,  however,  on  a  much  firmer  basis  than 
the  provisions  of  the  most  solemn  treaty.  Britain  has  been  taught  to 
appreciate  the" strength  of  the  republic.  By  this  war  the  public  debt 
©f  the  United  States  was  increased  a  hundred  millions  of  dollars. 

33.  It  would  too  much  extend  this  sketch  of  the  histoiy  of  the  re- 
public, to  trace  to  its  source  the  origin  of  parties  which  have  divided 
the  country  into  two  great  sections  with  different  appellations.  The 
distinction  was  unknown  until  subsequent  to  Mr.  Jay's  treaty  with 
Great  Britain  in  1,795.  George  Washington  was  elected  president  in 
l,7ti8,  and  re-elected  in  1,792.  He  was  succeeded  by  John  Adams, 
elected  in  1,796,  between  whom  and  Thomas  Jefferson  the  parties 
divided  in  1,800:  the  latter  was  chosen  at  that  time,  not  however 
until  he  had  been  balloted  for  thirty-six  times  by  the  house  of  repre- 
sftntajtJves  in  congress,  the  vote  by  states  being  at  each  balloting 
equally  divided  between  Mr.  Jefferson  and  Aaron  Burr.  In  1,804, 
Mr.  Jeffeison  was  re-elected.  Declining  an  election  in  1,808,  Mr. 
Jefferson  gave  place  to  James  Madison.  The  latter  continuing  eight 
years,  James  Monroe  was  elected  to  the  presidency  in  1,816  ;  and  so 
g-eneral  was  the  satistaction  with  the  administration,  that  in  1,820,  he 
had  all  the  electoral  votes  save  one  for  the  same  office. 

34.  Since  the  peace  the  attention  of  the  country  has  been  called  to 
the  propriety  of  augmenting  the  national  defence.  Congress  having 
made  appropriations  for  the  purpose,  extensive  fortifications  have  been 
and  continue  to  be  erected  lor  the  security  of  the  commercial  towns. 
One  million  of  dollars  annually  is  likewise  appropriated  for  the  grad- 
ual augmentation  of  the  navy,  to  which,  independent  of  smaller 
vessels,  nine  ships  of  the  line,  twelve  frigates,  and  three  floating  batte- 
ries are  to  be  added. 

35.  By  an  act  of  congress  in  the  year  1,818,  a  yearly  pension,  suffi- 
cient for  their  decent  maintenance,  having  been  granted  to  those  officers 
and  privates  who  served  more  than  nine  months  at  any  one  time  in  the 
fvar  of  the  revolution,  more  than  thirty  thousand  individuals  made  ap- 
plication for  relief.  The  sum  required  much  exceeded  general  ex- 
pectation; and  the  following  year  an  additional  act  was  passed  which 
circumscribed  the  applicants  to  a  narrow  space.  Importi»tions  having 
tessened,  the  amount  received  into  the  treasur|r  from  duties  became 


UNITED  STATES.  459 

less  than  the  calculations ;  and  in  1,821,  the  standing  military  force 
was  reduced  from  ten  to  six  thousand,  and  the  building  of  ships  of  war 
was,  in  some  degree,  suspended. 

36.  Since  the  admission  of  Louisiana  in  1,C12,  six  other  states  have 
been  admitted  into  the  Union — Indiana  in  1,816,  Mississippi  in  1,817, 
Illinois  in  1,818,  Alabama  in  1,819,  Maine  in  1,820,  and  iVIissouri  in 
1,821.  Indiana  and  Illinois  are  sections  of  the  same  territory  from 
which  Ohio  was  made  a  state.  Mississippi  and  Alabama  belonged  to 
Georgia  and  Louisiana  :  Maine  was  separated  from  Massachusetts,  and 
Missouri  from  the  vast  tract  ceded  by  the  French,  under  the  name  of 
Louisiana. 

37.  A  treaty  whs  concluded  at  Washington  in  1,819,  by  which  Spain 
ceded  to  the  Clnited  States  that  portion  of  her  territory,  known  by  the 
name  of  Florida.  Five  millions  of  dollars  was  the  price;  and  the 
sum,  in  pursuance  of  the  treaty,  has  been  paid  as  indemnity  to  Amer- 
ican citizens  for  illegal  seizures  of  their  property  in  Spanish  ports. 

38.  Besides  the  difierent  state  gevernments,  territorial  governments, 
with  magistrates  appointed  by  the  president  and  senate,  exist  in 
Michigan,  ArkatTsas,  and  Florida. 

39.  In  the  year  1,820,  the  fourth  authorized  census  of  the  inhabitants 
was  recorded.  The  progress  of  population  has  been  rapid  almost 
beyond  a  parallel.  In  1,790,  the  population  was  three  millions  nine 
hundred  and  twenty-one  thousand  :  in  1,800,  five  millions  three 
huntlred  and  twenty  thousan-i  :  in  1,810,  seven  millions  two  hundred 
and  forty  thousand  ;  and  in  '.,820,  nine  millions  six  hundred  and  thirty- 
eight  thousand. ' 


PART  FIFTH. 

SECTION  I. 

ADDITIONAL  FACTS,  BRINGING  DOWN  THE   GENERAL  HIS 
TORY  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

1.  In  1,820,  some  commotion  was  caused  in  France  by  the  assassins- 
tion  of  the  Duke  of  Berri  ;  nephew  of  Louis  XVIII.  and  son  of  the 
present  king.  He  was  stabbed  at  the  door  of  the  opera  house  by  an 
obscure  person  named  Louvel.  It  appeared  that  the  assassin  was 
instigated  to  this  horrid  deed  merely  by  a  thirst  for  revenging  an  al- 
leged injury,  which  he  suffered  many  years  previous. 

2.  Napoleon  Bonaparte  died  at  St.  Helena,  May  5th  1,821,  aged52. 
He  was  a  man  of  talents  which  few  other  men  are  competent  to  esti- 
mate :  of  astonishing  foresight  and  intrepidity  :  of  insatiable  ambition. 
His  career  was  marked  by  the  most  splendid  achievements.  He  waa 
destined  by  Providence  to  humble  the  pride  of  the  Princes  of  the 
earth,  to  shake  the  foundations  of  arbitrary  power,  and  then,  to  be 
himself  humbled  and  debased.  To  France  he  gave  a  code  of  laws, 
the  influence  of  which  has  been  felt  throughout  Europe,  and  will  ex- 
lend  thi'ough  the  world.  He  gave  to  the  lower  classes  of  the  commu- 
nity, an  activity  and  importance,  vvhidi  they  had  never  felt ;  but  which, 
having  been  once  appreciated,  they  are  not  likely  to  surrender.  His 
political  maxims,  however  se'fish  in  their  ends,  were  utterly  at  vari- 
ance with  that  baser  love  of  arbitrary'  dominion,  which  is  regardless 
of  the  welfare  f,f  its  subjects.  He  loved  to  govern  ;  but  his  ambition 
made  him  wish  to  govern  an  industrious,  enlightened,  and  happy 
world ;  and  wherever  he  extended  his  conquests,  he  endeavoured  to 
relieve  the  oppressed,  and  break  the  shackles  under  which  humanity 
groaned.  The  erlijrts  which  are  now  making  by  the  lower  classes  in 
almost  every  arbitrary  government,  to  obtain  free  constitutions  whi-ch 
shall  elevate  them  from  the  rank  of  slaves  to  that  of  citizens,  are  to 
be  ascribed,  in  a  great  measure,  to  the  influence  of  his  institutions,  and 
his  example.  We  can  mark  no  limits  to  the  blessings  which,  under 
Heaven,  he  dispensed  while  he  lived,  and  bequeathed  to  posterity. 
If  we  judge  him  by  the  effects  of  his  conquests,  his  institutions  and  his 
administration  of  government,  he  will  appear  one  of  the  greatest  bene- 
factors of  mankind  :  but  if  as  Ciiristians,  we  estimate  his  character  by 
the  motives  which  lie  manifested  throughout  his  career,  we  shall  find 
little  in  it  to  applaud,  but  much  to  condenm.  Although  it  was  a  part 
of  his  policy  to  ameliorate  the  condition  of  men,  a  wish  to  extend  and 
to  secure  his  own  sovereignty  over  them  appears  to  have  been  his 
ruling  motive.  An  all-wise  Providence  converted  his  deeds  into 
blessings,  but  they  cannot  entitle  him  to  the  praise  of  Christian  virtue. 
If  his  rise  and  reign  was  all  that  men  call  glorious,  his  downfall  ex- 
hibited a  reverse  no  less  signal.  Confined  on  one  of  the  most  barren 
and  dismal  islanus  in  the  world, — guarded  and  controlled  by  gaolers, 
who  exercised  towards  him  a  petty  tyranny,  which  denied  not  unfre- 
quently  the  common  civilities  of  life, — wasted  by  a  long  and  painful 
disease, — all  the  circumstances  about  him  combined  to  mock  his  for- 
mer greatness,  and  to  witness  to  an  ambitious  world,  that  h«  who 
cxalteth  himself  shall  be  abased- 


ADDITIONAL  FACTS,  &c.  461 

3.  In  1,823,  France  obtained  permission  from  the  CongTPSS  of  AlHefl 
Sovereigns,  held  at  Verona,  to  invade  Spain,  and  re-establish  the  kir^ 
in  his  former  authority.  It  was  expected  that  the  friends  of  the  nevr 
constitution  would  have  been  able  to  make  a  powerful  resistance  to 
this  invasion  ;  but  the  conquest  proved  easy  ;  and  this  revolution, 
like  that  of  1,820,  was  accomplished  with  very  little  bloodshed.  On 
the  16th  day  of  Sept.  1,824,  Louis  XVIIl.  died  of  the  dropsy;  his 
brother  succeeded  to  the  throne  and  took  the  title  of  Charles  X. 

4.  A  revolution  similar  in  its  character  to  th-at  in  Spain  took  place 
in  Portugal  in  1,820.  In  1,821,  the  Royal  Family,  with  the  exception 
of  the  Prince  Royal,  the  king's  son,  returned  from  Brazil.  The  king 
swore  to  the  free  constitution,  and  the  kingdom  enjo^'ed  a  good  de- 
gree of  tranquillity  until  May  1,823,  when  a  counter-revolution  was 
commenced,  and  on  the  3d  of  June  the  king  issued  his  proclamation 
announcing  the  restoration  of  the  Ancient  Monarchy. 

5.  In  England,  George  IV.  succeeded  to  the  throne  upon  the  death 
of  his  father  George  III.  He  had  for  many  years  been  Prince 
Regent.  The  year  was  distinguished  by  domestic  commotions,  of 
which  the  disturbances  among  the  labouring  classes  in  Manchester 
and  other  manufacturing  towns,  were  the  most  alarming.  The  al- 
leged cause  of  complaint  was  the  low  price  of  wages,  which  was 
declared  to  be  quite  disproportionate  to  their  services.  Lai^e  meet- 
ings were  held  in  many  places,  and  very  riotous  proceedings  passed, 
and  the  nation  was  much  alarmed  by  tl>e  prospects  of  a  civil  war. 
The  malecontents  found  several  able  leaders,  among  whom  Hunt  and 
Thistlewood  were  prominent.  The  commotions  were,  however, 
quelled  witliout  their  objects  being  obtained.  Hunt  sufiFered  a  long 
in)prisonment  ;  I'histlewood  and  tour  others  were  executed,  and  five 
weie  transported. 

6.  But  this  year  was  principally  memorable  for  the  trial  of  the 
Queen  on  a  chai-ge  of  aduJteiy.  This  aftair  produced  a  remarkable 
degree  of  excitement  not  only  throughout  that  kingdom,  but  also  on 
the  continent  and  in  America. 

7.  Since  the  termination  of  these  difficulties  the  nation  has  enjoyed 
tranquillity  and  a  high  degree  of  prosperity. 

8.  The  summer  of  1,821,  vv'as  remarkable  for  the  scantiness  of  the 
crops  in  Ireland.  The  tbllowing  winter  brought  a  most  distressing 
famine,  of  which  great  numbers  perished. 

9.  Since  the  establishment  of  peace  in  1,815,  the  Northern  States 
of  Europe  have  enjoyed  a  good  degree  of  tranquillity.  Few  events 
have  occurred,  to  serve  as  items  of  general  history.  By  a  decree  of 
the  Emperor  of  Russia  in  1,811,  the  government  of  that  empire  was 
declared  to  be  a  constitutional  monarchy.  Little  was  done  till  after 
the  peace  to  limit  its  despotic  ch'-tracter,  but  since  that  period  some 
constitutional  privileges  have  been  granted  to  the  subjects.  Similar 
improvements  have  been  made,  and  are  making,  in  the  governments 
of  most  of  these  States.  Prussia  has  established  assemblies,  which 
bear  a  representative  character. 

10.  In  1,815,  the  Congiess  of  Vienna,  composed  of  the  authorities  of 
Austria,  France,  Great-Britain,  Prussia,  and  Russia,  made  a  solemn 
declaration  of  their  resolution  to  put  a  stop  to  the  African  Slave  Trade. 
This  wicked  tratfic  was  not,  however,  diminished  by  this  measure,  be- 
cause France  was  totally  unfaiiliful  to  her  promise.  At  the  Cungres* 
of  Veiona  in  1,823,  the  same  powers,  with  the  exception  of  France, 
declared  that  this  crime  ought  to  be  assimilated  witli  that  of  piracy, 
and  hence  punishable  with  death. 

Qq2 


4€2  HTSTORY  OF  NEW  SPAIN. 

11.  In  1,816,  the  Jesuits  were  expelled  from  Moscow  and  Peters- 
bui-gh,  and  in  1,820,  from  the  whole  Russian  empire,  and  forbidden 
ever  to  return. 

12.  Pope  Pius  VII.  died  Aug.  20,  1,823,  in  the  eighty-second  year 
of  hi?  age,  and  the  twenty-fourth  of  his  pontificate.  Tie  was  succeed- 
ed by  the  Cardinal  Delia  Genga,  who  assumed  the  title  of  Leo  Xll. 
The  present  Pope,  was  born  on  the  2d  of  Aug.  1,760.  He  was  Nun- 
cio fourteen  years  in  the  electorates  of  the  Rhine.  At  the  period  of 
the  persecutions  exercised  by  Bonaparte  against  the  Catholic  Church, 
he  was  obliged  to  quit  Rome  with  the  other  prelates  and  cardinals. 
At  the  restoration,  he  was  the  cardinal  selected  by  Pius  VII.  to 
congratulate  Louis  XVIII.  on  his  return.  The  commencement  of  his 
pontificate  has  been  signalized  by  his  refusal  to  restore  the  Inquisition 
in  Spain,  declaring  it  inconsistent  with  the  liberal  spirit  of  the  ae;e. 

13.  In  the  summer  of  1,820,  an  insurrection  broke  out  in  Nliples 
and  Sicily,  and  so  feeble  was  the  established  government,  that  the 
insurgents  soon  compelled  the  king  to  grant  them  a  free  constitution. 
The  Allied  Sovereigns  of  Europe  at  their  session  at  Troppau,  near  the 
close  of  the  same  year,  made  a  formal  declaration  of  irreconcilable 
hostility  to  this  new,  government.  In  1,821,  they  decided  at  the  Con- 
gress of  Laybach,  that  a  portion  of  the  Austrian  army  should  occui:)y 
Naples,  to  restore  the  authority  of  the  king.  This  was  readily  ac- 
complished, and  with  little  opposition.  The  Spanish  constitution  of 
1,812,  was  granted  to  Naples  and  Sicily,  and  tranquillity  was  restored. 
Similar  disturbances  took  place  at  the  same  period  in  some  of  the 
Sardinian  States,  but  they  were  quieted  by  the  result  of  those  in  Na- 
ples and  Sicily 

14.  Turkey  has  enjoyed  little  tranquillity  for  many  years.  The 
Greeks  revolted  from  the  Ottoman  power  in  1,821  ;  and  from  that 
period  to  the  present  a  bloody  war  has  been  carried  on  between  thera 
and  the  Turks.  The  latter  have  committed  frequent  and  horrible 
massacres  of  the  Christians  in  Constantinople,  Scio,  and  other  places  ; 
and  have  endeavoured  to  reduce  their  revolted  subjects  by  every  act 
of  cruelty  and  oppression.  The  Greeks  have  maintained  their  strug- 
gle for  independence  with  much  braveiy  and  spirit,  which  has  some- 
times become  ferocity  ;  but  they  are  neither  sufficiently  virtuous  nor 
civilized  to  act  in  full  concert  in  resisting  oppression.  It  is  impossible 
to  judge  how  far  they  have  been  really  successful,  and  what  are  their 
prospects  of  ultimate  success,  owing  to  the  want  of  authentic  channels 
of  infonnation  ;  but  at  this  moment  the  existing  probability  is  decid- 
edly in  favour  of  their  success. 


SECTION  SECOND. 
HISTORY  OF  NEW  SPAIN. 

«OWPTl.ED  PRTNCIPALLT  FROM  POINSETT'S  NOTES  ON  MEXICO. 

1.  When  this  country  was  first  visited  by  the  Spaniards  in  1,519, 
it  had  attained  a  high  degree  of  civilization.  Of  this  we  may  judge 
by  the  form  of  its  government,  its  laws,  and  its  civil  institutions. 

2.  The  monarch  vvas  chosen  from  among  the  members  of  the  reign- 
ing family  by  six  electors,  chosen  from  am.ong  the  thirty  princes  of 
the  first  rank.  Thp  political  system  was  feudal.  The  first  class  of 
nobles,  consisting  of  thirty  famihes,  had  each  one  hundred  thousand 


HISTORY  OF  NEW  SPAIN.  463 

vassals.  The  second  class  consisted  of  more  than  three  thousand 
families.  The  lords  exercised  the  ri^ht  of  life  and  death  over  their 
vassals.  All  the  lands  were  divided  into  allodial,  hereditaiy,  and 
contingent  estates, — the  latter  depending  upon  places  in  the  gift  of  the 
crown. 

3.  The  priests  were  charged  with  the  education  of  yonth  ;  and  on 
their  testimony  of  the  merit  of  their  scholars,  depended  their  future 
rank.  Under  Montezuma,  the  emperor  at  this  period,  the  government 
was  despotic,  but  he  was  subject  to  the  high  priest.  Each  province 
was  subject  to  a  tribute  ;  but  certain  nobles  were  excepted,  who  were 
compelled  to  take  the  field  in  case  of  a  war,  with  a  stated  number  of 
followers.  The  tribute  was  paid  in  kind,  and  was  fixed  at  one  thir- 
tieth part  of  the  crop.  The  governors  of  provinces  also  vied  with 
each  other  in  the  magnificence  of  their  presents  to  the  emperor. 

4.  Sacrilege,  murder,  and  treason,  were  punished  with  death  ;  and 
the  laws  of  the  empire  were  generally  as  much  respected  as  in  the 
most  civilized  European  nations  of  that  age.  The  attention  of  the 
government  was  principally  directed  towards  the  internal  commerce, 
so  as  to  secure  an  abundant  supply  to  the  people.  Posts  were  estab- 
lished between  the  capital  and  the  remotest  provinces.  A  court  of 
ten  magistrates  determined  the  validity  of  contracts  ;  and  officers  were 
constantly  employed  to  exa/nine  the  measures  and  the  quality  of  goods 
exposed  for  sale. 

5.  Besides  the  empire  of  the  Mexicans,  of  which  we  have  been 
speaking,  there  were  other  powerful  states,  whose  form  of  government 
was  republican.  The  most  powerful  of  these  was  TIascala,  the  gov- 
ernment of  which  continued  for  some  time  after  the  conquest  of 
Mexico.  It  was  a  thickly  settled,  fertile,  and  populous  country,  di- 
vided into  districts,  each  under  the  authority  of  a  chief.  These  chiefe 
administered  justice,  levied  the  tribute,  and  commanded  the  military 
forces,  but  their  decrees  were  not  valid,  or  of  force,  until  confirmed  by 
the  senate  of  TIascala,  which  was  the  true  sovereign.  A  certain  num- 
ber of  citizens,  chosen  from  the  different  districts  by  popular  assem- 
blies, formed  this  legislative  body.  The  senate  elected  its  own  chief. 
The  laws  were  strictly  and  impartially  executed  ;  and  the  people  are 
represented  as  numeroufi,  wealthy,  and  povverfiil. 

6.  The  Mexicans  possessed  some  knowledge  of  Astronomy,  and 
their  calendar  was  constructed  with  more  exactness  than  that  of  the 
Greeks,  the  Romans,  or  the  Egyptians.  Their  hieroglyphics,  drawings, 
and  maps — their  cities  and  artificial  roads,  causeways,  canals,  and  im- 
mense pyramids — their  government  and  hierarchy,  and  administration 
of  laws — their  knowledge  of  the  art  of  mining,  and  of  preparing  metals 
for  ornament  and  use — their  skill  in  carving  images  out  of  the  hardest 
stone — in  manufacturing  and  dying  cloths,  and  the  perfection  of  their 
agriculture,  afford  ample  evidence  of  the  high  degree  of  civilization 
attained  by  the  Mexicans.  If  we  recollect  that  at  this  period,  the  art 
of  printing  was  not  used  in  Europe, — that  the  Reformation  had  not 
taken  place, — that  most  of  the  great  improvements  in  arts  and  science 
are  of  more  modern  date,  we  shall  see  no  reason  to  call  the  Mexicans 
barbarous,  compared  with  their  proud  invaders,  or  with  other  nations 
of  that  period.  Their  religion  was  disgraced  by  gross  superstition  ; 
and  the  sacrifice  of  human  victims  was  not  unfrequent.  But,  still, 
when  compared  with  other  nations,  they  were  not  deficient  in  practi- 
cal virtue.  Indeed  nothing  in  their  character  appears  to  have  been 
hail  so  gross  and  antichristian,  as  the  merciless  conduct  of  tlieir  inva- 
ders.   We  cannot  estimate  them  by  the  degraded  state  of  the  remain^ 


464  HISTORY  OF  NEW  SPAIN. 

ing  natives ;  for  when  the  country  was  conquered,  its  arts,  and  sciences, 
and  civil  and  religious  institutions  ceased,  because  those  classes  in  the 
community  by  whom  knowledge  was  possessed  and  transmitted,  were 
utterly  exterminated. 

7.  Shortly  after  the  Spaniards  under  Cortez  landed  at  Vera  Cruz, 
he  received  messengers  from  Montezuma,  bringing  with  them  presents 
to  a  considerable  amount,  and  entreating  Cortez  not  to  advance  far- 
ther into  the  country.  But  the  sight  of  this  display  of  wealth  stimu- 
lated the  cupidity  of  the  Spaniards,  and  confirmed  their  resolution  to 
penetrate  to  the  capital.  In  their  route  they  had  to  contend  against 
the  republic  of  TIascala,  a  nation  continually  at  war  w-ith  the  empire 
of  Mexico.  Cortez  vanquished  them  in  two  battles,  and  fomid  no 
difficulty  in  enlisting  them  against  Montezuma.  Six  thousand  Tiasca- 
lans  were  added,  as  auxiliaries,  to  his  European  troops,  and  he  con- 
tinued his  march  upon  the  capital  of  the  empire  under  the  guise  of 
friendship.  As  he  advanced,  he  continued  to  augment  his  forces  b)' 
Ire  'ties  with  other  nations  and  tribes  which  were  inimical  to  Monte- 
zuma ;  and  with  a  European  force  of  five  hundred  infantry  and  fifteen 
horsemen,  and  a  large  army  of  Indians,  he  reached  the  city  of  Tenoch- 
titian  on  the  8th  of  Nov.  1,519.  The  emperor  received  him  with  a 
degree  of  magnificence  that  excited  the  astonishment  of  the  Spaniards. 
The  whole  army  was  lodged  and  entertaiiitd  sumptuously,  and  Cortez 
received  presents  to  a  great  amount. 

8.  Montezuma  soon  found  that  by  admittmg  an  armed  and  power- 
iui  friend  into  his  capital,  he  had  delivered  himself  and  his  people 
into  the  hands  of  a  ferocious  enemy.  Cortez  demanded  that  the 
Mexican  general,  Qualpopoca,  who  had  committed  some  hostilities  on 
the  colony  left  at  Vera  Cruz,  should  be  delivered  up  to  him,  bound 
hand  and  foot,  and  he  cau«ed  him  to  be  burnt  alive.  He  next  got 
possession  of  the  person  of  the  emperor  and  detained  him  prisoner.  But 
the  indignation  of  the  people  was  most  excited  by  the  contempt  with 
which  their  religious  rites  and  idols  were  treated  by  the  Spaniards. 

9.  Cortez  w;is  now  compelled  to  leave  the  force  at  Tenochtitlan 
the  capital,  in  the  command  of  Alvarado,  and  march  against  Narvaez 
who  had  arrived  on  the  coast  to  deprive  him  of  his  command.  Having 
vanquished  Narvaez  and  obtained  a  considerable  accession  of  force, 
he  returned  to  Tenochtitlan,  and  found  that  the  Mexicans  had  burnt  the 
vessels  which  he  had  constructed  on  the  Lake,  and  had  just  laid  siege 
to  the  building  in  which  the  Spaniards  were  lodged.  The  siege  was 
prosecuted  with  vigour  by  the  natives,  and  the  place  defended  with 
obstinacy  by  the  Spaniards.  Montezuma  having  ascended  a  terrace 
was  killed  by  a  stone  or  arrow,  and  his  brother  Qiietlavaca  proclaimed 
his  successor.  This  gave  such  vigour  to  the  Mexicans,  that  the  Span- 
iards were  obliged  to  retreat  with  great  loss.  At  Otuniba,  Cortez  was 
obliged  to  turn  and  give  them  battle.  He  was  victorious,  and  pro- 
ceeded to  TIascala  without  further  trouble.  To  secure  his  ascenden- 
cy over  this  republic,  he  made  frequent  incursions  into  the  territories 
of  neighbouring  nations,  and  with  uniform  success. 

10.  In  December  1,521,  he  returned  to  the  vale  of  Tezcuco,  and 
from  this  place  continued  to  carry  on  the  war  against  the  Mexicans 
and  their  allies.  He  ordered  to  be  constnicted  at  TIascala  the  frames 
of  thirteen  vessels,  and  they  were  brought  by  an  immense  number  of 
Indians  to  tiie  Lake  Tezcuco.  When  these  vessels  were  ready,  he 
sent  for  his  allies,  amounting  to  fifty  thousand  troops,  who  soon  arrived. 
After  a  siege  of  seventy-five  days  the  city  was  captured,  Aug.  13th. 
1.521.     The  captured  Mexicans  were  divided  among  the  conquerors 


HISTORY  OF  NEW  SPAIN.  *        465 

— one  fifth  being  reserved  for  the  king  of  Spain  ;  and  they  contipued 
to  he  treated  as  slaves  for  centuries,  notwithstanding  the  humane  laws 
passed  in.  Spain  for  their  rehef.  This  cimqiiest  was  completed  in  the 
reign  of  Giiatimozin  son  of  Montezuma,  \vho  had  succeeded  to  the 
throne  after  the  death  of  Q,uet!avaca.' 

11.  There  is  little  interesting  in  the  histor}'-  of  Mexico  from  this 
period  till  the  commencement  of  the  Revolution  in  1,810.  Almost  the 
only  bright  spot  in  the  page  of  its  history  during  this  period,  is  the 
administration  of  the  viceroy  Revillagigedo.  Good  roads,  leading 
from  the  capital  to  different  parts  of  the  kingdom,  were  made  by  his 
orders  ;  the  streets  of  die  principal  cities  were  paved  and  lighted, 
and  good  police  regulations  established.  An  authentic  statistical 
account  of  the  countiy  was  made,  and  almost  every  salutary  law  and 
regulation,  now  in  existence,  may  be  traced  to  his  adn'.inistration. 

12.  To  understand  the  nature  of  the  authnity  wtiich  Spain  exer 
cised  over  her  American  Colonies,  it  is  necessary  to  remark  that  all 
acquisitions  in  America  were  considered  as  belonging  to  the  crown, 
rather  than  to  the  state.  Pope  Alexander  VI.  first  bestowed  them  as 
a  free  gift,  upon  Ferdinand  and  Isabella.  They  and  their  successors 
were  to  be  held  as  tire  universal  proprietors  of  llie  regions  which  had 
been,  or  should  be  discovered.  All  ofBcers  in  the  colonies,  whether 
civil  or  ecclesiastic,  were  appointed  by  their  authority,  and  remova 
ble  at  their  pleasure.  The  Spanish  possessions  were,  at  first,  divided 
into  two  viceroyailies.  New  Spain  and  Peru  ;  but  subsequently,  a 
third  was  established  at  Santa  Fe  de  Bogota,  the  jurisdiction  of  whicfa 
extended  over  Terra  Finna  and  the  province  of  Q,uito. 

13.  The  authority  of  tiie  viceroys  was  supreme  in  every  depart 
ment  of  government,  civil,  miiitaiy,  and  criminal.  To  aid  them  in  the 
administration  of  government  in  provinces  remote  from  their  residence, 
magistrates  of  various  orders  were  appointed,  suliject  to  the  viceroy  ; 
and  courts,  called  Audiences,  were  established,  whose  decisions  wei-e, 
in  most  cases,  final.  Upon  the  death  of  a  viceroy  without  any  pro- 
vision of  a  successor  by  the  king,  the  supreme  power  was  vested  in 
the  court  of  Audience  resident  in  the  capital  of  the  viceroyalty,  and 
the  senior  judge,  assisted  by  his  brethren,  exercised  all  the  functions 
of  the  viceroy,  while  the  cince  continued  vacant. 

14.  The  supreme  government  of  all  the  Spanish  possessions  in 
America  was,  however,  vested  in  the  Council  of  the  indies.  This 
Council  was  first  established  by  Ferdinand  in  1,511.  Its  jurisdiction 
extended  to  every  department,  ecclesiastical,  civil,  militar>%and  com- 
mercial. All  laws  and  ordinances  relative  to  the  government  and 
police  of  the  colonies  originated  there,  and  must  be  approved  by  two 
thirds  of  the  members,  before  being  ispued  in  the  name  of  the  king. 
To  it  each  person  empk)yed  in  America,  from  the  vicero}'  downwards, 
was  accountable.  Before  it  was  laid  ail  intelligence  public  or  secret, 
re-ceived  from  the  colonies,  and  every'  scheme  of  improving  the  ad- 
ministration, police,  or  commerce,  was  submitted  to  its  considera- 
tion. 

15.  Another  tribunal  was  establisiied  at  Seville  in  1,501,  called 
Casa  de  la  Contratacion,  or  the  house  of  trade.  It  was  designed  to 
regulate  such  commercial  affairs  as  required  the  immediate  and  per- 
sonal inspection  of  those  appointed  to  superintend  them.  Such  is  an 
outline  of  the  system  of  government  which  Spain  established  in  her 
American  colonies, 

16.  In  1,808,  the  viceroy  of  Mexico,  Don  Jose  Iturrigaray,  received 
such  contradictory  orders  from  tlie  supreme  authorities  in  Spain,  ae 

5SI 


46€  HISTORY  OF  NEW  SPAIN. 

to  render  it  necessary  to  call  a  Junta  composed  of  a  representative 
from  each  province.     This  measure  excited  the  jealousy  of  the  Eu- 
ropeans"in  the  capital,  as  it  was  calculated  to  place  the  Creoles  on  an 
equal  footing  with  themselves  in  the  government.     They  therefore 
conspired  against  the  viceroy,  surprised  him,  and  sent  him  and  his  j 
family  prisoners  to  Spain.     Shortly  after  the  arrival  of  the  next  vice-  ' 
roy,  Vanegas,  the   Creoles  formed  a  conspiracy  to  overthrow   his  ■ 
power.     They  collected  a  lai^e  force  under  Hidalgo  a  priest  of  some 
distinction,  and  for  several  months  their  success  seemed  almost   cer- 
tain.   But  Hidalgo,  by  a  most  unaccountable  mismanagement  suffen  il 
his  ai-my  to  be  defeated  with  great  slaughter  in  Oct.  1,809,  and  theii' 
total  defeat  followed  in  January  1,811. 

17.  Another  attempt  was  soon  made  by  the  Creoles  and  Indians 
under  Raj'on,  a  lawyer  of  great  influence,  but  the  revolt  was  sup- 
pressed. A  more  formidable  army  was  gathered  by  Morelos  in  l.fJH 
— 15,  and  the  contest  for  independence  again  appeared  more  hopeful  ; 
but  he  was  defeated,  taken  prisoner,  and  executed.  In  Nov.  1,816, 
the  Patriots  were  cheered  by  the  arrival  of  General  Mina  with  a  small 
force  from  EnglarKi.  Uniting  himself  with  the  army  already  in  ope- 
ration, he  sustained  the  conflict  with  great  braverj'  for  one  year,  but 
was  then  defeated  and  executed.  The  Independent  army  was  now 
too  feeble  for  offensive  operation,  and  little  was  done  until  the  revo- 
lution of  Spain  in  1,821.  The  decrees  of  the  Cortez  confiscating  the 
estates,  and  reducing  and  reforming  some  of  the  higher  orders  of  the 
clergy,  excited  the  indignation  of  the  church  in  Mexico,  and  from 
that  time,  the  priests  used  their  influence  in  favour  of  a  separation 
from  Spain.  Although  their  influence  had  been  somewhat  diminished, 
it  v.as  still  suflicient  to  produce  the  adoption  of  almost  any  measure 
which  they  should  recommend.  They  were  aided  by  the  wealthy 
Europeans  who  were  anxious  to  preserve  the  countiy  in  the  pureness 
of  despotism,  that  it  might  sen'e  as  a  refuge  for  the  king  of  Spain 
from  the  persecutions  of  the  Cortez,  and  from  the  new  constitution. 

18.  Don  Augustin  Iturbide  was  fixed  upon  as  a  proper  agent  to 
«arry  their  }>lans  into  effect.  He  had  distinguished  himself  in  the 
previous  contests  as  an  enemy  to  the  patriots,  and  the  clergy  little  an- 
ticipated that  his  love  of  tyraimy  would  soon  be  exercised  at  the  cost 
of  their  dearest  plans.  He  at  this  time  commanded  a  considerable 
anny,  and  on  receiving  money  to  proceed  into  the  southern  province ';, 
he  united  himself  with  Guerrero,  one  of  the  patriot  chiefs,  and  offtn  d 
pardon  to  all  who  would  unite  themselves  to  his  standard.  Froni  tiic 
very  energetic  operations  of  the  revolutionists  in  the  capital,  the  whole 
nation  was  soon  roused  in  favour  of  independence.  The  viceroy  vias 
deposed  ;  Iturbide  was  made  admiral  of  the  navy,  generalissimo  of 
the  army,  and  president  of  the  Regency  which  was  established  by  the 
new  Junta.  His  ambitious  designs  now  became  manifest,  and  he  found 
little  difficulty  in  raising  himself  above  the  established  authorities,  and 
securing  the  reins  of  government.  The  Cortez  were  decidedly  op- 
posed to  him,  but  the  soldiery  were  his  friends,  and  they  compelled 
the  Cortez  to  declare  him  emperor  on  the  19th  of  May  1,822.  After 
having  attained  this  object  of  his  ambition,  he  sought  by  eveiT  means 
to  render  his  authority  absolute,  and  elevated  the  members  ofhis  own 
family  to  offices  of  state.  Many  of  the  cleig:y  were  far  from  beiiTg 
satisfied  with  the  elevation  of  Iturbide.  The  archbishop  of  Mexico 
refused  to  croAvn  him.  and  retired  from  the  capital. 

19.  The  emperor  did  not  long  enjoy  his  despotic  reign.     Santana, : 
the  governor  of  Vera  Cruz  could  not  brook  the  control  of  a  supe- 

y 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WEST  INDIES.  467 

rior.  Enjoying  an  independent  command,  and  possessing  the  confi- 
dence of  a  great  part  of  the  community,  he  found  no  difficulty  in  raiding 
a  formidable  force.  He  was  soon  joined  by  Guadalupe  Victoria,  nho 
had  from  the  commencement  of  the  revolution  been  a  most  faithful 
friend  to  the  cause  of  liberty,  but  had  been  obliged,  under  the  exist- 
ing despotism,  to  conceal  himself  in  the  mountains.  Santana  found 
that  the  great  popularity  vf  t^uadalupe  Victoria  made  it  nece-sary 
to  yield  to  him  the  supreme  Command.  This  bein^  readily  granted, 
they  possessed  each  others  confidence,  and  the  conlidence  of  the  eis;- 
pire.  The  army  in  all  parts  declared  for  the  republican  principles 
of  Santana,  and  the  commander  in  chief,  and  Iturhide  found  it  neces- 
sary first  to  summon  the  Coilez  which  he  had  forcibly  dissolved,  and 
afterwards,  on  the  eighth  of  March  1,023,  to  abdicate  the  throne,  lie 
was  permitted  to  leave  the  empiie,  and  he  sailed  with  his  family  for 
Leghorn  on  the  11th  of  May.  He  returned  in  tiie  summer  of  1,824, 
but  was  received  by  republicans  who  justly  appreciated  him.  An 
order  had  been  passed  by  the  Congress  for  his  inmiediate  execution 
in  case  of  his  arrival  ;  and  as  soon  as  he  was  identified,  he  was  im- 
prisoned, and,  a  few  days  after,  was  brought  forth  by  public  order 
and  shot. 

20.  immediately  after  his  abdication  the  nation  declared  for  a  re- 
publican government,  and  on  the  2d  of  February  1,824,  a  tederal 
constitution  was  adopted,  amidst  the  shouts  of  the  people  ;  and  it  is 
obviouslj"  the  form  of  government  best  suited  to  the  interests  and  wishes 
of  a  n^ajority  of  the  communit}".  The  prinoipaJ  defect  in  their  con- 
stitution is  the  establishment  of  the  Catholic  religion.  The  nation 
cannot  expect  to  enjoy  the  real  freedom  of  republican  institutions, 
while  their  minds  are  subjected  under  the  real  despotism  of  a  national 
religion.  In  other  respects  the  Constitution  of  this  republic  very  near- 
ly resembles  that  of  the  United  States. 

21.  The  former  Captain-Generalship  of  Guatimala,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  Chiapa,  declared  its  independence  at  the  same  time  with 
Mexico,  but  refused  to  unite  with  that  government.  It  has  establish- 
ed an  independent,  federal  goyernment,  under  the  title  of  the  Confed- 
erated States  of  the  Centre  of  America.  The  Roman  Catholic  religion 
is  established  here  also,  to  the  exclusion  of  all  others  ;  and  in  most 
respects  their  constitution  agrees  with  that  cf  the  Mexican  Republic. 


SECTION  THIRD. 
HISTORY  OF  THE  WEST  INDIES. 

1.  The  Bahamas  were  the  first  land  discovered  by  Columbus, — 
(Oct.  12th   1,492.     The  first  settlement  was  made  at  Nassau  in  New 

Providence  by  the  English,  1,672.  These  islands  soon  after  became 
the  resort  of  pirates.  Their  leader  was  John  Teach,  called  Black 
Bcarc?,  who  lor  about  ten  years  was  the  sovereign  of  these  islands, 
and  the  terror  of  the  North  American  coast.  He  was  killed  off  the 
coast  of  N.  Carolina  in  1,718.  During  most  of  the  remaining  period 
the  English  have  quietly  possessed  the  Bahamas,  but  they  have  con- 
stantly served  as  lurking  places  for  some  pirates.  These  have  multi- 
plied greatly  in  all  the  West  Indies  within  the  last  ten  years,  and  no 
effectual  means  have  been  devised  for  exterminating  them. 

2.  When  the  Bahamas  were  discovered,  the  population  was  esti 

,  mated  at  about  40,000.     The  inhabitants  called  tuemsclves  Lucayana, 


468  HISTORY  OF  THE  WEST  INDIES. 

They  were  mostly  devoted  to  maritime  life,  and  subsisted  principti!- 
ly  ui)on  fi.=h.  They  were  ignorant  of  the  use  of  non,  but  made  some 
use  of  cotton  and  of  gold.  They  were  a  kind,  friendly  people, 
;ive.-se  to  war.  Scarcely  20  years,  however,  hnd  elapsed,  before  the 
rapacious  Spaniards  transported  them  all  by  force  or  artifice,  to  dig 
in  the  mines  of  llispaniola.  Being  remarkably  expert  divers,  some 
of  them  were  afterwards  transported  to  the  coast  of  Cumana,  and  em- 
ployed in  the  pearl  ti'^hery- 

3.  The  Greater  Antilles  when  first  discovered,  were  inhabited 
by  a  race  called  Arro^vauks.  They  also  possessed  a  great  part  of 
Trinidad.  It  appears  that  they  were  descended  from  the  Arrowauks 
of  Guiana.  All  of  this  name  spoke  one  language,  and  bad  the  same 
institutions.  They  believed  in  an  invisible,  omnipotent  Creator, 
oamed  Jocahuna,  but  admitted  a  plurality  of  subordinate  deities,  and, 
like  the  American  Indians  generally,  they  believed  in  a  future  state 
of  retribution.  Their  children  were  entirely  naked,  but  the  adults 
wore  a  slight  covering  of  coiton  cloth  round  the  waist.  They  were 
a  mild  and  hospitable  people,  but  effeminate  and  sensual.  The  cli- 
mate, and  fertilitj'  of  the  soil  nrituraliy  made  them  indolent.  From 
evening  till  dawn  they  Avere  much  engaged  in  dancing,  and  as  many 
as  50,000  sometimes  joined  at  once  in  this  favourite  amusement. 

4.  These  islands  v.ere  divided  into  great  kingdoms,  subject  to 
<*aciques  or  heredit-^ry    monarchs.     Eich   kingdom   was  subdivided 

nto  numerous  principalities.  The  regal  authority  was  absolute,  but 
vas  administered  with  great  mildness.  The  aboriginal  population 
,  as  been  estimated  at  3,000,000  :  l;ut   within  20  years  after  the  dis- 

■  overy  by  Columbus,  the  great  body  of  them  were  exterminated.    A 

■  ery  few  only  remain  in  the  island  of  Cuba  ;  but  the  Arrowauks  in 
ruiana  are  still  a  distinct  tribe. 

5.  There  is  litlJe  in  the  history  of  colonial  governments  that  is  inter- 
sting  and  valuable  ;  and  none  of  tlie  West  India  islands,  except  St. 
)omingo,  have  become  independent.  The  Spaniards  have  lost  many 
f  the  islands  to  which  they  first  laid  claim  ;  but  the  present  posses- 
jrs  are  well  known  from  common  geographies,  and  the  time  when 
hese  trifling  revolutions  took  place  is  of  little  consequence,  while  the 
ffects  produced,  were  so  unimportant.  One  fact  is  worthy  of  record 
:i  favour  of  the  Spaniards — whose  rapacity  and  cruelty  has  been 
quailed  by  no  other  nation  in  mocn'rn  times,  and  who  have,  of  late 
ears,  been  suffering  a  natural  and  just  retribution  of  their  enormities 
iut  to  their  credit  be  it  said, — their  treatment  of  negro  slaves  has 

'  een  more  humane  than  that  of  other  nations  ;  and  the  Spanish  laws 
nacted  in  their  favour,  have  had  a  puxverful  influence  to  enlighten  the 
English  and  French  in  this  cause  of  liumanity. 

6.  The  Buccaniers,  who  were  the  forefathersof  the  present  pirates,  •- 
leserve  some  notice.  They  consisted  originally  of  a  body  of  French 
nd  English  planters  expelled  bj'  the  Spaniards  from  the  island  of  St. 
'hristophers  in  1.629,  v.ith  circumstances  of  outrageou.s  barbarity, 
'hey  first  established  themselves  on  the  small  island  of  Tortuga,  near 
le  N.  W.  part  of  St.  Domingo.     They  were  here  joined  by  s<jme 

•  utch  emigrants,  who  had  been  expelled  in  the  same  manner  from 
'  tPta  Cruz.  Their  first  occupation  was  hunting  wild  cattle  on  the 
'ains  of  St.  Domingo,  which  they  buccaned  and  brought  to  the  place 
'  their  retreat.  The  word  buccan  signified  a  grate  or  hurdle  on 
hich  meat  was  prepared  before  the  fire  ;  and  from  their  abundant 
eof  it,  these  people  werr  called  buccaniers,buccancrs,  or  buccaneers. 
few  years  after  their  establishment  here,   a  Spanish   armament, 


HISTORY  OF   THE  WEST  INDIES.  409 

without  any  provocation,  invaded  them,  and  barbarously  murdered 
all  their  women  and  children.  This  roused  the  Buccaniers  to  re- 
venge ;  and  they  soon  became  the  most  terrible  antagonists  the 
Spaniards  ever  encountered.  Manj'  others  joined  them,  and  they 
became  formidable  both  from  their  numbers  and  their  desperate  brave- 
ry. By  their  means  the  Spaniards  lost  the  western  part  of  St.  Do- 
mingo, and  the  whole  island  of  Jamaica,  besides  an  almost  incredible 
amount  of^property,  and  a  great  number  of  human  lives.  Their  most 
renowned  leaders  were  Montbars,  a  native  of  Langiiedoc,  and  Henry 
Morgan,  a  Welshman.  The  war  between  England  and  France  in 
1,688,  occasioned  a  disunion  of  the  English  and  French  Buccaniers, 
and  greatly  weakened  their  force,  and  they  possessed  little  power 
after  the  year  1,700. 

7.  St.  Domingo  or  Hayti  furnishes  the  most  important  items  in 
the  history  of  the  West  Indies.  Spain  ceded  the  western  half  of  the 
island  to  France  by  the  treaty  of  Ryswick  in  1,697.  It  did  not  be- 
come a  prosperous  colony  till  thirty  years  after.  In  1,791  an  alarm- 
ing insurrection  of  the  negroes  broke  out  in  the  Fiench  colony,  which 
deluged  half  of  the  northern  province  in  blood.  The  next  year,  the 
national  assembly  proclaimed  the  political  equality  of  the  whites, 
and  free  people  of  colour.  The  commissioners  of  the  French  govern- 
ment, in  1,793,  decreed  the  emancipation  of  all  the  slaves  in  the  colo- 
ny. On  the  21st  of  June  of  the  same  year,  Mocnya,  a  black,  at  the 
head  of  3,000  negroes,  began  an  indiscriminateslaughter  of  the  whites 
at  cape  Francois,  and  multitudes  were  massacred. 

8.  An  expedition  from  Jamaica  in  1794-5-6,  attempted  to  reduc« 
the  island,  but  was,  each  year,  driven  off  by  the  yellow  fever.  The 
eastern  half  was  ceded  to  France  in  1,795,  but  it  was  of  little  import- 
ance to  that  country.  In  1,801,  .July  1st,  the  blacks  rose  and  declared 
themselves  independent,  but  its  independence  was  not  Avell  established 
till  1,804.  The  first  sovereign  assumed  the  title  of  Jaques  I.  Empe- 
ror OF  Hayti.  He  enjoyed  his  power  but  a  short  time,  being  killed 
in  a  conspiracy  ;  and  was  succeeded  by  Christophe  under  the  title  of 
Henry  I.  King  of  Hayti.  His  dominions  were  on  the  north  -puTi  of 
the  island  ;  the  southern  was  occupied  by  a  republican  party,  most- 
ly mulattoes,  under  Petion  who  assumed  the  title  of  President 
of  Hayti.  Frequent  and  bloody  conflicts  occurred  between  these 
two  parties.  On  the  death  of  Petion  in  1,817,  Boyer  was  appointed 
President ;  and,  on  the  death  of  Christophe,  the  two  parties  united 
under  President  Boyer,  and  have  now  established  a  very  efficient 
government.  He  is  an  intelligent,  energetic,  and  humane  sovereign  ; 
and  his  administration  is  highly  calculated  to  promote  the  happiness 
of  his  subjects.  In  1,808,  the  Spaniards,  aided  by  the  English,  re- 
took the  eastern  part  of  the  island,  but  their  colony  has  little  force, 
and  lives  on  friendly  terms  with  the  blacks. 

9.  The  Caribbean  Islands,  when  discovered,  were  inhabited  by  a 
numerous,  cultivated,  and  powerful  nation,  called  Caraihes  or  Carih- 
bees.  They  were  more  warlike  than  the  Arrowauks.  Towards  each 
other  they  were  faithful,  friendly,  and  affectionate  ;  but  regarded  all 
strangers  as  enemies.  They  were  well  skilled  in  most  of  the  arts  of 
life  ;  and  their  religion  acKnowledged  one  supreme,  independent 
Deity  ;  and  taught  a  future  state  of  retribution.  Nearly  all  of  this 
race  have  been  exterminated  on  these  islands,  but  they  still  remain 
on  the  continent  of  South  America  a  very  powerful  nation. 

10.  There  is  little  else  that  is  interesting  in  the  history  of  the  West 
Indies,  except  to  those  who  wish  to  leara  more  of  the  aborigines,  and 

R  r 


470  HISTORY  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA. 

•f  the  mercne.«s  treatment  they  received  from  the  Spaniards.     A  very 
minute  history  of  these  islands  has  been  written  by  Edwards. 


SECTION  FOURTH. 
HISTORY  OF   SOUTH  AMERICA. 

UNITED  PROVINCES. 

1.  The  river  La  Plata  was  discovered  in  1,516.  Buenos  Ayres 
was  settled  in  l,5r]5.  From  the  settlement  of  the  countiy  until  1,778 
its  history  comprises  only  a  series  of  Texations  from  the  despotism  of 
viceroys,  of  privatioas  from  moiwjpolies,  and  commercial  restrictions, 
and  ot  sufferings  from  wars  foreign  to  its  interests.  From  this  period 
to  1,781,  the  Indians  from  the  upper  country  continually  harassed 
the  provinces,  burnt  many  towns,  atid  destroyed  many  of  the  inhabi- 
tants ;  but  they  were  at  length  deteated  by  the  combined  armies  of 
Buenos  Ayres  and  Liiua. 

2.  In  1,806,  the  country  was  invaded  by  the  British,  and  Buenos 
Ayres  was  taken  without  opposition.  An  army  from  the  interior  soon 
expelled  them.  A  second  attempt  was  made  in  1,807,  but  the  people 
beginning  to  acquire  contidence  in  their  own  strength,  attacked  the 
army  while  in  the  city,  and  were  completely  successful. 

3.  On  the  25th  of  May  1,810,  in  consequence  of  the  renunciation 
of  Ferdinand  VII.  in  favour  of  Napoleon,  and  the  deranged  state  of 
affairs  in  Spain,  a  junta  was  convened  at  Buenos  Ayres  to  take  the 
government  into  their  own  hands,  still  administering  it,  however,  in 
the  name  of  Ferdinand.  This  was  the  commencement  of  a  revolu- 
tion which  delivered  them  from  ttie  slaveiy  they  had  suffered  for 
nearly  300  years.  Since  that  period,  they  have  been  in  reality  inde- 
pendent. 

4.  Since  1,810,  there  have  been  four  revolutions,  each  of  which  has 
changed  the  government,  but  there  has  constantly  been  a  representa- 
tive assembly.  On  the  9th  of  July  1,816,  the  coi^ress  made,  and 
promulgated  a  declaration  of  absolute  independence.  In  December 
of  the  same  year  the  countiy  was  invaded  by  the  Portuguese,  and  a 
considerable  part  was  coiiquered.  It  has,  however,  reclamied  its 
possessions,  and  its  government  lias  become  so  well  established,  that  its 
independence  has  been  acknowledged  by  other  nations. 

BRAZIL. 

1.  This  country  was  discovered  by  Pedro  Alvarez  Cabral,  a  Por 
^guese,  in  1,500.  As  jittle  gold  or  silver  was  found  near  the  coast, 
it  was  for  a  while  wholly  neglected,  and  none  but  criminals  and  aban- 
doned women  were  sent  hither.  In  1,548,  the  inquisition,  after  plun- 
dering the  Jews  of  their  property,  banished  them  to  Brazil.  A 
governor  was  sent  over  the  following  year,  who  immediately  built 
St,  Salvador.  It  was  reduced  m  1,624,  by  the  Dutch,  and  taken 
from  them  in  1,625,  by  the  Spaniards.  Portugal  reclaimed  it  in 
about  1,645,  and  remained  in  undisturbed  possession  of  the  whole 
aountry  till  the  late  revolutions  throughout  South  America. 

2.  In  the  latter  part  of  1,806,  in  consequence  of  the  invasion  of 
Portuga'  by  tlie  French,  the  royal  family  embarked  for  Brazil,  under 
7>rotection  uf  an  Eiiirlish  .^quadron.  Rio  de  Janeiro  continued  to  be 
diair  resitknee  from  1,607  till  1,821.     When  they  left  Brazil,  the 


HISTORY  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA.  471 

prince  royal,  the  king's  eldest  son,  remained  at  the  head  of  th« 
government.  The  unsettled  state  of  the  government  of  the  mother 
countiy,  soon  excited  a  revolutionaiy  spirit  in  most  of  these  provin- 
ces, and  they  declared  for  independence.  The  crown  was  offered  to 
the  prince  royal,  and  accepted  under  the  title  of  emperor. 

GUIANA. 

The  history  of  these  colonies  presents  little  worth  relating.  They 
have  frequently  changed  masters,  but  with  little  detriment  or  advan- 
tage. Their  present  situation  is  well  known  from  common  geogra- 
"phies.  A  great  part  of  the  country  is  occupied  by  Indians.  Of  these, 
the  Caraibes  are  the  most  numerous,  brave,  warlike,  and  industrious. 

REPUBLIC  OF  COLOMBIA. 

1.  Newt-Granada  originally  constituted  a  part  of  Peru.  Two  au- 
diences were  ei-ected  in  1,547,  the  one  at  Panama,  the  other  at  Santa 
Fe  de  Bogota,  and  the  territories  under  the  jurisdiction  of  both,  con- 
stituted a  captain-generalship.  Qiiito  was  made  the  seat  of  an  audi- 
ence in  1,563,  but  the  territories  belonging  to  it,  still  remained  attached 
to  Peru.  In  1,718,  New-Granada  was  erecied  into  a  viceroyalty  ; 
Q,nito  and  Venezuela  were  annexed  to  it,  and  the  audiences  of  Pana- 
ma and  Qjjito  were  abolished.  These  were  afterwards  restored,  and 
in  1,739,  the  territories  dependent  on  the  three  audiences  of  Panama, 
Santa  Fe,  and  Quito,  were  again  erected  into  a  viceroyalty.  A  con- 
gress assembled  at  Cartbagena  in  Nov.  1,811,  and  declared  the  coun- 
try independent,  but  it  was  afterwards  reclaimed  by  the  royalists. 

2.  Venezuela  was  discovered  by  Columbus  in  1,498.  After  several 
ineffectual  attempts  to  settle  it  by  missionaries,  it  was  finally  reduced 
by  force,  and  assigned  by  Charles  V.  to  the  Welsers,  a  German  mer- 
cantile house.  Their  administration  was  so  tyrannical,  that  they 
were  dispossessed  in  1,550,  and  a  supreme  governor  Vv'as  appointed 
by  the  king  of  Spain.  From  this  period  till  1,806,  it  remajned  in 
quiet  subjection  to  the  mother  country. 

3.  In  1,806,  general  Miranda,  a  native  of  Caraccas,  placed  hhnself 
at  the  head  of  an  expedition,  fitted  out  partly  at  St.  Domingo,  and  part- 
ly at  New- York,  \\\[h  the  design  of  liberating  this  country  from  the 
Spanish  yoke.  Finding  his  force  inadequate,  he  abandoned  his  men 
to  the  mercy  of  the  provincial  government. 

4.  In  1,811,  the  inhabitants  revolted  from  the  Spanish  yoke,  and 
declared  themselves  independent.  The  declaration  bears  date  July 
5th.  1,811,  exactly  35  years  and  one  day  after  that  of  the  United 
States.  This  revolution,  like  that  of  the  United  Provinces,  was 
caused  by  the  disorders  in  Spain,  This  country  and  New-Granada, 
continued  in  a  revolutionary  state  till  1,819,  when  they  both  achieved 
their  independence  under  the  renowned  Bolivar. 

5.  On  the  17th  of  Dec.  1,819,  the  congress  of  Venezuela,  at  St. 
Thomas  of  Angostura,  made  a  declaration  of  the  fundamental  law  of 
union  of  the  Republic  of  Colombia.  On  the  17th  of  July  1,821,  the 
representatives  of  New-Granada  and  Venezuela,  in  general  congress 
at  the  city  of  Rosario  de  Cucuta,  declared  the  following  among  others, 
fundamental  laws  of  the  union  of  the  people  of  Colombia  ;  That  the 
people  of  New-Granada  and  Venezuela  be  united  in  one  body  as  a 
nation,  under  the  name  of  the  Repriblic  of  Colombia ;  That  the  govern- 
ment be  popular  and  representative  ;  The  nation  free,  and  indepen- 
dent of  the  Spanish  monarchy,  as  well  as  of  all  other  powers ;  Tha< 


472  HISTORY  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA. 

tlie  g^overnment  consist  of  legislative,  executive,  and  judiciary  au- 
thorities ;  That  the  territory  be  divided  into  six  departments,  having 
an  administration  dependent  on  the  national  government  ;  That  when 
the  state  of"  the  nation  shall  admit,  a  new  city  shall  be  founded,  as  the 
capital  of  the  Republic,  which  shall  bear  the  name  of  the  liberator 
Bolivnr,  the  site  to  be  determined  by  congress  ;  That  there  be  an 
annual  festival  of  three  days  on  the  25lh,  26th,  and  27th  of  Dec. 
The  constitution  resembles  that  of  the  United  States.  Since  its  adop- 
tion the  country  has  been  prosperous,  and  its  independence  seems  to 
be  hrraly  establibhed. 

PERU. 

1.  A  few  tribes  inhabiting  this  country  had  made  considerable  ad- 
vances in  civilization  when  it  was  first  visited  by  the  Spaniards. 
Being  destitute  of  the  art  of  writing,  the  early  history  of  the  Ameri- 
can Indians  exists  only  i'.i  tradition.  There  were  indeed  some 
records  preserved  by  the  Mexicans  and  Peruvians,  but  these  were 
mostly  destroyed  by  their  conquerors,  and  the  few  that  remained 
were  not  very  intelligible  to  the  Spaniards.  Some  credit  however 
must  be  given  to  the  tradition  of  the  kingdom  established  at  Cuzco,. 
in  order  to  accotnt  for  its  great  superiority  over  others. 

2.  The  stojy  is  as  follows  : — Peru  was  originally  possessed  by  small 
independent  tribes,  all  of  which  were  strangers  to  almost  every  spe- 
cies of  cultivation  or  regular  industry,  without  any  fixed  residence, 
and  roamed  ab.^ut  naked  in  the  forests.  After  they  had  struggled  for 
several  ages  with  the  hardships  and  calamities  which  are  inevitable 
in  such  a  state,  and  when  no  circumstance  seemed  to  indicate  the  ap- 
proach of  any  uncommon  effort  towards  improvemen:,  there  is  said 
to  have  appear<^d  on  the  banks  of  the  lake  Pitioaca,  a  man  and  wo- 
man of  majestic  form,  and  clothed  in  decent  garments.  They  de- 
clared themselves  children  of  the  Sun,  sent  by  their  beneficent  parent, 
who  beheld  with  pity  the  miseries  of  the  human  race,  to  instruct  and 
to  reclaim  them.  The  Peruvians  Avorshipped  the  Sun  ;  and,  there- 
fore, the  commands  of  these  strangers  were  regarded  as  heavenly  in- 
junctions. Several  of  the  dispersed  savages  united  together,  and 
followed  their  guides  to  Cuzco,  where  they  settled  and  began  to  lay 
the  foundation  of  a  city. 

3.  Manco  Capac  and  Mama  Ocollo,  for  such  were  the  names  of 
those  extraordinary  personages,  having  thus  united  some  w^andering 
tribes,  Ibrmed  that  social  union,  which  by  multiplying  the  desires, 
and  uniting  the  efforts  of  the  human  species,  excites  industry,  and 
leads  to  improvement.  Manco  Capac  instructed  the  men  in  agricul- 
ture, and  other  useful  arts  ;  Mama  Ocollo  taught  the  women  to  spin 
and  weave.  The  bles>ings  of  civilized  life  were  gradually  extended 
to  neighbouring  tribes,  and  the  dominions  of  succeeding  chiefs,  called 
Incas,  or  Children  of  the  Sun,  comprised  all  the  regions  west  of  the 
Andes  from  Chili  to  Quito. 

4.  To  preserve  the  succession  of  the  Incas  pure  and  unpolluted  by 
mixture  with  less  noble  blood,  the  sons  of  Manco  Capac  married 
their  own  sisters.  As  these  Incas  assumed  the  rank  not  only  of  legis- 
lators, but  messengers  from  Heaven,  the  whole  system  of  civil  policy 
was  founded  on  religion.  Their  precepts  were  received  as  mandates 
of  the  Deity.  Hence  their  authority  was  unlimited  and  absolute 
in  the  most  extensive  meaning  of  the  words.  All  crimes  were  con- 
sidered not  only  as  violatioas  pf  civil  duty,  but  3s  insults  offered  t© 


HISTOEY  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA.  478 

-the  Deity  ;  and  they  were  all  punished  capitally.  But  so  great  was 
the  veneration  for  the  Incas,  that  the  number  of  offenders  was  ex- 
tremely  small.  The  genius  of  their  religion  was  exceedingly  mild, 
and  as  divine  authority  was  ascribed  to  the  Incas,  the  minds  of  the 
people  wei-e  not  humbled  and  depressed  by  a  forced  subjection  to 
the  will  of  a  superior ;  and  obedience  implied  no  degradation. 

5.  Thus  during  twelve  successive  reigns  this  happy  nation  ad- 
vanced in  knowledge  and  virtue,  in  wealth  and  power,  and  in  all  the 
essential  arts  of  civilized  life.  Agriculture  was  in  a  state  of  high 
improvement  ;  architecture  was  advanced  to  a  state  equal  to  their 
wants  ;  their  roads,  bridges,  and  manufactures  ;  their  use  uf  gold  and 
silver  for  utensils  and  works  of  ornament,  all  bear  testimony  that  they 
had  advanced  far  above  the  common  state  of  savage  liie.  But  there 
was  no  very  distinct  arrangement  of  professions  ;  no  cities  were  es- 
tablished except  Cuzco,  to  give  activity  to  commerce  ;  they  knew 
not  the  use  of  iron,  and  hence  were  little  qualified  to  work  in  wood 
and  stone  ;  they  appear  to  have  had  no  good  method  for  lighting  their 
houses, — to  have  been  ignorant  of  the  construction  of  arches, — ol  eveiy 
convenient  method  of^  recording  events,  and  of  perpetuating  the 
knowledge  they  possessed. 

6.  When  tlie  Spaniards  first  visited  Peru  in  l.S'SB,  Huana  Capac, 
the  twelfth  Inca,  was  seated  on  the  throne.  He  is  represented  as 
eminent  for  his  virtues,  his  knowledge,  and  his  military  talents.  Pie 
had  subjected  the  kingdom  of  Quito  and  added  it  to  his  dominions. 
He  was  fond  of  residing  in  the  capital  of  that  province  ;  and  contrary 
to  the  fundamental  law  of  the  monarchy,  he  married  the  daughter  of 
the  vanquished  monarch  of  Q,uito.  She  bore  him  a  son  named  Ata- 
hualpa,  whom  at  his  death,  v.hich  seems  to  have  occurred  about  the 
year  1,529,  he  appointed  his  successor  in  Quito,  leaving  the  rest  of  his 
dominions  to  Huascar,  his  eldest  son.  Tli.s  was  no  sooner  known  at 
Cuzco,  than  it  excited  general  disgust.  The  Peruvians  were  shocked 
at  this  violation  of  a  fundamental  law,  coeval  with  the  empire,  and 
founded  on  sacred  authority.  Huascar  was  hence  encouraged  to  re- 
quire of  his  brother  to  renounce  the  government  of  Quito  ;  but  Ata- 
hualpa  had  a  large  part  of  the  Peruvian  army  under  his  control,  and 
was  little  inclined  to  yield  to  the  demand.  Hence  arose  a  civil 
war,  which  continued  to  rage  until  Pizarro  with  his  cruel  and  per- 
fidious band,  came  among  them  in  1 ,532. 

7.  The  Spaniards,  availing  themselves  of  the  existing  dissensions, 
found  the  conquest  easily  attainable.  Both  the  Incas  were  put  to 
death  under  circumstances  of  most  awful  barbarity.  No  langu.ige 
can  describe  the  detestable  cruelties  of  these  graceless  invaders.  A 
few,  indeed,  among  them  were  found  to  protest  against  it,  but  in  the 
heart  of  Pizarro,  the  common  feelings  of  humanity  had  been  absolute- 
ly annihilated  by  his  avarice.  Cuzco  furnished  more  valuable  spoil 
than  was  ever  found  in  any  other  city.  The  whole  countiy  was  soon 
subjected  ;  and  its  mines  were  seized  in  the  name  of  the  king  of  Spain. 

_  8.  Since  1,533,  Peru  has  remained  a  Spanish  province,  subject  to  a 
viceroy.  For  the  form  of  government  in  all  H,e  Spanish  provinces  in 
America,  see  Sec.  I.  Part  V.  The  country  is  notv  much  smaller 
than  when  governed  by  the  Incas. ,  In  1,718,  Quito  on  the  north  a» 
far  as  the  nver  Turabez,  was  annexed  to  New-Gyanada  ;  and  in  1,778^ 
Potosi  and  other  rich  districts  on  the  southeast  were  annexed  to  Bue- 
nos Ayres. 

9.  For  several  years  Peru  has  been  in  a  revolutionary  state.     Th« 
leader  of  the  patriots  is  Jose  San  Martiii.     The  capital  has  beverafl 
fit  2  60 


474  HISTORY  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA. 

times  fallen  into  their  hands,  but  has  been  retaken  bj  the  royalista. 
Their  prospect  for  independence  is  yearly  increasing,  and  the  royal- 
ists now  possess  only  a  small  part  of  Upper  Peru.  This  is  the  only 
territory  now  possessed  by  the  Spaniards  on  the  continent  of  America. 
It  cannot  be  many  years  before  the  New  World  which  they  discovered, 
and  which  has  suffered  so  much  from  their  rapacity  and  tyranny,  will 
be  completely  wrested  from  their  cruel  despotism. 

CHILI. 

1.  We  know  nothing  of  the  history  of  Chili  previous  to  the  middle 
of  the  fifteenth  century.  From  the  Peruvian  annals  it  appears  that 
Yupanqui,  the  tenth  Inca,  made  an  attempt  to  subject  the  Chilese. 
He  met  with  little  opposition  till  he  arrived  as  far  as  the  river  Repel. 
Beyond  this  was  a  formidable  nation  named  Promaucians  or yree  dan- 
cer*. In  a  long  battle  they  were  successful,  completely  routed  the 
Peruvians,  and  drove  them  from  their  territories.  The  Inca  imposed 
an  annual  tribute  of  gold  on  the  conquered  tribes,  but  no  innovation 
was  attempted,  either  in  their  customs,  manners,  or  government. 

2.  The  country  was  invaded  by  the  Spaniards  under  Almagro  in 
1,535.  He  left  CHizco  with  570  Spaniards  and  15,000  Peruvian  aux- 
iliaries. Disregarding  the  remonstrances  of  his  confederates,  he 
preferred  passing  the  Cordilleras,  to  the  entrance,  less  dangerous  at 
that  season,  by  the  desert  of  Atacama.  Winter  had  commenced 
when  they  reached  the  Cordillera  Nevada,  and  the  snow  fell  in  such 
abundance,  and  the  cold  was  so  intense,  that  not  less  than  10,000  Pe- 
ruvians and  150  Spaniards  perished.  In  a  second  expedition  Alma- 
gro found  the  natives  exceedingly  friendly.  They  loolced  up  to  the 
Spaniards  as  beings  of  a  superior  order,  and  were  ready  to  yield  sub- 
mission. But  when  they  arrived  among  the  Promaucians,  they  met 
with  such  powerful  resistance,  as  determined  them  to  abandon  the 
enterprise. 

3.  Returning  to  Cuzco  a  contest  ensued  between  Almagro  and 
Pizarro,  in  which  the  former  was  slain.  Pizarro,  now  sole  master  of 
Peru,  determined  on  the  conquest  of  Chili.  He  entrusted  the  expe- 
dition to  Valdivia,  one  of  the  ablest  generals  among  the  Spanish  ad- 
▼enturers.  He  met  with  vary  inveterate  animosity  from  all  the  tribes, 
but  their  opposition  was  tcx)  feeble  to  arrest  the  progress  of  2,000 
Spaniards,  under  such  a  leader.  Having  overcome  the  Mapochinians 
who  resided  on  the  river  Mapocho,  he  laid  the  foundation  of  St.  Jago 
and  erected  a  strong  citadel  for  protection.  The  natives  continued 
for  six  years  their  feeble  attempts  to  regain  their  beautiful  plain,  but 
finding  their  object  hopeless,  the  few  that  remained  destroyed  their 
crops,  and  retired  to  the  mountains.  Valdivia,  having  received  a 
reini'orcement  from  Peru,  invaded  and  conquered  the  Promaucians, 
and  established  colonies  in  many  places.  Endeavouring  to  penetrate 
still  farther  southward,  he  encountered  the  most  formidable  enemy 
which  the  Spaniards  ever  met  with  in  America.  This  was  the  na- 
tion of  the  Araucanians.  He  gained  some  victories  over  them,  but 
was  frequently  repul^d,  and  at  length  was  completely  defeated,  him- 
self taken  prisoner,  and  his  whole  army  slain,  with  the  ejception  of 
•wo  Promaucian  auxiliaries.  Villagran,  the  successor  of  Valdivia, 
made  a  desperate  attempt  to  revenge  the  death  of  that  favourite 
general,  but  was  repuised  with  great  slaughter.  He  was,  how- 
ever, successful  in  a  very  important  subsequent  engagement,  in  which 
Lautaro,  the  Araucanian  general,  was  slain. 

4.  The  contest  continued  for  several  years  with  various  success, 


HISTORY  OF  SOIjTH  AMERICA.  475 

till  the  Araucanians  were  much  enfeebled.  They  have  not,  however, 
been  conquered,  and  they  retain  to  this  day  a  consideiahie  part  of 
their  ancient  territories.  They  preserve  their  ancient  customs  and 
language  in  a  considerable  degree  of  purity.  There  are  few  lan- 
guages so  regular  in  their  structure,  or  so  copious  in  their  inflections, 
as  the  Araucanian.  They  had  made  considerable  advancement  in 
civilization,  were  remarkably  active  and  energetic  in  their  bodily  and 
mental  habits,  generous  and  dignified  in  their  disposition  and  deport- 
ment. Connected  with  the  perfection  of  their  language,  was  their 
habit  of  cultrvating  the  art  of  oratory ;  and  we  know  very  kw  civilized 
nations  that  have  so  faithfjily  observed  the  comm.on  duties  of  charity. 

5.  From  the  period  of  the  conquest  of  Chili  till  its  revolution  in 
1,810,  few  occurrences  of  much  interest  are  recorded.  At  this  time 
the  Chilese,  finding  the  same  embarrassments  which  were  suffered  by 
other  provinces  on  account  of  the  disorders  in  Spain,  took  the  govern- 
ment into  their  own  hands, — still  holding  out  the  idea,  however,  of  a 
reunion  with  the  mother  country  when  circumstances  would  permit. 
In  1,814,  the  royal  troops  from  Peru  invaded  Chili,  entirely  defeated 
the  patriots  at  Kaneagua,  and  reconquered  the  country.  A  rem,nant 
of  the  patriot  forces  fled  over  the  Andes,  where,  with  other  Chilian 
refugees  and  two  regiments  of  negioes,  and  some  ofllicers,  they  were 
reorganized  by  general  San  Martin  under  the  name  of  the  United  Army 
of  the  Andes.  In  1,817,  they  re-entered  Chili,  entirely  vanquished 
the  royal  troops  at  Chacabuco,  and  restored  independence  to  the 
country.  The  passage  of  this  army  over  the  Andes  with  its  artillery, 
deserves  to  be  ranked  among  the  most  celebrated  achievements  re- 
corded in  history.  It  was  effected  with  the  loss  of  about  5,000  horses 
and  mules,  and  a  small  number  of  men  who  perished  with  the  cold. 

6.  On  the  12th  of  February  1,818,  the  nation  made  a  formal  declara- 
tion of  absolute  independence.  The  royal  troops  who  escaped  from 
the  battle  of  Chacabuco  being  reinforced  by  all  the  royal  forces  in 
Peru,  about  5,000  in  number,  renewed  the  contest  with  the  patriots  ; 
but  after  a  temporary  success,  they  were  finally  defeated  in  the  de- 
cisive battle  of  Maypo,  April  5tb,  1,818.  This  event  is  celebrated 
by  the  Chilese  in  their  songs,  festivals,  and  histories,  with  the  most 
enthusiastic  expressions  of  gratitude  and  admiration. 

7.  The  government  established  in  Chili  is  republican.  Education 
is  making  considerable  progress,  and  every  ray  of  light  confirms  the 
people  more  absolutely  in  the  love  of  liberty.  Their  independence 
is  acknowledged  by  other  nations.  They  live  in  amity  with  the 
Araucanians,  who  have  a  minister  at  the  capital.  Were  they  exempt 
from  the  tyranny  of  the  Catholic  religion,  we  might  regard  them  as 
destined  to  become  a  great  and  happy  nation  ;  but  while  this  exist' 
they  will  make  slow  progress  in  that  real  knowledge  which  can  resu 
only  from  the  free  use  of  the  faculties,  with  which  Heaven  has  en- 
dowed the  children  of  men. 

8.  Too  much  oin  hardly  be  said  in  praise  of  the  disinterestedness, 
prudence,  bravery,  end  steady  perseverance  of  Don  Jose  San  Martin, 
in  maintaining  the  cause  of  South  American  independence.  Fond  of 
the  retirement  of  prr\'ate  life,  he  has  umfoniily  laidaside  thehigh digni- 
ties with  which  the  grateful  patriote  of  Chili,  Buenos  Ayres,  jmd 
Peru,  have  re[j*«ted]y  investecf  him,  nbanever  the  good  of  their  cause 
would  permit  it ;  and,  although  in  time?  of  such  public  excitement, 
the  best  men  are  subject  fo  fuspi-»on,  eurj,  and  slander,  we  have 
good  reason  for  ranki*^g  thi<»  di«tiria:uished  veteran  among  those,  wh© 
regard  not  their  own,  but  the  public  good. 


47S  HISTORY  OF  SOUTH  Ai\rERrCA. 

9.  Nor  is  that  distinguished  hero  and  statesman,  Bolivar,  entitled 
to  less  renown.  To  him  the  Republic  of  Colombia  principally  owes 
its  independence,  and  he  has  been  one  of  its  most  efficient  agents  in 
organizing  the  new  government.  He  is  now  President  of  the  Re 
public  ;  and,  his  career  not  being  closed,  we  cannot  decide  on  the 
rank  to  which  his  whole  life  will  entitle  him  ;  but  he  has  hitherto  trod 
in  the  footsteps  of  the  Leader  of  the  first  American  Revolution,  and 
if  he  persist  in  this  course  to  the  end,  his  name  will  be  ranked  by  pos- 
terity with  that  of  Washington. 

/ 


1  / 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE. 


EXPLANATION  OF  THE  TABLE  OF  CHRONOLOGY. 

To  give  a  distinct  view  of  the  succession  of  princes  in  the  chief  empirei 
•r  kingdoms,  without  employing  different  columns,  (which  distracts  the 
attention,  and  occupies  too  much  space,)  the  series  of  the  sovereigns  of 
different  nations  is  distinguished  in  this  table  by  different  typographical 
characters.  By  this  method  the  succession  of  the  sovereigns  in  the  different 
kingdoms  is  immediately  distinguishable,  and  also  the  duration  of  their 
reigns.  In  the  intervals  of  time  between  every  two  successive  reigns  are 
recorded  the  remarkable  events  which  occurred  in  those  periods,  in  all  parts 
of  the  world ;  and  thus  the  connexion  of  general  history  is  preserved  un» 
broken. 

The  series  of  the  kings  and  emperors  of  Rome  is  printed  in  a  larger  Ro- 
man type  than  the  rest  of  the  table :  as, 

14  Tiberius,  Emperor  of  Rome- 

The  series  of  the  popes  is  distinguishable  by  this  character  f  prefixed  to 
•ach  name;  as, 

1513  If  Pope  Leo  X- 

The  names  of  the  emperors  of  Germany  are  printed  in  ItaR*  capitals;  a», 

687  ARNOLD,  Emperor  of  Germany. 
The  kings  of  England  arc  designated  by  the  black  Saxon  type ;  as, 
1066  Sl^^llUam  (the  Conqueror)  king  of  England. 

The  kings  of  Scotland  are  denoted  by  a  larger  capital  beginning  th« 
word;  as, 

1390  Robert  III.,  king  of  Scotland. 
The  kings  &f  France  are  distinguished  by  the  Italic  type ;  tm, 
1498  Lewis  XIL,  king  of  France, 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE. 


B.C. 

4004  The  Creation  of  the  World,  according  to  the  Hebrew  text  o#  tk« 

Scriptures. 

According  to  the  version  of  the  Septuagint  5872. 

Acording  to  the  Samaritan  versiou  4700. 
2348  The  Universal  Deluge. 

2247  The  Building  of  Babel;  the  Dispersion  of  Mankind;  and  the  ConAi- 
'  sion  of  Languages. 

2217  Ninuod  supposed  to  have  huilt  Bab)'Ion,  and  founded  the  Babylonish 

Monarchy ;    and  Assur  to  have  built  Nineveh,  and  founded   the 

Monarchy  of  Assyria. 
2188  Menes  (in  Scripture  Misraini)  founds  the  Monarchy  of  Egypt. 
2084  The  Shepherd  Kings  conquer  Egypt. 
2040  Mceris  King  of  Thebos  and  Memphis  in  Egypt. 
1996  The  Birth  of  Abrani. 

1897  Sodom  and  Gomorrah  deetroyed  by  fire  from  Heaven. 
1896  Isaac  born. 

1856  Inachus  founds  the  Kingdom  of  Argos  in  Greece. 
1836  Jacob  and  Esau  born. 
1825  TJie  Shepherd  Kings  abandon  Egypt. 
1823  Death  of  Abraham. 
1796  The  Deluge  of  Ogyges  in  Attica. 
J722  Sesostris  or  Kameses  King  of  Egypt. 
1635  Joseph  dies  in  Egypt. 

1582  The  Chronology  of  the  Arundelian  Marbles  be^ns  with  this  jeAr. 
1-571  Moses  born  in  Eirypt. 
15-56  Cccrops  founds  the  kingdom  of  Athens. 
1546  Scamander  founds  the  Kingdom  of  Troy. 
1532  Judgment  of  tiie  Areopagus  between  Mars  and  Neptune,  two  prinee* 

of  Thessaly. 
1529  The  Deluge  of  Deucalion  in  Thessaly. 
1522  The  Council  of  the  Ainphictyons  instituted. 
1.520  Corinth  built. 

1506  Erectheus  or  Erycthonius  institutes  the  Panathen?ean  Games. 
149.3  Cadmus  builds  Thebes,  and  introduces  Letters  into  Greece. 
1491  Moses  brings  the  Israelitets  out  of  Egypt. 
1453  Tiie  first  Olympic  Games  celebrated  in  Greece. 
1452  The  Pentateuch,  or  five  Books  of  Moses,  written. 
1451  The  Israelites  led  into  the  land  of  Canaan  by  Joshuft 
1438  Pnndjon  King  of  Athens, 

1406  Minos  reigns  in  Crete,  and  gives  laws  to  the  Cretsoe. 
1376  SethoB  reigns  in  Egypt. 
1322  Belus  reigns  in  Babylon. 
12i>7  Ninus  reigns  in  Assyria. 

12Wi  Oedipus  marries  his  Mother  Jocasta,  and  reigns  in  Thebes. 
1263  The  Argonautic  Expedition.     According  to  the  Newtonian  Cbfont^ 

ogy  937. 
1257  Theseus  unites  the  Cities  of  Attica. 
1252  Tyre,  tlie  capital  of  Phoenicia,  built 
1225  Siiege  of  Thebes     War  betweea  Eteocles  and  PolynicM. 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE.  479 

B.C. 

1225  Eurysthenes  and  Procles  Kings  of  Lacedsemon. 
1215  Second  War  of  Thebes,  or  War  of  the  Epigonoi. 

Semiraruis  supposeU  to  have  reigned  at  Babylon. 

1207  Gideon  Judge  of  Israel. 

1202  Teucer  built  Salamis. 

IWd  The  Trojan  War  begins. 

1184  Troy  talcen  and  burnt  by  the  Greeks.     According  t©  the  Arundelian 

Marbles.  1209. 
1182  iEneas  lands  in  Italy. 
1155  Samson  born. 

1104  Return  of  the  Heraclidffi  into  Peloponnesua. 
1099  Samuel  delivers  Israel. 
1079  Saul  King  of  Israel. 
1070  Medon  first  Archon  of  Athens. 

1069  Codrus  King  of  Athens  devotes  himself  for  his  country. 
1055  David  King  of  Israel. 
10<^»4  Dedication  of  Solomon's  Temple, 
980  Rehoboam  King  of  Israel. 

689  Athaliah,  wite  of  Jchoram,  usurps  the  throne  of  JudaH. 
886  Homer's  Poeras  brought  from  Asia  into  Greece. 

684  Lycurgus  reforms  the  Constitution  of  Laccdaemon. 

809  The  cny  of  Cartha|;c  built  by  Dido. 

820  Nineveh  taken  by  Arbaces  and  Belesis,  which  finishes  that  kingdom. 

770  TriE  FIRST  Olympiad  begins  in  this  year. 

769  Syracuse  built  by  Archias  of  Coriath. 

707  Sardanapalus  Kinpj  of  Assyria. 

700  The  Ephori,  popular  Magistrates,  instituted  at  Lacedffituon. 

757  Halyattes  King  ol'Lydia. 

754  Decennial  Archons  elected  at  Athens. 

752  i'he  foundation  of  Rome  l>y  Romulus. 

748  Rape  of  the  Sabine  Women. 

747  The  Era  of  Niibonassar  made  use  of  by  Ptolemy. 

738  Candaules  King  of  Lydia. 

724  Hezekiah  tenth  King  of  Judah. 

721  Salmanazar  lakes  Samaria,  and  carries  the  Ten  Tribes  into  captivity 

which  puts  an  end  to  the  Israelitish  Kingdom. 
715  Nunia   i.  omj)iiiu.S  second  King  of  Rome. 
711  Sennacherib,  King  of  Assyria,  invades  Judea. 
710  Dejoces  King  of  Media. 

708  Habakkuk  prophesied. 

703  Corcyra  founded  by  the  Corinthians. 

690  Manasseh  sixteenth  King  of  Judah. 

688  Judith  kills  Holoferues  the  Assyrian  General. 

684  Annual  Archons  elected  at  Athens. 

681  Esarhaddon  unites  the  Kingdoms  of  Babylon  and  Assyria. 

672  'I'uiiUS  Hosdiius  third  King  of  Rome. 

670  Psammeticus  King  of  Egypt. 

607  The  Cumbat  between  the  Horatii  and  Curiatii. 

658  Byzantium  founded  by  Pausaaias  King  of  Sparta. 

Phraortus  King  of  Media. 

640  Ancas  iMartlUS  fourth  King  of  Rome. 

627  The  Forty  Years  of  Ezekiel  began. 

620  Periander  Tyrant  of  Corinth. 

Nabupoiassar,  father  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  begins  to  reign  at  BabyloA. 

624  Dr.ico  Archon  and  Legislator  of  Athens. 

616    i    i      liljius  Friscus  fifth  King  of  Rome.  '-■    / 

6<}6  Nebi-,!  !  adnezzar  takes  Jerusalem,  and  carries  tlie  Jews  into  captivity. 
601  Baiii     ,•  •tvvet  !i  the  Medes  and  Lydians,  who  are  separated  by  a  great 
etiiijibo  oi  the  sun,  predietod  by  Thales.    (NawtOB.  Chrou.  585.) 


480  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLB. 

B.C. 

601  End  of  the  Assyrian  Empire.    Nineveh  taken  by  NebuchadnezKW. 

600  Jeremiah  prophesied. 

509  Birth  of  Cyrus  the  Great. 

594  Solon  Archon  and  Legislator  of  Athens. 

578  "^erviUS   TuJius  sixth  King  of  Rome. 

572  Nebuchadnezzar  subdues  Egypt. 

571  Phalaris  Tyrant  of  Agrigentum. 

562  Comedies  first  exhibited  at  Athens  by  Thespig. 

CrcBsus  reigns  in  Lydia. 

551  Confucius,  the  Chinese  Philosopher,  born. 

550  Pisistratus  Tyrant  of  Athens. 

548  The  Ancient  Temple  of  Delphos  burnt  by  the  Pisistratidae. 

53-3  Babylon  taken  by  Cyrus.     End  of  the  Baljylonian  Empire. 

536  Cyrus  ascends  the  throne  of  Persia.     He  puts  an  end  to  the  Jewish 

captivity,  wliicii  had  lasted  seventy  years. 
534  Tarqninius  SupcrljUS  seventh  King  of  Rome. 

Daniel  prophesied. 

529  Death  of  Cyrus  the  Great.     Cambyses  King  of  Persia. 
— —  Death  of  Pisistratus  Tyrant  of  Athens. 
522  Darius,  son  of  Hystaspes,  King  of  Persia. 

520  The  Jews  begin  to  build  the  second  Temple,  which  is  finished  in  fouV 
years. 

510  The  Pisistratidae  expelled  from  Athens,  and  the  Democracy  restored. 

Statues  erected  at  Athens  to  tiarniodius  and  Aristogiton. 

509  The  Tarquins  expelled  from  Rome  and  the  Regal  Government  abol  • 
islied.  .       -^ 

508  The  first  Alliance  between  the  Romans  and  Carthaginians. 
504  Sardis  taken  and  burnt  by  the  Athenians. 

496  The  first  Dictator  treated  at  Rome  (Lartius.) 

497  Institution  of  the  Saturnalia  at  Rome 

493  The  port  of  Pirseus  built  by   he  Athenians. 

490  The  Battle  of  Marathon,  ir  which  Miltiades  defeats  tlie  Persians. 
4d8  The  first  Tribunes  of  the  People  created  at  Rome.     According  to 
Blair  493. 

Aliltiades  dies  in  prison. 

4»C  Xerxes  succeeds  his  father  Darius  in  the  kingdom  of  Persia. 
485  Coriolanus  banished  from  Rome. 
483  Quaestors  instituted  at  Rome. 

Aristides  banished  from  Athens  by  the  Ostracism. 

480  The  Spartans,  imder  Leonidns,  sLiin  at  Thermopylse. 

Naval  V^ictory  gained  by  the  Greeks  over  the  Persians  at  Salamis. 

479  Attica  laid  waste  and  Athens  burnt  by  Mardonius. 

Victories  over  the  Persians  at  Platasa  and  Mycale. 

Xerxes  leaves  Greece. 

477  300  Fabii  killed  by  the  Vciontes. 
476  Themistocles  rebuilds  Atiions. 

Valerius  triump.bs  over  the  Veientes  and  Sabinee. 

Tiie  Roman  Citizens  numbered  at  103,000. 

A  great  Eruption  of  .if.tna. 

Hiero  King  of  Syracuse. 

471  Volero,  the  Roman  Tribune,  obtains  a  law  for  the  election  of  magis. 

trates  in  the  comit'a  held  by  tribes. 
470  Cimon,  son  of  Miltiades,  defeats  the  Persian  army  and  fleet  in  oni 

day,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Eurj'medon- 
469  Capua  founded  by  the  Tuscans. 
464  Artaxerxes  (Longimanus)  King  of  Persia. 

Cimon  banished  by  the  Ostracism. 

463  Egypt  revolts  from  the  Persians. 

462  The  Ttr»ntian  Law  proposed  at  Ro    \. 
4(6  Qiaeinnatus  Dictator  at  Rome 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE.  m 

B.C. 

456  Th«  Lurfi  Snscularea  first  instituted  at  Rome. 

455  Commencement  of  tlie  Seventy  Prophetical  Weeks  of  Daniel. 

453  The  number  of  the  TribuncB  of  the  people  at  Rome  increased  from 

Five  to  Ten. 
452  The  two  Books  of  Chronicles  supposed  tQ  have  been  written  at  this 

time  by  Ezra. 
451  Creation'of  the  Decemviri  at  Rome,  and  Compilation  of  the  Laws  of 

the  Twelve  Tables. 
449  Peace  between  the  Greeks  and  Persians  concluded  by  Cimon,  glorious 

for  Greece. 

Death  of  Virginia,  and  Abolition  of  the  Decemvirale. 

4-lo  Thf  Law  of  Canuleius  for  the  Intermarriage'  of  the  Patricians  and 
Plcbeia'ns  at  Rome. 

Military  Tribunes  created. 

437  The  Censorship  first  instituted  at  Rome. 

436  Pericles  in  high  power  at  Athens. 

432  Melon's  Cycle  of  tlio  Moon  of  nineteen  years. 

431  'llie  Peioponncsian  War  begins,  which  lasted  twenty-seven  years. 

430  The  History  of  the  Old  Tet^tament  ends  about  this  tnne. 

Great  Plague  at  Athens,  eloquently  described  by  Thucydides. 

Maiachi  the  last  of  the  Prophets. 

428  Death  of  Pericles. 

423  Darius  Nethus  King  of  Persia. 

418  Disturbances  at  Rome  on  account  of  the  Agrarian  Law. 

414  Tlic  Athenians  defeated  before  Syracuse. 

413  Alcibiades,  accused  at  Athens,  flies  to  the  Lacedtemonians. 

412  A  Council  of  400  governs  Alliens. 

405  Lysander  defeats  the  Athenians  at  .(Egos  Potamos. 

404  Artaxerxes  II.  (Mnemon)  King  of  Persia. 

End  of  the  Peloponnesian  War. 

403  LysHuder  takes  Athens.     Government  of  the  Thirty  Tyrants. 
401  The  younger  Cyrus  defeated  by  his  brother  Artaxerxes,  aud  killed. 

Retreat  of  the  Ten  Thousand  Greeks. 

Persecution  and  Death  of  Socrates. 

* Thrasybulus  drives  out  the  Tliirty  Tyrants,  and  delivers  Athens. 

399  A  Lectisternium  first  celebrated  at  Rome. 

307  The  Lake  of  Alba  drained  by  the  Romans. 

306  Syracuse  unsuccessfully  besieged  by  the  CarthaginiaiTs. 

30]   Marcus  Furius  Camiilus  Dictator  at  Rome.     Veii  taken. 

387  Dishonourable  Peace  of  Antalcidas  between  the  Spartans  and  Per- 
sians. 

335  Rome  taken  by  the  Gauls  under  Brennus. 

382  Phsebidas,  the  Spartan,  seizes  the  Citadel  of  Thenes. 

380  Pelopidas  and  Epaminondas  deliver  Thebes  from  the  Lacedsemoniajis. 

371  Battle  of  Leuctra,  in  which  the  Lacedaemonians  are  defeated  by  the 
Thebans  under  Epaminondas. 

364  Pek)pidas  defeats  the  Tyrant  of  Phera»a,  but  is  killed  in  battle. 

363  Battle  of  Matinea,  in  which  Epaminondas  is  killed. 

362  Curtius  leaps  into  a  Gulf  in  the  Forum  at  Rome. 

361  Darius  Ochus  (or  Artaxerxjs  III.)  King  of  Persia.  According  to 
Blair,  358.  o  r  ^ 

358  War  of  the  Allies  against  Athens. 

Philip  of  Macedon  takes  Amphipolis,  Pydna,  and  Potidea. 

357  Dion  overcomes  the  party  of  Dionysius  at  Syrac'ise. 

356  Alexander  the  Great  born  at  Pella  in  Macedonia. 

The  Temple  of  Diajia,  at  Ephesua,  burnt  by  Erostratus, 

The  Phocian  or  Sacred  War  begins  in  Greece. 

Philip  conquers  the  Thracians,  PaBoniaoa,  and  Illyrian* 

350  Darius  Ochus  subdues  Egypt 

348  Philip  of  Macedon  takes  Olynt&t*. 


482  CHRjONOLOGICAL  TABLE. 

B.C. 

348  End  of  the  Sacred  War. 

347  Dionysiiis  restored  at  Syracuse,  after  an  exile  of  ten  years. 
346  PJiilJp  admitted  a  Member  of  the  Amphictyonic  Council. 
343  Syracuse  taken  by  Timoleon,  and  Dionysius  the  Tyrant  finally  baa- 
ished. 

The  War  between  the  Romans  and  Samnites,  which   led  to  the  con- 

quest of  all  Italy. 
340  The  Cartiiaginians  defeated  near  Agrigentum. 

P.  Decius  devotes  himself  for  his  country. 

338  Battle  of  Chernna'a  gained  by  Philip  over  the  Athenians  and  Thebana. 
337  Philip  chosen  Generalissimo  of  the  Greeks. 
336  Philip  murdered  by  Pausaniag. 

Alexander  the  Great  King  of  Macedoa. 

Alexander  the  Great  destroys  Thebes. 

335  Darius  Til.  (Codomannus)  King  of  Persia. 

-  Alexander  chosen  Generalissimo  by  the  States  of  Greece. 
334  Alexander  deteats  the  Peisians  on  the  banks  of  the  Granicus. 
333  The  Persians  defeated  by  Alt^xander  at  Issus. 

332  Alexander  conquers  E^xp!,  aiid  takes  Tyre. 

331  Darius  defeated  by  Alexander  at  Arbcla. 

330  Darius  Codomannus  killed.     End  of  the  Persian  Empire. 

Alexander  takes  possession   of  Susa,  and  sets  fire  to  the  Palace  of 

Persepolis. 
328  Alexander  passes  into  India,  defeats  Porus,  founds   several   cities, 

penetrates  to  the  Ganges. 

The  Voyage  of  Nearchus  from  the  Indus  to  the  Euphrates. 

325  Papirius  Cursor.  Dictator  at  Rome,  triumphs  over  the  Samnites. 

324  Alexander  the  Great  dies  at  Babylon,  at  the  age  of  thirty-three. 

321  The    Samnites    make   the    Romanv  Army    pass   under  the    yoke    at 

Caudium. 
320  Ptolemy  carries  100,000  Jews  captives  into  Egypt. 
317  Agathocles  Tyrant  of  Syracuse. 
312  Era  of  the  Selucidae. 
311  Cassander,  Lysimachus,  and  Ptolemy,  conclude  a  peace  with  Antig- 

onus. 
304  Demetrius  besieges  Rhodes. 

303  Demetrius  restores  the  Greek  Cities  to  their  liberty. 
301  Battle  of  Ipsus  in  Pluygia,  in  which  Antigonus  is  defeated  and  slain. 

Fabius  Maximus  and  Valerius  Corvus  Dictators. 

300  Seleucus  founds  Antioch,  Edessa,  and  Laodicea. 
,298  Athens  taken  by  Demetrius  Poliorcetee. 

294  Seleucus  resigns  his  Wife  Stratonice  to  his  son  Antiochus. 

286  Law  of  Horteiisius,  by  whirji  the  decrees  of  the  people  were  allowed 

the  same  force  as  thfise  oi       e  senate. 
2<S5  The  Astronomical  Era  of  Dionysius  of  Alexandria. 
284  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  King  of  Egypt. 
283  The  Library  of  Alexandria  founded. 
281  Commencement  of  the  Achsean  League. 
280  Pyrrhus  invades  Italy. 

Antiochus  Soter  King  of  S3'ria. 

877  The  Translation  of  the  Septuagint  made  by  order  of  Ptolemy  Phila- 
delphus.    Piayfair,  285. 
Antigonus  Gonatus  reigned  in  Macedon  thirty-six  years. 

275  Pyrrhus  unsuccessful  against  the  Carthaginians  in  Sicily. 

274  Pyrrhus,  totally  defeated  by  the  Romans  near  Beneventura,  evacuatea 
Italy. 

272  The  Samnites  finally  subdued  by  the  Romans. 

206  Silver  Money  is  coined  at  Rome  for  the  first  time. 

265  The  Citizens  of  Rome  numbered  at  292,224. 

26-4  The  first  Punic  War  begins.     The  Chronicle  of  Paros  composed. 


CHRONOLOGICAL   TABLE.  483 

B.  C. 

2bO  Provincial  Quaestors  instituted  at  Rome. 

First  Naval  Victory  obtained  bv  the  Romans  under  the  Consul  Duiliua. 

255  Regulus   defeated   and  taken'  prisoner  by  the  Carthaginians  under 

Xantippus. 
253  Manasseh  chosen  Hish  Priest  of  tiie  Jews. 
251  Great  Victory  of  ]\Ietelhis  over  Asdrubal. 
250  The  Romans  besies^e  Lilyboeuni ;  are  defeated  by  Ilamilcaw 
241   End  of  the  first  Punic  War. 

Attains  Iving  of  Pergamus  succeeds  Eunienes. 

240  Comedies  are  first  acted  at  Rome. 

23-'  The  Temple  of  Janus  shut  the  first  time  since  the  reign  of  Numa. 

228  Hainilcar  killed  in  Spain. 

225  Great  Victory  of  the  Romans  over  the  Gauls. 

219  Honnibal  takes  Sairuntum. 

21«  The  second  Punic  War  begins. 

217  Hannibal  defeats  the  Romans  under  FlaminiBS. 

Fabiiis  RIaximus  Dictator. 

216  Battle  of  CannEe,  in  which  the  Romans  are  totally  defeated  by  Han- 
nibal. 
212  Philip  H.  of  Macedon  defeats  the  ^Jolians. 

Marcellns  takes  Syracuse,  after  a  siege  of  two  years. 

211   Capua  surrenders  to  the  Romans. 

Antioclius  the  Great  conquers  Judsa. 

210  Asdrubal  vanquished  in  Spain  by  the  Scipios. 

Publius  Scipio,  sent  into  Spain,  takes  New-Carthage. 

206  PhilopoRmen  Praetor  of  the  Achaeans. 

203  The  Carthaginians  recall  Hannibal  to  Africa. 

8ophoni-;ba  poisoned  by  Massinissa. 

201  Syphax  led  in  triumph  to  Rome  by  P.  Scipio. 

197  Philip  defeated  by  the  Romans  at  Cynocephale. 

196  The  Battle  of  Zama,  and  end  of  the  second  Punic  AVar. 

190  The  Romans  enter  Asia,  and  defeat  Antigonus  at  Magnesia. 

183  The  elder  Cato  Censor  at  Rome. 

173  War  between  the  Romans  and  Perseus  King  of  Macedon 

172  Antioclius  defeats  the  generals  of  Ptolemy  in  Egypt. 

170  Antiochus  Epiphanes  takes  and  plunders  Jerusalem. 

169  Terence's  Comedies  performed  at  Rome. 

167  Perseus  defeated  by  Paulus  .^milius,  and  brought  prisoner  to  R(^n« 

End  of  the  kingdom  of  Macedon. 
166  Jndas  Maccabeus  drives  the  Syrians  out  of  Judea. 
164  The  Roman  Citizens  numbered  at  327,032. 
149  The  third  Punic  War  begins. 
147  Metellus  defeats  the  Aclueans. 
146  Corinth  taken  by  the  Consul  3Iummius. 

Carthage  taken  and  destroyed  by  the  Romans. 

137  The  Romans  shamefully  defeated  by  the  Numantines. 
135  The  History  of  tlie  Apocrypha  ends. 

• Antiochus  besieges  Jerusalem. 

133  Tiberius  Gracchus  put  to  death. 

I    Numantia  taken.     Pergamus  becomes  a  Roman  Province. 

121   Caius  Gracchus  killed. 

113  Carbo  the  Consul  drives  the  Cimbri  and  Teutonea  out  of  Italy. 

IIJ    The  Jugurthine  War  begins. 

108  Marius  defeats  Jugurtha" 

103  Jugurtha  starved  to  death  at  Rome. 

102  Marius  defeats  the  Teutones  and  Cimbri. 

91  The  War  of  the  Allies  against  the  Romans. 

90  Sylla  defeats  the  Marsi,  Peligni,  Samnites,  &c. 

89  The  Mithridatic  War  begins. 

86  Oivil  War  between  Marius  and  Sylla.    Sylla  takes  possession  of  Rom«- 


464  CHROJSOLOGIOAL  TABLE. 

B  C. 

86  Mithridates  King  of  Pontus  defeated  by  Sylla. 
83  Sylla  defeats  Norbauus.     The  Capitol  burnt. 

52  Sylla  perpetual  Dictator.     His  horrible  P/oscriptiou. 
80  Julius  Cassar  makes  his  first  Campaign. 

79  Cicero's  first  Oration  for  Roscius. 

78  Sylla  resigns  all  power,  and  dies. 

77  The  War  of  i^'ertorius. 

72  Lucull^us   repeatedly   defeats   Mhhridatee,  and  reduces  Pontus  to  a 

Roman  province. 
70  Crassus  and  Pompey  chosen  Consuls  at  Rome. 
63  Victorieg  of  Pompey.     He  takes  Jerusalem,  and  restores  Hyrcantis  to 

the  government  of  Judea. 
62  Catiline's  Conspiracy  quelled  at  Rome  by  Cicero. 
CI  Pompey  enters  Rome  in  triumph. 
59  The  tirst  Triumvirate ;  Pompey,  Crassus,  and  Csesar. 

—  Caesar  propof^es  a  new  A^r-irian  Law. 

58  Clodius  the  Tribune  procures  the  Banishment  of  Cicero. 
57  Caesar  defeats  Ariovistus  in  Gaul. 

—  Cicero  broui;ht  back  from  Exile  with  higlj  honour. 
55  Citsar  lands  in  Britain,  and  makes  a  sliort  campaign. 

54  Ca;.sar  invades  Britain  a  second  tune,  and  conquers  part  of  it, 

53  Crassus  killed  in  Mesopotamia. 

52  Milo  defended  by  Cicoro  for  the  slaughter  of  Clodius. 
49  Ca-sar  passes  the  Rubicon,  aiid  marches  to  Rome. 

—  Commencement  of  the  Era  of  Antioch,  October,  49  A.  C. 
48  Battle  of  Phtirsalia,  in  which  Pompey  is  defeated. 

—  Pompey  slain  in  Epiypt. 

—  The  Alexandrian  Library  of  400,000  volumes  burnt. 
4f>  Cato  be^'ieged  in  Utica,  kills  hiinself 

45  The  Kalendar  reformed  by  Julius  Cassar,  by  introducing  the  Solar 
Year  Instead  of  the  Lunar.  The  first  Julian  Year  began  January  1, 
45  A.  C. 

44  Julius  Cfcsar  killed  in  the  Senate-House. 

—  Octavius,  grand-nephew  and  heir  of  Julius  Caesar,  comes  to  Rome, 

and  is  o[>posc(l  at  first  by  Antony. 
43  Second  Triumvirate  ;  Octaviu.a,  Mark  Antony,  and  Lepidus. 
42  Battl«  of  Philippi,  in  which  Brutus  and  Caseins  are  deieated.  . 
40  Herod  marries  Mariamne,  daughter  of  Hyrcanus,  and  obtains  from  the 

Romans  the  Gf>vernment  of  Judaea. 
34  Antony  diNidf's  Armenia  among  the  children  of  Cleopatra. 
33  Mauritania  rtduced  into  a  Roman  Province. 
36  War  doclarcd  by  the  Senate  against  Antony  and  Cleopatra. 
3]   Battle  of  Aclium  and  end  of  the  Romfin  Commonwealth. 

—  OctarillS  Emperor  of  Rome. 

3<)  Death  of  Maik  Antony  and  Cleopatra.     Alexandria  taken  by  Octa- 
vius. 
Octavius  receives  the  title  of  Augustus. 
23  Death  of  Marcclhis.     Agrippa  in  Spain. 
20  Porus  Khig-of  India  sends  an  Embassy  to  Augustus. 
17  Agustus  revives  ijie  Secular  Games. 
15  The  Rherti  and  Vindelenci  defeated  by  Drusus. 
10  The  Temple  of  Janus  shut  by  Augustus  for  a  short  time. 

8  Augustus  corrects  aa  Error  of  the  Roman  Kaleudar. 

-  Death  of  Majccnas. 

5  Augustus  ordains  a  Census  of  all  the  people  in  the  Roman  Empire. 
4  JESUS  CHRIST  is  born  four  years  before  the  commencement  of  the 
vulgar  era. 
AD.        ° 

9  The  Roman  Legions  under  Varus,  destroyed  in  Germany 

-  Oyid  the  Poet  banished  to  Tomos. 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE.  4S5 

AD.  . 

14  Tiberius  Emperor  of  Rome. 

19  Germanicus  dies  at  Antioch. 

' —  Tiberius  banishes  the  Jews  from  Rome. 

9<i  John  the  Baptist  preaches  in  Judsa  tlie  Coming  of  the  MesBiah. 

27  Tiberius  retires  to  the  island  of  Capreje. 

—  Pilate  made  Governor  of  Juda?a. 

31  Sejanus  disgraced,  and  put  to  death  by  Tiberius. 
33  II  St.  Peter'first  Pope. 

—  JESUS  CHRIST  is  crucified. 
35  The  Conversion  of  St.  Paul. 
37  Caligula  Emperor  of  Rome. 

39  St.  Matthew  writes  his  Gospel. 

40  The  name  of  Christians  first  given  to  the  Disciples  of  Christ  at  An- 

tioch. 

41  Claudius  Emperor  of  Rome. 

—  Herod  persecutes  the  Christians,  and  imprisons  Peter. 

42  Sergius  Paulus,  proconsul,  converted  by  St.  Paul. 

43  Expedition  of  Claudius  into  Britain. 

44  St.  Mark  writes  his  Gospel. 
4.5  Vespasian  in  Britain. 

47  The  Ludi  Stcculares  (secular  games)  performed  at  Rome. 

48  Messalina  put  to   death   by    Claudius,  who  marries  Agrippina  th« 

mother  of  Nero. 
50  St.  Paul  preaches  in  the  Areopagus  at  Athens. 
■51  Caractacus,  the  British  King,  is  carried  prisoner  to  Rome. 
54  Nero  Emperor  of  Rome. 
5.5  Britannicus  poisoned  by  Nero. 
59  Nero  puts  to  death  his  mother  Agrippina. 
€0  Suetonius  Paulinas  defeats  the  Britons. 
61  The  Britons,  under  Queen  Boadicea,  defeat  the  Romans. 
04  Tlie  first  Persecution  of  the  Christians  raised  by  Nero. 

—  Rome  set  on  fire  by  Nero. 

€C  Bareas  Soranus  and  Thrasea  Psetus  put  to  death  by  Nero. 

—  U  Pope  Linus. 

67  Massacre  of  the  Jews  by  Florus,  at  Caesarea,  Ptolemais,  and  Alex- 

andria. 

—  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul  put  to  death. 

—  Josephus,  the  Jewish  historian,  governor  of  Galiled. 

—  IF  Pope  St.  Clement. 

68  Galba  Emperor  of  Rom«. 

69  Otho  Emperor  of  Rome. 

—  Vitcllius  Emperor  of  Rome. 

70  Vespasian  Emperor  of  Rome, 

—  Jerusalem  taken  and  destroved  by  Titua. 

77  Tf  Pope  St.  Oetus. 

78  A  great  Pestilence  at  Rome,  10,000  dying  in  one  day. 

79  Titus  Emperor  of  Rome. 

—  Herculaneum  and  Pompeii  destroyed  by  an  Eruption  of  Vewviua. 

80  Conquests  of  Agricola  in  Britain. 
8J  Domitian  Emperor  of  Rome. 
83  IT  Pope  Anacleti'.s. 

81)  Apollonius  of  Tyanea  defends  himself  before  Domitian  against  an 

Recusation  of  Treason. 
95-  Dreadful  Persecution  of  the  Chri.stians  at  Rome,  and  in  the  prOT 

inces. 

—  St.  Jpbn  writes  his  Apociilypse,  and  his  Gospel. 
96  Nerva  Emperor  of  Rome. 

Ss2 


486  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE. 

A  D. 

96  II  Pope  Evaristus. 

98  1  <"djari  Emperor  of  Rome. 

—  Trajan  forbids  the  Christian  Assemblies. 
100 
103  The  Dacians  subdued  by  Trajan. 

107  Trajan's  Victories  in  Asia. 

108  St.  Ignatius  devoured  by  wild  Beasts  at  Rome. 
M  Pope  Alexander  I. 

115  The  Jews  in  Cyreno  murder  200,000  Greeks  and  Romans. 

117  ^  PopeSixtus  L 

118  Adrian  Emperor  of  Rome. 

Persecution   of  the   Christians  renewed   by   Adrian,   but   afterward 

suspended. 
120  Adrian's  Wall  built  across  Britain. 
127  ^  Pope  Telesphorus. 

131  Adrian  visits  Egypt  and  Syria. 

132  Adwnn  publishes  his  perpetual  Edict  or  Code  of  the  Lavfs. 
13.5  The  Romans  destroyed  580.000  Jews  in  Judaea. 

137  Adrian  rebuilds  Jerusalem  by  the  name  of  iElia  Capitolina. 

138  If  Pope  Hyginus. 

Antoiiius  Fius  Emperor  of  Rome. 

142  ^  Pope  Pius  I. 

150  H  Pope  Anicetus. 

1-54  Justin  Martyr  publishes  his  Apology  for  the  Christians. 

161  Marcus  Aurelius  Antoninus  and  Lucius  Verus  Emperors  of 

Rome. 

162  t  Pope  Soter. 

167  Polycarp  and  Pionices  suffered  Martyrdom  in  Asia. 

169  War  with  the  Marcomanni. 

171  Death  of  Verus.     Marcus  Aurelius  sole  Emperor. 

^'   Pope  Eleutherius. 

177  Persecution  of  the  Christians  at  Lyons. 

ISO  Comraodus  Emperor  of  Rome. 

185  IT  Pope  Victor  I. 

189  The  Saracens  defeat  the  Romans.     This  people  first  mentioned  in 

history, 
t  193  Pertinax   Emperor  of  Rome.       Didius   JulianUS   purchases  the 

Empire. 

Pescennius  Niger  declared  Emperor  in  the  East. 

SeptimiuS  Severus  Emperor  of  Rome. 

194  Ni?er  defeated  by  Severus,  and  put  to  death. 

195  Byzantium  besieged,  surrenders  to  Severus. 

196  AlbinaS  proclaimed  Emperor  in  Britain. 

197  Albinus,  defeated  by  Severus,  kills  himself. 
II  Pope  Zephyrinus.. 

200 

202  The  fifth  Persecution  against  the  Christians,  principally  in  Egypt. 
208  Severus.  vdth  his  sons  Caracalla  and  Geta,  in  Britain. 
309  The  Caledonians  repulsed,  and  a  Wall  built  between  the  rivers  Forth 
and  Clyde. 

211  Caracalla  and  Geta  Emperors  of  Rome. 

212  Caracalla  murders  Geta. 

217  Caracalla  put  to  death. 

. Macrinus  Emperor  of  Rome. 

^  Pope  Cali.xtus  I. 

218  HeUosyabaius  Emperor  of  Roma. 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE.  487 

A.  D. 

222  Alexander  Severus   Emperor  of  Rome. 

A  Tribute  paid  by  tlie  Romans  to  the  Goths 

'A  Pope  Urban  I." 

226  The  Persians  totally  defeated  by  Alexander  Severus. 
230  IT  Pope  Pontianus. 
235  11  Pope  Anterus. 

Maximinus  assassinates  Alexander  Severus,  and  is  proclaimed  Em- 
peror of  Rome. 
23G  The  sixth  Persecution  of  the  Christians. 

IT   Pope  Fabianus. 

237  Maximinus  defeats  the  Dacians  and  Sarmatians. 

238  Maximus  and  Balbinus  Emperors  of  Rome. 
Gordian  Empe.o-  of  Rome. 

242  Gordian  defeats  the  Persians  under  Sapor. 
244  Phibp  the  Arabian  Emperor  of  Rome. 

248  Tlse  Secular  Games  celebrated  at  Rome.     Pompey's  Theatre  burnt. 

St.  Cyprian  elected  Bishop  of  Carthage. 

249  DcCIU.S  Emperor  of  Rome. 

250  The  seventh  Persecution  of  the  Chrirtians  under  Decius. 

IT  Pope  St.  Cornelius. 

251  Vibius  Volusianus  Emperor  of  Rome. 

G  alius  Emperor  of  Rome. 

252  IT  Pope  Lucius  I. 

353  The   Goths,  Burgundians,  &c.  make  an  Irruption  into  McEsia  and 

Pannonia. 
2.54  Valcrianus  Emperor  of  Rome. 

H  Pope  Stephen  I. 

257  The  eighth  Persecution  of  the  Christians 

IT  Pope  Sixtus  II. 

25!)  The  Persians  ravage  Syria. 

IT  Pope  Dionysius. 

2G0  GallienuS  Emperor  of  Rome. 

The  Temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus  burnt. 

261   Sapor,  the  Persian,  takes  Antioch,  Tarsus,  and  Csesarea. 

267  The  Hcruli  invade  and  ravage  Greece. 

268  Claudius  II.  Emperor  of  Rome. 

26i)  The   Goths  and   Heruli,   to   the   number   of   320,000,    defeated   by 
Claudius. 

M  Pope  Felix  I. 

270  Aurelian  Emperor  of  Rome.  , 

271  The  Alemanni  and  Marcomanni  ravage  the  Empire. 

272  The  ninth  Persecution  of  the  Christians. 

273  Zenobia  Queen  of  Palmyra  defeated  by  Aurelian  at  Edessa. 

274  IT  Pope  Eutychianus. 

275  Tacitus  Emperor  of  Rome. 

276  Florianus  Emperor  of  Rome. 

277  Probus  Emperor  of  Rome. 

282  Carus  Emperor  of  Rome  defeats  the  Quadi  and  Sarmatians. 

282  Carinus,  Numerianus,  Emperors  of  Rome. 

283  IT  Pope  Caius. 

Fingal  King  of  Morven  died. 

284  Diocletian  EmperfA  of  Rome. 

886  The  Empire  attacked  by  the  Northern  Nations. 

— —  Caraiisiua  usurps  the  goyermuent  of  Britain,  and  reigns  seven  years. 


486  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE. 

AD. 

2D0  The  Gre^rian  and  Hermogenian  Codes  published. 

292  Parlition  of  the  Empire  by  Diocletian  between  two  EmpcTon  Bad  tw» 

Cffisars. 
295  IT  Pope  Marcel]  inus. 

Alexandria  in  Egypt  taken  by  Diocletian. 

300 

302  The  tenth  Persecution  of  the  Christians. 

304  11  Pope  Marcellus. 

Resignation  of  Diocletian  and  Maximian 

-  Galerius  and  Constantius  Emperors  of  Robqb. 

305  Ma.xlminus  Emperor  of  Rome. 

306  Constantine  the  Great   Emperor  of  Rome.     He  stops  the  Per- 

secution of  the  Christians. 
310  IT  Pope  Eusebius. 

IT  Pope  Melchiades. 

314  U  Pope  Sylvester. 

325  Constantine  abolishes  the  Combats  of  Gladiators. 

lie  as-sembles  the  first  General  Council  at  Nice,  where  the  Doctrines 

of  Arius  are  condemned. 

326  St.  Atlianasius,  Bishop  of  Alexandria,  introduces  Monarchisra  in  the 

Roman  Empire. 
329  Constantine  removes  the  Seat  of  Empire  to  Constantinople. 

336  H  Pope  Marcus. 

337  If  Pope  Julius  I. 

Death  of  Constantine.     The  Empire  divided  among  i)is  three  Sons. 

-  Constantine  II.,  Constans,  and  Constantius,  Emperors  of 

Rome. 
'552  IT  Pope  Liberius. 

356  ^  Pope  Felix  I. 

357  The  Germans  defeated  by  Julian  at  Strasbur;;. 
35d  M  Pope  Felix  II. 

361  Julian  Emperor  of  Rome.  He  abjures  Christianity,  is  elected  Pon- 
tifex  Maximus,  and  attempts  fruitlessly  to  rebuild  the  Temple  of 
Jerusalem. 

363  Jovian  Emperor  of  Rome. 

3(j4  Valentinian  Emperor  of  the  West. 

, ValenS  Empercr  of  the  East. 

366  H  Pope  Damasus. 

367  Gratian  Emperor  of  the  West. 

37.5  Valentinian  II.  Emperor  of  the  West. 

376  Valens  allows  the  Gothg  to  settle  in  Thrace. 

37ri  The  Goths  advance  to  the  Gales  of  Constantinople,     Death  of  Valcni. 

379  Theodo.sius  the  Great  Emperor  of  the  East. 

381   Second  General  Council  held  at  Constantinople. 

383  The  Huns  overrun  Mesopotamia  :  are  dt-feated  by  the  Goths. 

384  Symmachus  pleads  the  cause  of  Paganism  against  St.  Ambrose  in  the 

Senate. 

385  IT  Pope  Syricius. 

392  Theodosius  Emperor  of  the  West  and  East. 

395  Arcadius  Emperor  of  the  East,  and  HouoriuS  of  the  West 

The  Huns  invade  the  Eastern  Provinces. 

397  St.  Chrysostom  chosen  Patriarch  of  Constantinople. 
399  IT  Pope  Anastasius. 

-  Gainas  the  Goth  obtains  Honours  from  Arcaciius. 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE.  48^ 

AD. 

400 

Alaric  the  Goth  iravajgcs  Italy. 

401  II  Pope  Innocent  I. 

403  Stilicho,  General  of  Honorius,  defeats  Alaric  near  Pollentia. 

404  Fergus  I.  King  of  Scotland,  supposed  to  have  begon  his  reign, 
406  The  Vandals,  Alans,  &c.  invade  France  and  Spain. 

408  Theodosius  II.  Emperor  of  the  East. 

410  Rome  sacked  and  burnt  by  Alaric.     Death  of  Alaric 

411  The  Vandals  settled  in  Spain. 

416  The  Secular  Games  celebrated  at  Rome. 

The  Pelagian  Heresy  condemned  by  the  Bishops  of  Africa. 

417  %  Pope  Zozimus. 

418  IT  Pope  Boniface  I. 

420  Pharamond  first  King  of  the  Franks  supposed  to  have  begun  kit 

reizH. 
422  If  Pope  Caelestinus. 

424  Valentinian  III.  Emperor  of  the  West. 
426  The  Romans  withdraw  finally  from  Britain. 
428  iEtius,  the  Roman  General,  defeats  the  Franks  and  Goth*. 

431  The  third  General  Council  held  at  Ephesus. 

432  TT  Pope  Sixtue  III. 

435  The  Theodosjan  Code  published. 

43!)  Generic  the  Vandal  invades  and  plunders  Italy.  ' 

Eudocia  the  Empress,  wife  of  Tiieodosius,  retires  to  Jerusaletn. 

Carthage  taken  by  the  Vandals.     Kingdom  of  the  Vandals  in  Africa. 

440  f.   Pope  Leo  the  Great. 

442  Theodosius  forced  to  make  a  disgraceful  Peace  with  Attila  the  Hun. 

Attila  causes  his  brother  Bleda'to  be  murdered. 

4'15  The  Britons  in  vain  solicit  the  Romans  to  assist  them  against  the  Picto 

and  Scots. 

445  Attila  the  Hun  overrnns  Illyrium,  Thrace,  Dacia,  Mcesia,  and  Scythia 

448  The  Romans  engage  to  pay  a  heavy  Tribute  of  Gold  to  Attila. 

44y  Merovcms  King  of  the  Franks. 

450  Marcian  Emperor  of  the  East. 

Attila  ravages  Germany  and  France. 

451  Theodoric  King  of  the  Visigoths  killed  in  battle.     The  Hune  defeated 

by  .^tius. 

The  Saxons  arrive  in  Britain  under  Hengift  and  Horsa. 

The  fourth  General  Council  held  at  Chalcedon. 

4.52  Foundation  of  the  city  of  Venice. 

455  Petromiu.S  Maximus  Emperor  of  the  West. 
— -  Avitus  Emperor  of  the  West. 

Rome  taken  and  plundered  by  Genseric  the  Vaiula^, 

456  Childeric  King  of  the  Franks. 

457  Leo  the  Great  Emperor  of  the  East. 

MajorianUS  Emperor  of  the  West. 

461  Sevcrus  Emperor  of  the  West,  raised  by  Ricimer. 

IT  Pope  Hilarius. 

467  Anthemius  Emperor  of  the  West. 

468  Eric  King  of  the  Visigoths  drives  the  Romans  out  of  Spai«. 

II  Pope  Simplicius. 

47f)  ^.lla  the  Saxon  takes  possession  of  the  Kingdom  of  Sussex. 

471  /Ella  defeats  all  the  British  Princes. 

472  Great  Eruption  of  Mount  Vesuvius,  seen  from  Constantinople 
— .  OlyblUS  Emperor  of  the  West. 

(3 


490  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE. 

A.  D. 

473  Glycerius,  Emperor  of  the  West,  degraded  and  stripped  by 

474  Julius  Nepos  Emperor  of  the  West. 

Zero  Emperor  of  tlie  East. 

AugUStulus  Romulus  Emperor  of  the  West,  raised  by  hiis  father 

Orestes,  General  of  Nepos. 
476  Orestes  put  to  death  by  Odoacer  King  of  the  Heruli. 

Rome  taken  by  Odoacer  now  king  of  Italy. 

Extinction  of  the   Western  Empire  of  the  Romans,   507  years 

from  the  battle  of  Actium,  and  1224  from  the  builduig  of  Rome. 
481    Clovis  King  of  the  Franks. 
Zeno  makes  Theodoric,  the  Ostrogoth,  liis  General,  and  creates  him 

Consul. 
483  IT  Pope  Felix  IIL 
48o  Battle  of  tjoissons  gained  by  Clovis. 
466  Theodoric,  the  Ostrogoth,  entirely  defeats  Odoacer,  and  is  acknowN 

edged  King  of  Italy  by  tbv  Emperor  Zeno. 

490  The  Burgundians,  under  Gondcbald,  ravage  Italy. 

Ireland,  called  the  Isle  of  Saints,  famous  for  its  Schools. 

491  Anastasius  Emperor  of  the  East. 
493  Odoacer  put  to  death  by  Theodoric. 
4^(6  IT  Pope  Anastasius  II. 

497  Clovis  and  the  Franks  converted  to  Christianity. 
496  1l   Pope  Syinmachus. 

499  Alliance  between  Ck)vis  and  Theodoric  the  Great 
&00 

Gondebald,  the  Burgundian,  becomes  tributary  to  Clovis. 

501  Tiie  Burgundian  Laws  published  by  Gondebald. 

.502  Cabades  King  of  Persia  ravages  part  of  the  Eetstern  Empire. 
504  The  Ea.stern  Empire  m;ikes  peace  with  Cabades. 

507  Clovis  defeats  Alaric  the  Visigoth,  and  receives  a  congratulatory  em- 

bassy, with  a  diadem,  from  Anastasius. 

508  Theodoric  the   Great  defeats  Clovis  in  the  battle  of  Aries,  and  thea 

makes  peace  with  him. 
510  Clovis  makes  Paris  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Franks. 
51rt  Death  of  Clovis.     Division  of  his  Idngdom  among  his  four  sons, 

Childehert,  Thierry,  Clotaire,  and  Ciudmnir,  Kings  of  the  Franks. 

512  The  Heruli  allowed  by  Anastasius  to  settle  in  Thrace. 

514  IT  Pope  Hormisdas. 

515  Arthur  king  of  the  Britons  supposed  to  have  begun  his  reign. 

51(3  The  Computation  of  Time  by  the  Christian  yEra  introduced  by  Dio- 
nysius  the  Monk. 

517  The  Gets  ravage  lUyrium,  Macedonia,  and  Epirus. 

518  Justiil  I.  Emperor  of  the  East  raised  from  obscurity. 

519  Justin  restores  the  Orthodox  Bishops,  and  condemns  the  Eutychians. 

Cabades  King  of  Persia  proposes  tliat  Justin  should  adopt  his  son 

Cosroes,  and  makes  war  on  a  refusal. 
523  TI  Pope  John  I. 

525  The  Arian  Bishops  deposed  by  Justin,  and  this  act  highly  resented  by 

Theodoric. 

Antioch  and  many  other  cities  almost  destroyed  by  an  earthquake,  and 

rebuilt  by  Justm,  who  adopts  his  nephew  Justinian. 

526  Theodoric  puts  to  death  Boethius  and  Symmachus. 

^  Pope  Felix  IV. 

527  Justinian  I.  Emperor  of  the  East. 

529  Belisarius,  General  of  Justinian,  defeats  the  Persians. 

The  Books  of  the  Civil  Law  published  by  Justinian. 

530  If  Pope  Boniface  II. 


CHRONOLOGICAL   TABLE.  491 

AD. 

532  Justinian  congratulates  Cosroes  on  succeeding  to  the  throne  of  Persia 

and  concludes  a  perpetual  peace  with  him. 
——  Great  Insunection  at  Constantinople  quelled  with  prodigious  slaughter 
by  Belisarius. 

533  Aihalaric  King  of  the  Ostrogoths  dies,  and  is  succeeded  by  his  mother 

Amalasonta. 

ir  Pope  John  IL 

534  Theudobert  Kitig  of  Metz: 

Belisarius  defeats  Gelimer  and  the  Vandals  in  AfVica. 

535  TJ  Pope  Agapetus. 
53(i  IT  Pope  Sylvester. 

537  Belisarius  subdues  the  Ostrogoths  in  Italy,  and  taltes  Rome. 

538  IT  Pope  Vigilius. 

540  Belisarius  refuses  to  accept  the  crown  of  Italy. 
543  Totila,  the  Gotli,  recovere  Italy  from  the  Romans. 

547  Totila  takes  and  plunders  Rome. 

548  Thcubald  King  of  Metz. 

549  Rome  retaken  by  Belisarius. 

550  Conmiencement  of  the  kingdom  of  Poland  under  Lechu*. 

Rome  recovered  by  Totila. 

551  The  manufacture  of  Silk  introduced  into  Europe. 

553  Totila  defeated  by  Narses  the  Eunuch,  and  put  to  death. 
555  TT  Pope  Pelagius  I. 

558  The  Huns,  breaking  into  Thrace,  are  defeated  by  Belisarius^. 

559  Belisarius  degraded,  and  ungratefully  treated  by  Justinian. 

Clotaire  sole  King  of  France. 

560  TT  Pope  Jobn  HI. 

Belisarius  restored  to  his  Honours  and  Command. 

562   Caribert,  Gontran  Sigebert,  and  Chilperic,  Kings  of  France. 

565  Justin  II.  Emperor  of  Rome. 

566  Narses,  recalled  from  Italy,  invites  the  Lombards  to  take  possessioB 

of  the  country. 
568  Italy  conquered  by  the  Lombards. 
571  Birth  of  Mahomet  the  false  Prophet. 
574  TT  Pope  Benedict  I. 
578  Tiberius  II.  Emperor  of  the  East. 

IT  Pope  Pelagius  II. 

580  The  Latin  Tongue  ceases  to  be  spoken  in  Italy  about  this  time. 

582  Maurice  Emperor  of  the  East. 

584   Clotaire  II.  King  of  Soissons. 

590  Aniioch  again  destroyed,  with  30,000  inhabitants,  by  an  Earthquake. 

IT  Pope  Gregory  the  Great. 

596   Thierry  II.  a,nd  Theodobert  11.  Kings  of  Paris  and  Austrasia. 

Augustine  the  Monk  converts  the  Saxons  to  Christianity. 

600 

602  Phocas  Emperor  of  the  East  acknowledges  the  Supremacy  of  th« 

Popes. 
604  TT  Pope  Sabinianus. 

607  TT  Pope  Boniface  IV. 

The  Pantheon  at  Rome  Dedicated  to  God,  the  Virgin,  and  the  Saints. 

608  TT  Pope  Boniface  IV. 

609  The  Jews  of  Antioch  massacre  the  Christians. 
611  Heraclius  Emperor  of  the  East. 

613  The  French  Maires  du  Palais  first  introduced  by  Clotaire  as  Regents 

614  Clotaire  II.  sole  King  of  France. 

—  Q,ueen  Brunechilda,  accused  of  numberless  crimes,  is  pat  to  death  by 
Clotairs  II. 


492  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE. 

AD. 

615  M  Pope  Deus-dedit. 

616  Jerusalem  taken  by  the  Persians  under  Cosroes  IL 
618  M  Pope  Boniface  V. 

622  Era  of  the  He^yra,  or  Flight  of  Mahomet  from  Mecca  to  Medina, 
625  Tf  Pope  Hononus  L 

The  Persians  under  Cosroes  IL,  with  the  Huns,  Abari,  and  Sclav© 

nians,  besiege  Constantinople. 
628  Dagobcrt  and  Ckaribert  Kings  of  France. 
€32  Death  of  Mahomet.     Abubeker  succeeds  him  as  Caliph  of  the  Sara 

cens. 
633  Abubeker  dies,  and  is  succeeded  by  Orhar  in  the  Caliphate. 
636  Jerusalem  taken  by  Omar  and  the  Saracens,  who  keep  possession  of  i» 

463  years. 
638  Sigebert  II.  and  Claris  II.  Kings  of  France. 

640  H  Pope  Sevcrinus. 

V  Pope  John  IV. 

-  The  Library  of  Alexandria,  founded  by  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,   i^ 

burnt  by  the  Saracens. 

641  Constaiitine,  Emperor  of  the  East  for  a  few  months,  poisoned  by 

his  step-mother. 

-  Heraclionas  and  Tiberius  III.  Emperors  of  the  East. 

642  Constans,  son  of  Constantine,  Emperor  of  the  East. 

TI  Pope  Theodorus. 

645  Otman  succeeds  Omar  in  the  Cajipnate. 

648  Cyprus  taken  by  the  Saracens  under  Mawia. 

649  TI  Pope  Martin"L 

653  Tl>e  k-'aracens  take  Rhodes,  an»i  uC<«</oy  the  Colossus.  ' 

654  Childeric  II.  King  of  Australia. 

H  Pope  Engenius  I. 

655  .\li  Caliph  of  Arabia.    Mawia  Caliph  of  Egypt. 

657  V  Pope  Vitalianus. 

658  The  Saracens  obtain  Peace  of  the  Emperor  Constans,  and  agree  to 

pay  a  yearly  tribute. 

668  Constantius  V.  (Pogonatus)  Emperor  of  the  East. 

669  Sicily  ravaged  by  the  Saracens. 
672  IT  Pope  Adeodatus. 

The  Saracens  ineffectually  besiege  Constantinople.     Their  fleet  de 

stroyed  by  the  Greek  Fire  used  by  Callinicus. 

675  The  Saracens  attempt  to  land  in  Spain,  but  are  repulsed  by  Wamba 

King  of  the  Visgoths. 

676  IT  Pope  Donus. 

679  Thierry  IV.  King  of  all  France. 

TI  Pope  Agatho. 

680  The  sixth  General  or  QElcumenical  Council  of  ConstantinopU. 
682  IT  Pope  Leo  IL 

684  ^  Pope  Benedict  II. 

685  11  Pope  John  V. 

— .  Justinian  II.  Emperor  of  the  East. 

. The  Britons,  totally  subdued  by  the  Saxons,  retreat  into  Wales  anjl 

Cornwall. 

686  IT  Pope  Canon. 

686  Ceadwalla  King  of  Wessex  subdues  Sussex  and  Kent. 

687  IT  Pope  Sergius. 

690  Pepin  Heristel,  Maire  du  Palais,  defeats  Thierry,  and  acquires  th» 

chief  power  in  France. 
692  Cl^Tis  III.  King  of  France. 

694  Justinian  It.  dethroned,  mutilated,  and  banished  by  Leontius. 

695  GUd»hert  III.  King  of  Franc*. 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE.  493 

A  © 

695  Leontius  Emperor  of  the  East.    Dethroned  and  mutilated  by 

697  Apsimar  or  Tiberius  Emperor  of  the  East. 
699  The  Saracens  defeated  by  John  the  Patrician. 

700 
The  Saracens  again  defeated  with  great  slaughter  by  Heraclios,  brother 

of  Tiberius. 
701  IT  Pope  John  VL 
704  Justinian  escapes  from  prison,  defeats  Tiberius,  and  is  restored  to  the 

throne. 
707  Justinian  IL  defeated  by  the  Bulgarians. 
703  IT  Pope  Sisinnius. 

IT  Pope  Constantine. 

711  Philippicus  Bardanes  Emperor  of  the  East. 

Dagohert  III.  King  of  France. 

713  Anastasius  II.  Emperor  of  the  East. 

Spain  conquered  by  the  Saracens  under  Muca,  the  general  of  the 

Caiiph  Walid. 

714  I1   Pope  Gregory  IL 

Theodosius  Emperor  of  the  East. 

Charles  Martcl,  Mairc  du  Palais,  governs  all  France  for  26  years. 

71G   Childcric  II.  King  of  France. 

Leo  (the  Isurian)  Emperor  of  the  East. 

720  Omar  II.  besieges  Constantinople  without  success. 

Thierry  IF.  King  of  France. 

726  Leo  forbids  the  Worship  of  Images,  which  occasions  a  great  rebellion 
of  his  subjects.     The  Pope  defends  the  practice. 

728  Leo  orders  Pope  Gregory  to  be  seized  and  sent  to  Constantinople ; 

but  the  order  is  frustrated,  and  Leo  confiscates  the  Imperial  Do- 
mains  of  Sicily  and  Calabria. 

729  The  Saracens  ravage  Gallia  Narbonnensis. 

731  IT  Pope  Gregory  III.  ' 

732  Charles  Martel  defeats  the  Saracens  between  Tours  and  Poictiers. 

736  Leo  persecutes  the  Monks. 

737  Death  of  Pelagius,  who  preserved  the  Christian  Monarchy  in  Astnria. 

740  Tiie  Duchy  of  Spoleto  seized  by  the  Normans.     Recovered  by  the 

Pope. 

741  IT  Pope  Zachary. 

742  Childcric  III.  King  of  France 

Constantine  (Copronymus)  Emperor  of  the  East.     An  enemy  to 

images  and  saint  worsliip. 

743  He  defeats  and  puts  to  death  Artabazdus,  who  had  seized  Constan- 

tinople. 
745  He  destroys  the  fleet  of  the  Saracens. 
749  The  Race  of  the  AbassidaB  become  Caliphs  of  the  Saracens. 

751  Pepin  (le  Bref)  King  of  France,  founder  of  the  second  or  Carlomn- 

gian  Race. 

752  IT  Pope  Stephen  III. 

753  Astolphus  King  of  the  Lombards  erects  the  Dukedom  of  Ravenna^ 

and  claims  from  the  Pope  the  Dukedom  of  Rome. 

754  Pope  Stephen  requests  the  assistance  of  Pepin  against  the  Lombards. 

Pepin  invades  Italy,  and  strips  Astolphus  of  his  new  possessions,  con- 

ferring them  on  the  Pope  as  a  temporal  sovereignty. 
— —  Almanzor  Caliph  of  the  Saracens,  a  great  encourager  of  learning. 
756  Desiderius,  or  Dider,  proclaimed  lung  of  the  Lombards,  with  th« 

Pope's  consent. 
»-^  AbdaJraJunan  I.  takes  the  title  of  King  of  Cordova,  and- is  the  found«T 

of  the  splendid  dorainion  of  tlie  Moors  in  JSjpalR. 


494  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE. 

AD 

757  IT  Pope  Paul  I,  renews  the  alliance  with  Desiderius^ 

759  IT  Pope  Stephen  III.  quarrels  with  Dcsiderius. 

762  Ali7ianzor  builds  Bagdat,  and  makes  it  the  seat  of  the  Empire  Off  th% 

Caliphs.  , 

7G7  The  Turks  ravage  Asia  Minor. 
7t3S   Charles  {the  Great)  and  Carloman,  Kings  of  France, 

IT  Pope  Steplien  IV. 

770  Constantine  dissolves  the  Monasteries  in  the  East. 
772  Charlemagne  sole  Monarch  of  France. 

He  makes  war  against  the  Saxons. 

TT  Pope  Adrian  I. 

774  Charlemagne  defeats  Desiderias,  and  puts  an  end  to  the  kingdom  of 

the  Lombards,  which  had  subsisted  206  years. 

775  Leo  IV.  Emperor  of  the  East. 

778  Battle  of  Roncczvalles  between  the  Cliristians  and  Moors  in  Spain, 

where  l#olando  is  killed. 
77!)  Charlemagne  conquers  Navarre  and  Sardinia. 
781  Constautine  (Porphyrogenitus)  Emperor  of  the  East. 

Irene,  Empress,  is  Regent  in  her  son's  minority,  and  keeps  him  in' 

entire  subjection. 

She  rc-<'3tablishes  the  wor^^hip  of  images. 

fTSS  Charlemagne  subdues  the  Saxons. 

Haroun  Alraschid  Caliph  of  the  Saracens. 

He  invades  and  ravages  a,part  of  the  Empire. 

786  Constantino  assumes  the  government  of  the  Empire,  and  imprisona 

liis  mother. 

787  The  Danes  first  land  in  England. 

The  seventh  General  Council,  or  second  of  Nice. 

788  Irene  puts  to  death  her  son  Constantine,  and  is  proclaimed  sole  Ena- 

press. 
793  Irene  proposes  to  marry  Charlemagne,  which  being  disappi;pved  by 

her  subjects,  she  is  dethroned,  and  confined  to  a  monastery. 

Nicephorus  Emperor  of  the  East. 

791  Charlemagne  defeats  and  extirpates  the  Huns. 

ir  Pope  Leo  HI. 

797  The  Saracens  ravage  Cappndocia,  Cyprus,  Rhodes,  &c. 

Nicephorus  associates  his  son  Saturacius  in  the  Empire. 

soo 

-  Nv.w   Empire  of   the  West.     Charlemagne  crowned  Emperor  at 

Rome. 
807  Haroun  Alraschid  courts  the  alliance  of  Charlemagne.  ' 

811  Michael  (Curopalates)  Emperor  of  the  East. 

813  LpO  (the  Armenian)  Emperor  of  the  East. 

Almamon,  Caliph  of  the  Saracens,  a  great  cncourager  of  learning. 

814  Lewis  (le  Dehonnaire)  Emperor  of  France. 

S16  The  Eastern  Empire  ravaged  by  Earthquakes,  Famine,  Conflagra- 
tions, «fcc. 

816  Tf  Pope  Stephen  V. 

)il7  H  Pope  Pascal  I. 

Lewis  (le  Deb.)  divides  the  Empire  among  his  sons. 

821  Michael  (Balbus  Of  the  StamsQerer)  Emperor  of  the  East. 

924  If  Pope  Eugene  II. 

S27  32stlttt  unites  the  kingdoms  of  the  Saxon  H«ptarehy     Begin»irig 
or  the  kingdom  of  England. 

»—  ?  Pope  Valentine. 

tt8  Gregory  IV. 

MQ  TksopbUuft  Banperot  ff  the  Emi 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLB. 

AD. 

836  IStijtltDOU  King  of  England. 

The  Scots  under  Kenneth  entirely  subdue  the  Picts. 

840  LOTH.'IRI US  EmiieroT  of  Germany. 
Ckanes  {the.  Bald)  King  of  France. 

841  Lotharius  defeated  by  his  two  brothers  in  the  battle  of  Fontanai,  and 

deposed. 

842  LEU  IS  (of  Bavaria)  Emperor  of  Germany. 
Michael  III.  Emperor  of  the  East. 

843  The  Normans  plunder  the  city  of  Rouen. 
&44  H  Pope  fcscrgius  III. 

845  The  Normans  plunder  Hamburah,  and  penetrate  into  Germany. 

847  U  Pope  Leo  IV. 

MS  Tlie  Venetian  Fle«t  destroyed  by  the  Saracens. 

851  TI  Pope  Joan  supposed  to  have  tilled  the  Papal  chair  for  two  yea». 

BasillUS  associated  Emperor  of  the  East. 

855  LEWIS  II.  Emperor  of  Germany. 

8.^7  Sa'ti)CltJaItr  and  2Eitl)tllJCt:t  Kings  of  England.  '^'pf 

858  Tf  I'opc  Nicholas  I.  '  «p 

em  KUjeU'Cla  King  of  England.  '~' 

8tJ7  The  Danes  ravage  England. 

Basilius  sole  Emperor  of  the  East. 

IT  Pope  Adrian  II. 

I\itius,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  excommMnicates.  Pope  Adrian. 

872  ^ICrt'iJ  (the  Great)  Iving  of  England. 

11  Pope  John  VIII. 

875   CWiRLES  (the  Bald)  Emperor  of  Germany. 

877  LEWIS  (the  Stammerer)  Emperor  of  Germany  and  King  of  Franea 

879  Lewis  III.  and  Carloman,  Kings  of  France. 

The  kingdom  of  Aries  begins. 

880  CHJRLES  (the  Gross)  Emperor  of  Germany  and  .King  of  Frantv. 

Ravagers  of  the  Normans  in  France. 

882  II  Pope  Marinus. 

864  ^  Pope  Adrian  III. 

886  Leo  (the  Philosopher)  Emperor  of  the  East. 

— —  Tlie  University  of  O.xford  founded  by  Alfred. 


887  jIRjYOLD,  Emperor  of  Germany. 
The  Normans  besiege  Paris,  which 


which  is  gallantly  defended  by  Bishop 

Goselin  and  Count  Eudes. 
888  Elides  or  Odo  King  of  France. 
890  Alfred  the   Great  composes  his  Code  of  Laws,  and  divides  England 

into  Counties,  Hundreds,  and  Tithings. 
Sftl  IT  Pope  Formosus. 
890  V.   Pope  Stephen  VII. 

897  1[  Pope  John  IX. 

898  Charles  III.  {the  Simple)  King  of  Franee. 
900 

TT  Pope  Benedict  IV. 

LEWIS  IV.  Emperor  of  Germany. 

901  lEDUiartl   (the  Elder)  succeeds  Alfred  as  King  of  England. 

904  U  Pope  Leo  V. 

905  IT  Pope  Sergius  III. 

911  COKRAD  I.  Emperor  of  Germany. 

Constantine  IX.  Emperor  of  the  East. 

912  The  Normans  are  established  in  Normandy  nnder  Rollv. 

913  II  Pope  Anastasius. 

914  TI  Pope  Landon. 

91^  Cpnstantine  and  Romanus  Emperors  of  the  £»<*« 


496  CHRONOLOGICAL   TABLE. 

AD. 

915  IT  Pope  John  X. 

The  University  of  Cambridge  founded  by  Edward  the  Elder. 

S20  HEm:  Y  (the  Fowler)  Emperor  of  Germany. 

S23  Rod^lpk  King  of  France. 

9:2.5  ^tlJCi.6t«TU  King  of  England. 

928  ^i  Pcje  Leo  VL 

92^)  ^1   Pope  Stephen  VIIL 

931  ^  Pope  John  XI. 

93t)  OTIIO  (the  Great)  Emperor  of  GermaBy. 

%  Pope  Lho  VII. 

Leicis  ir.  {d'Outremer)  King  of  France. 

929  r   Pope  Stephen  IX. 

940  IIowel-I>lia,  1,  iiii;  of  Wales,  an  eminent  Lawyer. 

941  liUmUiltJ  I.  Kin^  of  England, 
943  Ti  Pope  Mariniis  Xlll. 

946  11  Pope  Agapet. 
Ity^m  IHTirtlJ  King  of  Engla.-a. 
..m,    &54   Lothurius  King  of  France. 

955  lEtJtDO  Kin-  of  England. 

056  "i.   Pope  John  XII. 

959  Romanus  II.  Emperor  of  the  East. 

Istrfi.Tr  Kin?  of  England. 

»63  i;  Pope  Leo  A  lil.  • 

Nicephonis  Phocus  Emperor  of  the  East. 

{►64  Otho  the  Great  conquers  Italy. 

965  H  Pope  John  XIII. 

967  Antioch  recovered  from  the  Saracens  by  Nic«phorus, 

969  John  Zemisses  Emperor  of  the  East. 

97Q  %  Poj>e  Benedict  VI.  * 

973  OTHO  II.  Emperor  of  Germany. 

974  r,   Pope  Boniface  VII. 
»75  II  Pope  Benedict  VH. 

-  Basiliiis  and  Con.stantine  X.  Emperors  of  the  East. 
976  HtriOnrlJ  n.  i:ing  of  England. 

973  Ktfjf  ICttJ  11.  King  of  England. 

983  OTHO  111.  Emncior  of  Germany. 

984  U  Pope  John  XIV. 
986  7  Pope  John  XV. 

Levis  V.  {le  Faintani)  King  of  Frante. 

Hugh  Capet,  King  of  France,  founder  of  the  Third  Race  of  the  French 

Kings. 
991  The  Arabic  numeral  Ciphers  first  introduced  into  Europe. 
996  Rcbert  (the  Wise)  King  of  France. 

IF  P(,pe  Gregory  V. 

909  IT  Pope  Sylvester  IE 

1000 

1002  HE.YRYII.  Emperor  of  Germany. 

J:  at  Massacre  of  the  Danes  by  Ethelred  King  of  England. 

1003  II  Pope  John  XVI. 

IT  Pope  John  XVII. 

1004  II  Pope  John  XVIII. 

1005  Ciiurches  first  built  in  the  Gothic  etyle. 
1009  IT  Pope  Sereius  IV. 

1012  IT  Pope  Benedict  VIIL 

1013  The  Danes,  under  .Sueno,  get  possession  of  Englaod. 

1015  The  Manichean  Doctrines  prevalent  ui  France  and  Ital|r< 

1016  iSlrmUnil  II-  (ironside)  King  of  England, 


X 
CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE.  4J7 

AD. 

1016  Six  Battles  fought  with  the  Danes  under  Canute  in  England 

1017  (tSViUU  the  Dane  (the  Great)  King  of  England. 

1018  The  Normans  invade  Italy. 
1024  IT  Pope  John  XIX.  or  XX. 

COJVRjiD  II.  (the  Salic)  Emperor  of  Germany. 

10*25  Musical  Characters  invented  by  Guido  Aretino. 
1028  Romaniis  Argyrus  Emperor  of  the  East. 
1031  Henry  I.  King  of  France. 

1033  %  Pope  Benedict  IX. 

1034  Michael  IV.  Emperor  of  the  East. 

1036  |£?arOltl  n.  (Harefoot)  Kins  of  Ensland. 

1039  H'E^'^R  Y  HI.  Emperor  of  Gerinany. 

—  Canutf  II.  or  ?i>artJicanute  King  of  England. 

1040  Macbeth  usurps  the  Throne  of  Scotland  by  the  murder  of  Duncan. 

1041  HtltaOattl  III-  (the  Confessor)  King  of  England,  restores  the  Sax- 

on line. 
Michael  (Calaphales)  Emperor  of  the  East. 

1042  Constantine  (Monomachus)  Emperor  of  the  East. 

1043  The  Turks,  under  Tangrolipix,  subdue  Persia. 

1045  TT  Pope  Gregory  VI. 

1046  H  Pope  Clement  II. 
1U48  IT  Pope  Damasus  II. 

1049  IT  Pope  Leo  IX.  the  first  Pope  who  maintained  a  regular  army. 

1054  Theodora  Emperor  of  the  East. 

Pope  Leo  IX.  taken  prisoner  by  the  Normans. 

1055  11  Pope  Victor  II. 

The  Turks  take  Bagdat,  and  overturn  the  Empire  of  the  Caliphs. 

1056  HEjYRY  IV.  Emperor  of  Germany. 

1057  iVIalcolm  III.  (Canmore)  King  of  Scotland. 

Isaac  (Comnenus)  Emperor  of  tlie  East. 

11  Pope  Stephen  X. 

1058  II  Pope  Nicholas  II. 

— i —  The  Saracens  driven  out  of  Sicily  by  Robert  Guiscard  the  Nonivan. 

1059  Constantine  XII.  (Ducas)  Emperor  of  the  East. 

1060  Philip  I.  King  of  France. 
1001  IT  Pope  Alexander  II. 

1065  The  Turks  take  Jerusalem  from  the  Saracens. 

1006  iKjarOlO  II-  King  of  England  reigned  nine  months. 

SS'ilUaJH  (the  Conqueror)  King  of  England. 

10G8  Romanus  Diogenes  Emperor  of  the  East. 

Edgar  Atheling  seeks  refuge  in  Scotland. 

1068  Margaret,  sister  of  Edgar  Atheling,  married  to  Malcolm  King  of  Scot- 
land. 

1070  The  Feudal  Law  introduced  into  England. 

1071  Michael  Ducas  Emperor  o(  the  East. 
1073  1i   Pope  Gregory  VII. 

1076  The  Emperor  Henry  IV.  excommunicated  and  deposed  by  the  Pope. 

W78  NlCCphoi-US  (Boton)  Emperor  of  the  East. 

1079  Doomsday-book  begun  by  William  the  Conqueror. 

1081  Alexius  I.  (Comnenus)  EmpeKor  of  the  East. 

•  Henry  IV.  Emperor  besieges  Rome. 

1034  He  is  re-crowned  Emperor  of  Germany, 

1086  IT  Pope  Victor  III 

10b7  H  Pope  Urban  H. 

Tta  15 


498  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE 

A  B 

10^7  253llinitrtn  II.  (Rufus)  King  of  England. 

1093   St.  Margai-el  Queen  of  Scotland  died. 

■     Donald  Bane  King  of  Scotland. 

1095   Duncan  IL  King  of  Scotland. 

The  fir«t  Crusade  to  the  Holy  Land.     Poter  the  Hermit. 

KyjS    The  Crusaders  take  Antiocli. 

iLdgar  King  of  Scotland. 

1099  Jerusalem  taken  by  Godfrey  of  Boulogne.     The  Knights  of  St,  John 
instituted. 

^  Pope  Pascal  II. 

IIOU 

ll^CItrg  I.  (Bcauclerc)  King  of  England. 

1102  Guiscard  of  Normandy  takes  the  title  of  King  of  Naples. 
1104  Baldwin  King  of  Jerusalem  takes  Ptolemais. 

1106  HENRY  V.  Emperor  of  Germany. 

n07  Alexander  I.  King  of  Scotland. 

1103  Levis  VI.  {le  Gros)  King  of  France. 

1118  IT  PopeGelasiusII. 

The  order  of  Knights  Templars  instituted. 

John  (Comnenus)  Emperor  of  the  East. 

1119  If  Pope  Cali.xtus  If. 

1124  David  I.  King  of  Scotland. 

H   Poj)c  Ilonorius  II. 

J12.J  LOTHARIUS  II.  Emperor  of  Germany. 
1130  H  Pope  Innocent  II.  v 

113.5  ^te.pi)Cn  King  of  England. 

1137  Lewis   VII.  {Ic  Jcunc)  King  of  France.     Married  to  Eleanor  of  Gui- 

enne. 

The  Pandects  of  the  Roman  Law  discovered  at  Amalphi. 

1138  COjYR.iD  III.  Emperor  of  Germany. 

The  Scots,  under  David  I.,  defeated  by  the  English  iHthe  battle  of  the 

Standard. 

1139  Alphonso  I.  King  of  Portugal  rescues  his  kingdom  from  the  Saracens. 

1140  The  Canon  Law  first  intradured  into  England. 

1141  Stephen  King  of  England  taken  prisoner  in  the  battle  of  Lincoln  by 

the  troops  of  Matilda. 
1143  He  recovers  his  kingdom. 

V  Pope  Caelcstinus  II. 

, Manuel  (Comnoius;  Emperor  of  the  East, 

J144  ^  Pope  LuciiHs  H. 

1145  H   Pope  Eugene  III. 

1147  The  second  Crusade  excited  by  St.  Bernard. 

1150  The  study  of  the  Civil  Law  ipvived  at  Bologna. 

J151  The  Canon  Law  is  collected  by  Gratian,  a  Monk  of  Bologna. 

1152  FREDERICK  I.  (Barbaro.^sa)  Emperor  of  Germany. 

1153  irlalcolnyl^-  King  of  Scotland. 
.  V  Pope  Anastasius  IV. 

— —  Treaty  of  Winchester.     Compromise   between   King   Stephen   and 
Prince  Henry. 

1154  f^tXit^  II.  (Plantagenet)  King  of  England. 
—  TI  Pope  Adrian  IV. 

.■        The  parties  of  the  Guelphs  and  Ghibellines  distorb  Italy. 
11,57  The  Bank  of  Venice  instituted. 

1158  Interview  between  Henry  IL  and  Malcolm  IV.  at  Carliele. 
UW  1  Pope  Alexander  III. 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE.  499 

AD 

1160  The  AlbigensGs  maintain  Iieretical  doctrines. 

11G4  Institution  of  tlie  order  of  the  Teutonic  Knights  in  Germany 

T.  licck«t  condemned  by  the  Council  of  Clarendon. 

1165  TTilliam  (the  Lion)  King  of  .Scotland. 

1171  T.  Becket  murdered  at  Canterbury. 

1172  Conquest  of  Ireland  by  Henry  II. 
IISO  Philip  Jiugiistus  King  of  France. 

1],91  Alexiu.S  II.  (Comnenus)  Emperor  of  the  East. 
11S3  KT  Pope  Lucius  III. 

AndroniciLS  (Comnenus)  Emperor  of  the  East. 

1185  H  Pope  Urban  III. 

Isaac  Angelu€.  Emperor  of  the  East. 

1187  IT  Pope  Gregory  VIII. 

The  citv  of  Jerusalem  taken  by  Saladiru 

1188  IT  Pope"  Clement  III. 

1189  iiict^rtr  I.  (Co-ur  do  Lion)  King  of  England. 

The  third  Crusade  under  Richard  I.  and  Philip  Augustus. 

1190  HEJ^RY  VI.  Emperor  of  Germany. 

1191  TT  Pope  Caslestinus  III. 

1102  Richard  I.  defeats  Saladin  in  the  battle  of  Ascalon. 

Guy  of  Lusignan  King  of  Jerusalem. 

1195  Alexius  Angelus  (the  Tyrant)  Emperor  of  the  East. 
1193  PHILIP  Emperor  of  Germany. 

11  Pope  Innocent  III. 

1199  ^Olin  King  of  England. 
1200 

1203  The  fourth  Crusade  sets  out  from  Venice. 

Constantinople  taken  by  the  French  and  Venetians. 

1203  Alexius  and  Murbzuphlus  Emperors  of  the  East. 

1204  Baldwin  I.  Emperor  of  Constantinople,  and  Tlieodore  I.    (Las- 

caris)  Emperor  of  Nicfpa. 

The  Inquisition  established  by  Pope  Innocant  III. 

1206  Henry  Emperor  of  Consiantinople. 

1208  OTHO  IV.  Emperor  of  Germany. 

London   incorpfcrated,  obtains  a  charter  for  electing  a  Mayor  and 

Magistratf's. 
1210  Crusade  against  the  Albieenses,  under  Simon  de  Blontfort. 
1212  FREDERICK  II.  Emperor  of  Germany. 

1214  A  lexander  II.  King  of  Scotland. 

1215  Magna  Charta  signed  by  King  John. 

1216  pItnrO  HI.  King  of  England. 

. ^  Peter  and  John  Ducas  Emperors  of  the  East. 

1219  Robert  Emperor  of  the  East. 

Damietta  *aken  by  the  Crusaders 

1223  Lewis  VIII.  King  of  France. 

1226  IT  Pope  Honorius  III. 

St.  Lewis  IX.  King  of  France. 

1227  IT  Pope  Gregory  IX. 

— —  Gengiskan  and  the  Tartars  overrun  the  Empire  of  the  SaracenA 

1228  Baldwin  II.  French  Emperor  of  Constantinople. 
1234  The  Inquisition  committed  to  the  Dominican  Monks. 
12^7  Russia  brought  under  subjection  by  the  Tartars. 
1241  ^   Pope  Ceelestinus  IV. 

1243  IT  Pope  Innocent  IV. 
'  I24i  Tbe  fifth  Crusade  tuider  St.  L«wu. 


500  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE. 

AD. 

1249  A  lexander  III.  King  of  Scotland. 
12r>l    COjYRjID  IV.  Emperor  of  Germany. 

1254  IT  Pope  Alexander  IV. 

Interregnum  in  tiie  Empire  of  Germany,  from  the  death  of  Conrad  IV 

in  1254,  to  the  election  of  Rodolph  in  1273. 

1255  Theodore  II.  (La.';caris)  Emperor  of  Nicaja. 

1258  Bagdat  taken  by  the  Tartars.     End  of  the  Empire  of  the  Saracens. 

12.5!)  John  (^ascaris)  Emperor  of  Nicaea. 

12G0  Michael  (Pafeolopns)   Emperor  of  Nicrpa. 

The  Flagellants  preach  Baptism  by  Brood. 

12f)l  IT  Pope  Urban  IV. 

The  (ireek  Eniiierors  recover  Constantinople  from  the  French. 

1263  The  Norwegians  invade  Scotland,  and  are  defeated  by  Alexander  III. 

in  the  battle  of  Largs. 
12G4  H  Pope  ClementjJV. 

The  Deputies  of  Boroughs  first  summoned  to  Parliament  in  England. 

Henry  III.  of  England  taken  prisoner  in  the  battle  of  Lewes. 

12^55  Charles  Count  of  Anjou  King  of  Sicily. 

1270  Philip  III.  {the  Bold)  King  of  France. 

1271  IT  Pope  (Gregory  X. 

1272  IStJUjartl  I-  (Longsiianks)  King  of  England. 

1273  RODOLFH  (of  Hapsburg)  Emperor  of  Germany,  first  of  the  Austri- 

an Family. 
127G  IT  Pope  Innocent  V. 

IT  Pope  Adrian  V. 

^  Pope  John  XXI. 

1277  ^  Pope  Nichola.s  III. 

1281  IT  Pone  Martin  IV. 

1282  The  Sicilian  Vespers,  v/hen  8,000  French  were  inass;wred. 

1283  Aildronicus  1.  (Pal.Tiologus-)  Emperor  of  the  East. 

The  conquest  of  Wules  by  Edward  I. 

1285  IT  Pope  Honorius  IV. 

Philip  ir.  {the  Fair)  King  of  France. 

128G    iVlargaret  (of  Norway)  Queen  of  Scotland. 
12;-8  IT  Pope  Nicholas  IV. 

1290  Interregnum  in  Scotland  for  two  years.     Competition  between  Bruc« 

and  Baliol  for  the  crown,  decided  by  Edward  I. 

1291  Ptolemais  taken  by  the  Turks.     End  of  the  Crusades. 

1292  J  obn  Baliol  King  of  Scotland. 

JIDULPHUS  (of  Nassau)  Emperor  of  Germany. 

.  IT  Pope  Cajlestiiuis  V. 

1293  From  this  year  there  is  a  regular  succession  of  English  Parliaments. 

1294  IT  Pope  Boniface  Vlll. 

1295  Michael  ADdronifU.'^  Emperor  of  the  East. 

1296  Interregnum  in  Scotland  fijr  eight  years.     Sir  William  Wallace  nobly 

supports  the  liberty  of  his  country,  defeats  the  English  at  Sterling, 

and  drives  tbem  out  of  the  kingdom. 
1298  Wallace  chosen  Regent  of  Scotland,  defeated  at  Falkirk. 
— —  ALBERT  I.  (of  Austria)  Emperor  of  Germany. 
■         The  present  Turkish  Empire  begins  under  Ottoman  in  Bithynia. 
1300 

1301  Quarrel  between  Philip  the  Fair  and  Pope  Bomfiice  VIII. 

1302  Corn)'n  and  Eraser  defeat  the  English  thrice  in  one  day. 
•— —  The  Mariner's  Compass  Said  to  be  discovered  at  Naples. 

1304   Wallace  betrayed,  delivered  up,  and  put  to  death  by  Edwanf  I> 

I)80i>  liobert  1.  (Bruce)  King  of  Seotkad. 


©HRONOLOGICAL  TABLE.  SOl 

AD 

1307  The  Establishment  of  the  Swiss  Republics. 

. 25^t0«ttr  II-  King  of  England. 

1308  HEJVRY  VII.  Emperor  of  Germany. 

IT  Pope  Clement  V. 

The  seat  of  the  Popes  transferred  to  Avignog  for  seventy  years. 

1310  Rliodes  taken  by  the  Knights  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem. 

1311  Pierce  Gaveston,  favourite  of  Edward  II.,  put  to  death. 

1312  The  Knights  Templars  suppressed  by  Philip  the  Fair. 

1314  The  Scots  under  Robert  Bruce  defeat  the  English  under  Edward  II. 

at  Bannockburn. 

LEWIS  V.  (of  Bavaria)  Emperor  of  Germany. 

Lewis  X.  (Hut/n)  King  of  France. 

1315  John  King  cf  France. 

1316  ^  Pope  John  XXII. 

Philip  V.  {the  Long)  King  of  France. 

13^0  Andronicus  II.  (Palccologus)  Emperor  of  the  East. 
1321   Charles  IV.  {the  Fair)  King  of  France.  ' 

1327  IStrtoarti  m.  King  of  England. 
132d  Phiiip  VI.  {of  Valois)   King  of  France. 

1320  David  II.  King  of  Scotland.     Randolph  Earl  of  Murray  Regent. 

1331  The  Teutonic  Knights  settle  in  Prussia. 

1332  Edward  Baliol,  assisted  by  Edward  III.,  is  crowned  at  Scone  King  of 

Scots,  but  is  soon  driven  out  of  the  kingdom. 

1333  Casimir  III.  (the«Gicat)  King  of  Poland. 

1334  U  Pope  Benedict  XII. 

1340  Gunpowder  invented  by  Swartz,  a  Monk  of  Cologne. 

Oil  Painting  invented  by  John  Van  Eyke. 

1341  John  V.  (Palaeologus)  Emperor  of  the  East. 
John  Cantacuzenos,  his  governor,  usurps  the  throne. 

1342  If  Pope  Clemen*  VI. 

1346  Battle  of  Cressy  won  by  Edward  III.  and  the  Black  Prince  over  the 

French. 

Battle  of  Durham,  in  which  David  II.  of  Scotland  is  taken  prisoner. 

1347  CHARLES  IV.  Emperor  of  Germany. 

Coin  Rienzi  assumes  the  Government  of  Rome. 

1350  The  Order  of  the  Garter  instituted  by  Edward  III. 

Peter  (the  Cruel)  King  of  Castile. 

1351  John  II.  King  of  France. 

1352  U  Pope  Innocent  VI. 

The  Turk.s  first  enter  Europe 

1356  The  Battle  of  Poictiers,  in  which  John  II.  King  of  France  19  taken 

prisoner,  and  afuM'wards  brought  to  London. 
loG2  ^  Pope  Urban  V. 

The  Law-pleadings  in  England  changed  from  French  to  English. 

134(5  Charles  V.  King  of  France. 
1370  IT  Pope  Gregory  XI. 

Jftobert  II.  King  of  Scctland. 

1377  The  Seat  of  the  Popes  removed  back  from  Avignon  to  Rome. 
— =-  alilCljaCtJ  II.    King  of  England. 

Wicklitie"s  Doctrines  propagated  in  England. 

1373  The  Schism  of  the  double  Popes  at  Rome  and  Avignon  begins  and 

continues  thirty-eight  years. 
— —  II  Pope  Urban  VI.  of  Rome. 

V  Pope  Clement  VII.  of  Avignon. 

1378  WE.XCESL.1US  Emperor  of  Germany,  deposed  in  1400. 

1380  Charles  VI.  King  of  France. 

Tamerlane  invades  and  subdues  Chorassar. 

1381  Wat  Tyler'8  and  Jack  Straw's  Insurrection  in  England. 


5(j2  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLR 

A  D. 

J  381  Peace  between  Veivice  and  Genoa. 

Bills  of  Exchange  first  used  in  England. 

1383  Cannon  first  used  by  the  English  in  the  defence  of  Calais. 

i:584  Philip  the  Bold,  Duke  of  Burgundy,  succeeds  to  the  Earldom  af 

Flanders. 
1386  Tamerlane  subdues  Georgia. 

1388  Battle  of  Otterburn  between  Percy  (Hotspur)  and  Douglas. 
1089  II  Pope  Bouifuce  IX. 

1390  Kobert  HI.  king  of  Scotland 

1391  Manuel  II.  (Palseologus)   Emperor  of  the  Eact. 
i'.yj'2  The  Capo  of  Good  Hope  discovered  by  the  Portugueee. 
131)4  The  Jews  banished  fiom  France  by  Charles  VI. 

1]    Pope  Benedict  XIH. 

13S'5  Si.$;ismaiid  King  of  Hungary  defeated  by  Bajazet  I. 
1398  Tamerlane  sul)chies  part  of  Hindoostan,  and  takes  Delhi. 
13',)9  ftftntSi  IV.  King  of  England. 
1400 

1402  Bajazet  is  taken  prisoner  by  Tamerlane  in  the  battle  of  Angaria 

Battle  of  Hiilidoun  Hill,  in  which  the  Scots  are  defeated. 

1403  Battle  of  Shrewsbury,  in  v.hich  Hotspur  is  killed. 

1404  TI   Pope  Innocent  VH. 

1405  Death  of  Tamerlane. 

1406  c*  anies  I.  King  of  Scotland. 

IT  Pope  Gregory  XII. 

1409  Council  of  Pisa,  where  Pope  Gregory  is  deposed. 

M  Pope  Alexander  V. 

1410  JOSSE  (Marquia  of  Brandenburgh)  Ennperor  of  Germany. 

M  Pope  John  XXIII. 

J411   SIGISMUjVD  Emperor  of  Germany. 

The  University  of  St.  Andrews  in  Scotland  founded. 

1413  p^enrO  V,  King  of  England. 

1414  Council  of  Constance,  in  which  two  Popes  were  deposed,  and  Pop^ 

doni  remained  vacant  near  three  years. 
141.5  Henry  V.  defeats  the  French  at  Agincourt. 

John  Huss  condemned  by  the  Council  of  Constance  for  Heresy  ami 

burnt. 
141G  Jerome  of  Prague  condemned  by  the  same  Council,  and  burnt. 
1417  If   Pope  Martin  V. 

Paper  first  made  from  linen  rags. 

1420  The  Island  of  Madeira  discovered  by  the  Portuguese. 

1421  Jol'ul  VI.  (Palaeologus)  Emperor  of  the  E<rt. 

1422  Ainurath  besieges  Constantinople. 

?J^riTrg  VI.  King  of  England.. 

Charles  VII.  King  of  France. 

James  I.  King  of  Scot.s  liberated  from  captivity  by  the  English. 

1425  The  Court  of  Session  in  Scotland  in.stitiited  by  James  I. 

1423  Joan  of  Arc,  the  Maid  of  Orleans,  compels  the  English  to  raise  tl»« 

gicge  of  that  to\^'Ti. 
1431  "i  Pope  Eugene  IV. 

Rise  of  the  Medici  family  at  Florence. 

1436  Paris  recovered  by  the  French  from  the  English. 

1437  J  amos  II.  King  of  Scotland. 

1438  ALBERT  If.  Emperor  of  Germany. 

1439  Reunion  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  Churches. 

-^ —  The  Pragmatic  Sanction  established  in  France. 

J  440  FREDEIUCK  III.  Emperor  of  Germany. 

• Invention  of  the  art  of  Printing  by  John  Guttenberg  at  Strafburg. 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE.  508 

AD. 

1444  Ladielaus  King  of  Hungary  killed  in  battle  with  the  Turka. 

M4.5  Con-Stantine  (Palaeologus)  Emperor  of  the  East. 
144G  Great  Inundation  of  the  sea  in  Holland. 
1447  11  Pope  Nicholas  V. 

Rise  of  the  Sforaa  Family  at  Milan. 

1453  Conatantinople  taken  by  the  Turks.     Extinction  of  the  Eastesh 

Empire  of  the  Romans. 
- —  End  of  the  English  government  in  France. 
1455  H   Pope  Calixtus  HI. 

Battle  of  St.  Albaus,  where  Henry  VL  is  taken  prisoner  by  the  Duke 

of  York. 

1458  IF  Pope  Pius  II.  (^Eneas  Syh-ius.) 

1459  The  art  of  Engraviag  on  copper  invented. 

1460  •!  araee  III.  King  of  Scotland. 

Battlo  of  Wakefield,  in  which  the  Duke  of  York  je  killed. 

14G1  IHUlaai'tl  IV.  King  of  England. 

Lc-jcis  XI.  King  of  j^rance. 

1470  Henry  VI.  restored  to  the  throne  of  England. 

1471  Battle  of  Barnet,  where  Warwick  ii5  killed.     Battle  of  Tewksbury, 

where  the  Lancastrians  are  totally  dufeatod. 

Edward  IV.  restored.     Prince  Edward  of  Lancaster  basely  murdered 

by  Clarence  and  Gloucester.     Death  of  Henry  VI. 

^ If  Pope  Sixtus  IV. 

■474  The  Cape  de  Verd  Islands  discovered  by  the  Portuguese. 
1475  Edward  IV.  invades  France.     Peace  of  Vecquigni  purchased  by  the 

French. 
1479  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  unite  the  kingdoms  of  Arragon  and  Castile. 
-Tj —  Russia  freed  from  subjection  to  the  Tartars  by  John  Basilwitz. 

1483  Charles  VI H.  King  of  France. 

9£"fitlJ«IVtl  V.  King  of  England.     Duke  of  Gloucester  Protector. 

Edward  V.  and  his  brother  murdered. 

iilCl)art(  III.  King  of  England. 

1484  H   Pope  Innocent  VIIl. 

1485  Battle  of  Bosworth,  in  whieh  Richard  III.  is  killed. 

^i\l^^  VII.  Kin"  of  England,  lirst  of  the  house  of  Tudor.     Union 

of  the  houses  of  York  and  Lancaster. 

1488  JTamesIV.  King  of  Scotland. 

1491  Granada  taken  by  Ferdinand  and  Isabella.     End  of  the  kingdom  of 

the  Moors  in  Spain. 

1492  IT  Pope  Alexander  VI.  (Borgia.) 

Ilispaniola  and  Cuba  discovered  bv  Christopher  Columbus. 

1493  M.iXIMILUy  I.  Emperor  of  Germany. 

1494  E.xpedition  of  Charles  VIII.  into  Naples. 

Algebra  first  known  in  Europe.    ^ 

America  discovered  by  Columbus. 

1497  The  Portuguese,  under  Vasco  de  Gama,  double  the  Gtepe  ©f  Goo^ 

Hope  and  sail  to  the  East  Indies. 

1498  Lewis  XII.  king  of  France. 

— '-r-  Savanorala  burnt  by  Popo  Alexander  VL  for  preaching  againet  th« 
vices  of  the  clergy. 

1499  Lewis  XII.  takes  possession  of  the  Milanese. 
— —  Sebastian  Cabot  lands  in  North  America^ 
1500 

-1 Brazil  discovered  by  the  Portuguese. 

— —  Maximilian  divides  Germanv  ioto  six  Ciroies,  and  adds  four  moN  m 

1512. 
1508  f  Pope  PiuB  IIL 


504  CHRONOLOGICAL   TABtE. 

AD. 

1503  V  PopcJuHusIL 

■ Battfe  of  Cerizoles,  in  which  the  French  lose  Naples 

1504  Philip  L  King  of  Spain. — 1506  Jane  his  Queen. 
1507  Madagascar  discovered  by  the  Portuguese. 
1503  League  of  Canibj-ay  against  the  Venetian*. 
1509  l^enr^  VIII.  King  of  England. 

Battle  ot  Agnadello,  May  14. 

1511   Cuba  conquered  by  the  Spaniards. 
1513  Battle  of  Flodden,  fatal  to  the  Scota 

»l  ames  V.  King  of  Scotland. 

— TI  Po-pe  Leo  X. 

lol5  Francis  I.  King  of  France. 

1516  Charles  I.  (Emperor  Charles  V.)  King  of  Spain. 

Barbarossa  seizes  the  Kingdom  of  Algiers. 

^    1517  The  Reformation  in  Germany  begun  by  Luther. 

The  Turks  put  an  end  io  the  reign  of  tnc  Mamelukes  in  Egypt. 

151S  Leo  X.  condemns  Luther's  Doctrines. 

1519  CHARLES  V.  Emperor  of  Germany. 

Fernando  Cortcz  engages  in  the  conquest  of  Mexico. 

1520  .Sweden  and  Di'umark  united. 

Mi.ssacre  at  Stockholm  by  Christiern  IL  and  Archbishop  Trollo. 

1521  ^  Pope  Adriiin  VL 

— —  Guatavus  Vasa  King  of  Sweden.  ^ 

Correz  completes  the  conr[iicst  of  3re.\ico.  8 

1522  Tlie  tirst  Voyage  round  tjie  World  performed  by  a  ship  of  Magellan's 

Sfinadron. 

1523  Solyman  the  JMa.enilicent  takes  Belgrade. 

TT  Pope  Clement  Vi(. 

1524  Sweden  and  Denmark  embrace  the  Protestant  faith. 

J525  Battle  of  Favia,  in  which  Fiiinci.s  1  is  taken  prisoner  by  Charles  V. 
152G  Treaty  of  Madrid  between  Charles  V.  and  Francis  I.,  when  tlic  latter 
is  set  at  liberty. 

1527  Rome  taken  and  plundered  by  Charles  V. 

Pizarro  and  Dalmagro  invade  the  Empire  of  Peru. 

1528  Revolution  of  Genoa  by  Andrea  Doria. 

Gustavus  Eriscun  crowned  King  of  Sweden. 

V  1529  Diet  of  Spires  against  the  Huguenots,  then  first  termed  Protestant*. 

Peace  of  Cumbray,  August ."). 

1.530  The  League  of  Smalcald  between  the  Protestants. 

1531  Michael  Servetus  burnt  forhereisy  at  Geneva. 

1532  The  Treaty  of  Nuremberg,  August  2.  « 

The  Court  of  Session  in  Scotland  new-modeled  by  James  V. 

V  1534  The  Reformation  in  England. 

U  Pope  Paul  III. 

Barbarossa  seizes  the  Kingdom  of  Tunis. 

Jack  of  Leyden  heads  the  Ainibaplists  ul  Munster. 

1535  The  Society  of  the  Jesuits  instituted  by  Ignatius  Loyola. 

Expedition  of  Charles  V.  against  Tunis. 

1538  Treaty  of  Nice  between  Charles  V.  and  Francis  L 

1540  Dissolution  of  the  Monasteries  in  England  by  Henry  VHI. 

1542  itlary  Queen  of  Scotland. 

1544  The  French  defeat  the  troops  of  Charles  V.  in  the  battle  of  Cerizolea. 

The  treaty  of  Crepi. 

1545  The  Council  of  Trent  begins,  which  continued  eighteen  years, 
154o  Cardinal  Beaton,  of  St.  Andrew's,  assassinated. 

1547  Fiesco's  Conspiracy  at  Genoa. 

— -     The  BattJe  of  Mulberg,  in  which  the  Protestants  ar«  deft«tad,  and  tit* 
Elector  of  Saxony  talien  prisoner. 

-  SOVOariJ  VI.  KIds  of  England. 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE.  50r, 

AD. 

1547  Henry  11.  King  of  France. 

\U'i6  The  Interim  gntnted  by  Charles  V.  to  tlie  Protestants. 

1550  U  Pope  Julius  HI. 

1552  The  Treaty  of  Passati  between  Charles  V.  and  the  Elector  of  Saxorjj, 

for  the  listablishment  of  Lutheranisia 

1553  JUarg'  Queen  of  Ensland. 

Lady  Jane  Grey  beheaded. 

1555  ^  Pope  Marcellus  II. 

U  Pope  Paul  IV. 

Many  Bishops  burnt  in  England  by  Mary. 

1556  FERDISA^i'D  I.  Emperor  of  Germany. 

P'.ili;-  II.  King  of  Spain. 

1557  Plulip  II.  defeats  the  French  at  St.  QuintiH. 

1558  lill^filJCtll  Queen  of  England. 

1559  U   Pope  Pius  IV. 

•  Francis  II.  King  of  France. 

Treaty  of  Catteau-Cymbresis. 

1560  Charles  IX.  King  of  France. 

Conspirac}'  of  Amboise  formed  by  the  party  of  Conde  against  that  of 

Guise.     Besiiming  of  the  Civil  Wars  in  France. 

The  Reformation  completed  in  Scotland  by  John  Knox. 

1561  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  arrives  in  Scotland  from  France. 
1.5ti2  Battle  of  DreUx.     Victor}'  of  tlie  Guises  over  Conde. 
15C4  MJXIMILUK  ri.  Emperor  of  Germany. 

;566  TI  Pope  Piu*s  VI. 

Revolt  of  the  Netli«rlands  from  Philip  II. 

1507  The  Duke  of  Alva  sent  by  Philip  to  the  Netherlands. 

tf  ames  VI.  King  of  Scotland. 

1.5(58  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  flees  to  England  for  protection. 

Philip  II.  puts  lo  death  his  son  Don  Carlos. 

1569  The  Earl  of  Murray,  Regent  of  Scotland,  assassinated  by  HamiltuM. 

The  battles  of  Jarrac  and  Moncontour  in  France,  in  which  the  Prolr 

estants  are  defeated. 

1571  Naval  Victory  at  Lepanto,  where  the  Turks  arc  defeated  by  Don  John 

of  Au.stria. 

1572  IT  Pope  Gregory  XIII. 

The  Massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew,  August  24. 

1574  Henry  III.  King  of  Fruvre. 

Socinus  propagates  his  opinions. 

— ^ —  Don  Sebastian  King  of  Portugal  invades  Africa. 
1576  RODOLFHVS  II.  Emperor  of  Germany. 

The  League  in  France  formed  against  the  Protestants. 

1579  Conuii'mceiuent  of  tlie  Republic  of  Holland,  by  the  union  of  Utrecht. 

1580  Piiilip'll.  takes  possession  of  Portugal. 

The  World  circumnavigated  by  Sir  Francis  Drake. 

1562  Tlie  New  Style  introduced  into  Italy  by  Pope  Gregory.'XIII.,  the  5tJ 

of  October  being  counted  the  15th. 
1584  William  I.  Prince  of  Orange  murdered  at  Delfl. 

Virginia  discovered  by  Sir  Walter  Raleigh. 

1.565  U  Pope  Sixtus  V.  • 

1587  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  beheaded  at  Fotheringay. 

1588  Destruction  of  the  Spanish  Armada  by  the  English. 

1589  Henry  III.  of  France  murdered  by  Jaquez  Clement. 

Henry  IV.  {the  Great)  King  of  France. 

1590  The  battle  of  Ivry,  which  ruins  the  league  in  France. 

IT  Pope  Urban  VII. 

IT  Pope  Gregory  XIV. 

1591  The  University  «f  Dublin  ereeted. 

%  Pope  Innocent  IX. 

Uu  '  U 


50«  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE. 

AD: 

1592  Presbyterian  Church  Government  established  in  Scotland. 

IT  Pope  Clement  VIII. 

1594  The  Bank  of  England  incorporated. 

1598  Edict  of  Nantes,  tolerating  the  Protestants  in  France. 

Peace  of  Verins  concluded  between  France  and  Spain. 

——  Philip  III.  King  of  Spain. 

•  Tyrone's  rebellion  in  Ireland. 

1600 

Cowrie's  Conspiracy  in  Scotland. 

Ttie  Earl  of  Essex  beheaded. 

The  English  East  India  Company  established.   '' 

J602  Decimal  Arithmetic  invented  al  Bruges. 

1603  ^clJUtS  I.  King  of  Great  Britain.     Union  of  the  crowns  of  England 

and  Scotland. 
1605  The  Gunpowder  Plot  discovered. 

^  Pope  Paul  V. 

1608  Galileo  discovers  the  Sat?Ilites  of  Jupiter. 

Arminius  propagates  his  opinions. 

1610  Henry  IV.  of  France  murdered  by  Ravaillac. 

Lewis  III.  King  of  France. 

'         The  Moors  expelled  fii)m  Spain  by  Philip  III. 

Hudson's  Bay  discovered. 

IGll  Baronets  first  cre.ited  in  England  by  James  I. 

161Q  MATTHUS  Emperor  of  Germany. 

1614  Logarithms  inrented  by  jNapier. 

1616  Settlement  of  Virginia  by  Sir  Walter  Raleigh. 

1618  The  Synod  of  Dort  in  Holland. 

1619  Discovery  of  the  Circulation  of  the  Blood  by  Dr.  Ilar^rey. 

FERDIjVJjVD  JI.  Emperor  of  Germany. 

Vanini  burnt  at  Thoulouse  for  Atheisni^ 

1620  The  Battle  of  Prague,  by  which  the  Elector  palatine  loses  his  Elec- 

torate. .         .  ■  • 

— —  The  English  make  a  settlement  at  Madras. 

Navarre  united  to  France. 

1621  Philip  IV.  King  of  Spain. 

Batavia,  in  the  Island  of  Java,  built  and  settled  by  the  Dutch. 

Ti  Pope  Gregory  XV. 

1623  TT  Pope  Urban  VIII. 

1625  (ti)<li'it^  I.  King  of  Great  Britain. 

The   Island  of  Barbudoes   the  firbt  English  settlement  in  the  West 

Indies. 

1626  League  of  the  Protestant  Princes  against  the  Emperor. 
16i2  Gustavus  Adclphus  killed  in  the  battle  of  Lutzen. 

Ciiristina  Queen  of  Sweden. 

1635  The  French  Academy  instituted. 

1637  FERDlX^yD  III.  Emperor  of  Germany. 
163d  Bagdat  taken  by  the  Turks. 

The  SoleDin  League  and  Covenant  established  in  Scotland. 

1640  John  Duke  of  Braganza  recovers  the  kingdom  of  Portugal. 

1641  The  Irish  Rebellion,  and  Massacre  of  the  Protestants,  October  28. 
Tne  Earl  of  Strafford  beheaded. 

1642  beginning  of  the  Civil  War  in  England.     The  battle  of  Edgehin, 

October  23. 

1643  Lewis  XIV.  King  of  France 

-  Ann  of  Austria  Regent  of  France. 

■  ■       Archl.'.shop  Laud  condemned  by  the  Commons,  and  beheaded. 

1644  Tl   P.jne  Innoceht  X. 

Rrvnlution  in  China  by  the  Tartar*. 

iS4^  CUiuJm  i.  i«f«ated  itt  tlie  batlle  of  Naseby. 


CHRONOLOGICAL   TABLE  gOT 

A.  D, 

1648  The  Peace  of  Westphalia.     The  Civil  War  of  the  Frond*  at  Paria 

164U  Charles  I.  of  England  beheaded. 

Commonwealth  of  England  begins. 

1G50  The  JUarquis  of  Montrose  put  to  death. 

:  Battle  of  Dunbar      Covenanters  defeated  bj  Crotawell. 

1651  The  battle  of  Worcester  won  by  Cromwell. 

1652  The  brst  AVar  between  the  English  and  Dutch. 

1654  End  of  the  Conunonwcahh  of  England.     Oliver  Cromwell  Lord  Pro- 

tector. 

The  English,  under  Adnr.iral  Penn,  take  possession  of  Jamaica. 

Christina  Ciuecn  of  Sweden  resigns  the  Crown  to  Charles  X. 

1655  IT  Pope  Alrxunder  VII. 

1658  LEOPOLD  /.  Emperor  of  Germany. 

Richard  Cromwell  Lord  Protector  of  England. 

165U  Tlie  Peace  of  the  Pyrenees  between  France  and  Spain. 

1060  CljarUlS  II.  King  of  Great  Britain.     Restoration  of  Mona»cby. 

Tl\e  Peace  of  Oliva  between  Sweden,  Denmark,  and  Poland. 

J  662  The  Royal  iirocioty  instituted  in  England. 

1663  Charter  of  Carolina,  and  a  colony  settled  soon  after. 

The  French  Academy  of  Intcriptions  instituted. 

16t)4  The  second  Dutch  War  begins. 

J6ti5  Charles  II.  King  of  Spain. 

Great  Plague  in  London. 

1666  Great  Fire  in  London. 

The  Academy  of  Science  instituted  in  France. 

Sabatei  Lfvi,  in  Turkey,  pretends  to  be  the  Messiah. 

1667  The  Peace   of  Breda,  which  confirms  to  the  English  PennsylTama, 

New- York,  and  New-Jersey. 

IT  Pope  Clement  IX. 

J'J68  The  Peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle. 

1669  The  Isk;nd  of  Candia  talien  by  the  Turks. 

1670  IT  Pope  Clement  X. 

1672  Lewis  XI V.  conquers  great  part  of  Holland. 

The  De  Witts  put  to  death  in  Holland. 

1674  John  Sobieski  King  of  Poland. 

1676  Vi   Pope  Innocent  XL 

1678  The  Peace  of  i\imeguen,  July  31. 

Tiic  Habeas  Corpus  act  passed  in  England. 

167y  The  Long  Parii»ment  of  Charles  11.  dissolved. 

16c?l  Peter  tlio  Great  Czar  of  Muscovy. 

1683  Execution  of  Lord  Russel,  July  21. 

Execution  of  Algernon  Sydney,  December  7. 

The  Siege  of  Vienna  by  the  Turks  raised  by  John  Sobieski. 

1685  J}ail«e£i  II.  King  of  Great  Biitain. 

Revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  by  Lewis  XIV, 

Duke  of  Monmouth  beheaded. 

16d6  The  Newtonian  Philosophy  first  published  in  England. 

The  League  of  Augsburg  against  France. 

1688  Revolution  in  Britain.     King  James  abdicates  the  throne,  Decem- 

ber 23. 

1689  Sl^UUifim  and  ^Hfltg  King  and  Queen  of  Great  Britain. 

Episcopacy  abolished  in  Scotland  by  King  William. 

V   Pope  Alexander  VIII. 

1690  Battle  of  the  Boyne,  July  1. 
JGl'l   V  Pope  Innocent  XII. 

16-2  Battle  of  La  Hogue,  May  19. 

■  The  Massacre  of  Glencoe  in  Scotland,  January  31.    O.  S, 

'■        Battle  of  Steedkirk.     King  William  defeated  by  Luxemburg,  July  24. 
Hanover  made  the  ninth  Electorjtte  of  the  £mpir«. 


i>08  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE. 

AD. 

1GI>5  Namur  taken  by  King  William,  June  25. 
1697  Peace  of  Riswick  concluded,  September  11. 

Charles  XII.  King  of  Sweden. 

10^9  Peace  of  Carlovitz  concluded,  January  2&. 
1  700 

Philip  V.  King  of  Spain. 

^  Pope  Clement  XL 

1701  Death  of  James  H.  at  St.  Germain's. 

1702  ^ITITt  Queen  of  Great  Britain.     Wai  against  France  and  Spaia. 

The  English  and  Dutch  destroy  the  French  Fleet  at  Vigo. 

The  French  send  colonies  to  the  Mississippi. 

♦703  Gibraltar  taken  hy  Admiral  Rooke,  July  24. 

1704  Battle   of  Jilenheim.      The   French  defeated  by   Marlborough   and 

Prince  Eugene,  August  2. 

Peter  the  Great  founds  St.  Petersburg!!. 

1705  The  En;.dish  take  Barcelona. 

JOSEPH  I.  Emperor  of  Gcn-inany. 

1706  Battle  of  Ramilies.     The  French  defeated  by  the  Duke  of  Marlb«> 

rough,  M:iy  12. 
The  Treaty  of  Union  between  E!i;;Iand  and  Scotland,  signed  July  2S. 

1707  The  battle  of  Almanza.     Tiie  French  and  Spaniards,  under  the  Duke 

of  Berwick,  defeat  the  allies,  April  14. 

1708  Battle  of  Oudenarde.     The  French  defeated^fcy  Marlborough  and 

Eugene,  June  '.id. 

Minorca  taken  by  General  StauJiupe,  September  18. 

1709  Battle  of  Pultowa.     Charles  XII.  defeated  by  Czar  Peter,  June  30. 

Battle  of  Malplaquet.     The    French  defeated  by  Marlborough  and 

Eugene,  September  11. 
1711   CHJiRLES  VI.  Emi-cror  of  Germany. 

1713  The  Peace  of  Utrecht  si^aied  March  30. 

1714  Cjf50l*ne  I.  Elector  of  Hanover,  King  of  Great  Britain.  . 
171.0  Lewis  XF.  King  cf  Francs. 

The  Rebellion  of  ycotland.     Battle  of  Sheriff-muir,  November  13. 

1716  Prince  Eugene  defeats  the  Turks  at  Peterwaradin. 

1718  Charle.t  XII.  of  Sweden  killed  at  the  sioge  of  Frederickshall. 
1721   H   Pope  Innocent  XIII. 

1724  H   Pope  Benedict  XIII. 

1725  Death  of  Peter  the  Great,  Czar  of  Muscovy.     Catharine  Empress. 

1726  Great  Earthquake  at  Palermo,  August  21. 

1727  ^tOV^E  II.  King  of  Great  Britain. 

1727  Treaty  of  Copenhagen  between  Great  Britain  and  Denmark. 

The  Spaniards  besiege  Gibraltar,  May  20. 

172d  Treaty  between  Gieat  Britain  and  Holland,  May  27. 

The  Congress  of  Soissons,  June  14. 

1729  Treaty  of  Seville  between  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Spain^  Novem- 

ber 9. 

1730  H  Pope  Clement  XII. 

Christian  VI.  King  of  Denmark. 

The  Persians  under  Kouli-Khan  defeat  the  Turks. 

1731  Treaty  between   Great  Britain,   the  Emperor,  and  King  of  Spain, 

July  22. 

1733  The  Jesuits  expelled  from  Paraguay,  January. 

Frederick  III.  King  of  Poland. 

1734  Commercial  Treaty  between  Great  Britain  and  Russia,  December  3 

1735  The  French  defeat  the  Imperialists  in  Italy. 

1736  Peace  between  Spain  and  Austria. 

— —  Kouli-Khan  (Nadir-Schah)  proclaimed  King  of  Persia,  September  29 

1737  War  declared  between  the  Emperor  and  the  Turks,  July  >i. 

1738  The  Russians  invade  the  Crimea 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE.  5O9 

AD. 

1739  Na(fir-Sc1»ali  conquers  the  greater  part  of  the  Mogul  Empire. 

Treaty  between  Great  Britain  and  Denmark. 

■ Peace  between  tiie  Emperor  and  the  Turks,  Ausust  21. 

——  Peace  between  Russia  and  tlie  Turks,  November. 

1740  Frederick  IIL  (the  Great)  King  of  Prussia. 

If  Pope  Benedict  XIV. 

War  between  Pokand  and  Hungary. 

1741  War  declared  between  Russia  and  Sweden. 

Tile  Prussians  masters  of  Silesia,  October  ;20; 

17-12  Peace  between  Austria  and  Prussi;i,  June  11. 

Detbns-ive  Alliance  between  Great  Britain  and  Prussia,  November  18.. 

CH.'JRLES  VII.  (of  Bavaria)  Emperor  of  Germany. 

1743  Defensive  Alliance  itetween  Great  Britain  and  Rr.ssia,  February. 

War   in    Germany    between   the    Biitish,    Hungarians,   French,  and 

Ausfrians. 

The  French  defeated  by  tlie  allies  at  Deftiniren,  June  6. 

17';4  War  declared  in  Great  Britain  against  France,  3Iarch  31. 

The  King  of  Prussia  takes  Praniu>. 

ComiDodore  Anson  completes  his  Voyage  round  the  World. 

174.")  FILfJJ\'CIS  I.  (of  Lorraine)  Emperor  of  German  v. 

Quadruple  Alliance   between  Britain,  Austria,  Holland,  and  Pol.ind, 

January  3.  i 

The  allied  army  defeated  by  the  French  at  Fontenoy,  April  30. 

Louisburg  and  Cape  Breton  taken  by  the  British  troops,  June  G. 

Tlie  Rebellion  breaks  out  in  Scoliand,  Jiilv. 

Treaty  of  Dresden  between   Prussia,  Poland,  Austria,  and    Saxony, 

December  S."). 
174G  Ferdinand  VI.  King  of  Spain. 

Frederick  V.  King  of  Denmark. 

Count  Saxc  fakes  Brussels  and  Antv^'crp. 

Victory  of  Culloden.  which  puts  an  end  to  the  Rebellion  in  Scotland, 

April  IG. 

Lords  Bajrnerino  and  Kilmarnock  beheaded,  August  18. 

Count  Saxe  defeats  the  allies  at  Raucoux,  October  11. 

Dreadful  Eaithquako  at  Lima  in  Peru,  October  17. 

17-17  Kouli-Khan  ftiurdered.     Resolution  in  Persia. 

1743  Peace  of  Aix-ln-Chapelle  between  Great  Britain,  France,  Spain,  Aus- 
tria, Sarrdinia,  and  Holland.  October  7. 

1750  Joseph  King  of  Portugal. 

Academy  of  Sciences  founded  at  Stockholm. 

1751  Adolphus  of  Holsteiu  King  of  Sweden. 

Peace  between  Spain  and  Portugal. 

17.52  New  Style  introduced  in  Frilaiu.  Septendier.  3  reckoned  14. 

17.53  The  British  Museum  establisheJ  in  Montague  house. 

1754  Great  Eruption  of  ^litna. 

Great  Eartliqunke  at  Constiuitinople  and  Cairo,  September  2. 

1755  Lisbon  destroyed  by  an  Earth'iujike,  No\en)berl. 

17.'i6  War  declared  biitween  Great  Britain  and  France,  May  18. 

1757  The  King  of  Prussia  conquers  Silesia. 

17.58  V  Pop6  Clement  XIII.  '. 

1759  The  French  defeated  by  the  allied  army  at  Minden,  August  1. 

Charles  III.  King  of  Spain. 

Tlie  Jesuits  expelled  from  Portugal,  September  3. 

General  VVolfe  takes  Quebec  in  Canada.  September  17. 

17G0  Montreal  and  Canada  taken  by  the  British,  Septembers. 
— -  ©tOVgt  III.  King  of  Great  Britam,  October  25. 
J7G2  Peter  HI.  Emperor  of  Russia. 

• The  Jesuits  banished  from  France.  August. 

* Peace  between  Great  Britain  and  France  at  Fontainebleau,  Nbveni' 

ber3.    ^^ 


510  CIIRONOtOGICAL   TABLE. 

AD. 

171)3  Peace  between  Gre.it  Britain,  France,  and  Spain,  at  Paris,  February  1ft 

Catharine  II.  Empress  of  Russia. 

17(31  Stanislaus  II.  King  of  Poland. 

Byron's  Discoveries  in  the  South  Seas. 

17''iu  JOSEPH  II.  Emperor  of  Germany. 

17(JB  The  Jesuits  expelled  from  Bohemia,  and  Denmark. 

Christian  V^II.  King  of  Denmark. 

1767  T!ie  Jesuits  expelled  from  Spain,  Genoa,  and  Venice. 

Discoveries  of  Wallis  and  Carteret  in  the  South  Seas. 

Mui  Koyal  Academy  of  Arts  established  at  London. 

The  Jesuits  expelled  from  Naples,  Malta,  and  Parnaa, 

Bougainville's  Discoveries  in  the  t-outh  Seas. 

17G9  ^T  Pope  Clement  XIV. 

Cook's  first  Discoveries  in  the  South  Seas. 

Corsica  taken  by  the  French,  June  13. 

1770  Earthquake  at  St.  Domingo. 

1771  Guslavus  III.  Kins  of  Sweden. 

1772  Revolution  in  Sweden,  August  19. 

Poland  dismembered  by  Russia,  Prussia,  and  Austria. 

1773  Cook's  second  Voyage  and  Discoveries. 

The  Society  of  Jesuits  suppressed  by  the  Pope's  bull.  August  95. 

1774  Lewis  XVI.  King  of  France. 

177.5  Battle  of  Bunkers  llill  in  North  America,  June  17. 

1776  H   Pope  Pius  VI. 

The  Americans  declare  their  Independence,  July  4. 

1777  Mary  Queen  of  Portugal. 

Surrender  of  the  British  Army  under  Burgoyne  Qt  Saratoga,  in  the 

state  of  New- York,  October  17. 

1778  League  between  the  French  and  Americans,  October  30. 
1771)  Peace  between  the  Imperialists  and  Prussians,  May  13. 

Great  Eruption  of  Vesuvius,  August  8. 

Siege  of  Gibraltar  by  the  Spaniards,  July. 

Captain  Cook  killed  in  the  Island  of  Owyhee. 

1780  Great  Riots  in  London  on  account  of  the  Popish  Bill,  June  2. 

War  declared  between  Great  Britain  and  Holland,  December  20. 

1731  Surrender  of  the  Briti.sh  Army  under  Cornwallis  to  the  Americajas  and 

French  at  Yorktown  in  Virginia,  October  18. 

17)^2  Sir  G.  Rodney  defeats  the  French  fleet  off  Dominica,  April  12. 

17d3  Peace  between  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Spain,  and  the  Independ- 
ence of  America  declared,  January  20. 

1784  Peace  between  Great  Britain  and  Holland,  May  24. 

1785  Treaty  of  Alliance  between  Austria,  France,  and  Holland,  Novem- 

ber 9. 

1786  Frederick  IV.  King  of  Prussia. 

1788  Defensive  Alliance  between  England  and  Holland,  April  25. 

1789  Selim  III.  Grand  Seignior,  April. 

George  Washington  first  President  of  the  United  States,  April. 

-^ The  Bastille  at  Paris  taken  and  destroyed,  and  the  Governor  massa- 
cred, July  14. 

1790  Monastic  Establishments  suppressed  in  France,  February  13. 
~ War  commenced  in  India  with  Tippoo  Sultan,  May  1. 

LEOPOLD  II.  Emperor  of  Germany. 

1792  FR.iJ^CIS  II.  Emperor  of  Germany. 

Gustavus  III.  King  of  Sweden  assassinated  by  Ankerstrom,  March  29. 

— —  Gustavus  IV.  King  of  Sweden.     Duke  of  Sudermania  Regent  in  his 

minority., 
The  Thuilleries    attacked.     The  King  and  Queen  of  France  taka 

refuge  in  the  National  Assembly.     The  Swiss  guards  massacred  bf 

the  populace,  August  10. 
-— >  The  Royal  Fami^  of  Fraac«  imprisoned  in  tbs  Temple,  Augutt  14, 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE.  511 

AD. 

1792  A  dreadful  massacre  of  the  state-prisoners  at  Paris,  September  2,  3. 

Tlie  National  Convention  is  constituted,  the  King  deposed,  and  France 

declared  a  Republic,  September  21. 

Savoy  incorporated  with  tne  French  Republic,  November  27. 

Lewis  XVL  is  brougJit  to  trial,  and  answers  each  article  of  accusation, 

December.  14. 

1793  Lewis  XVI.  condemned  to  death  by  a  majority  of  five  voices,  Janua* 

ry  17,  and  beheaded,  January  21. 
— —  Russia  declares  war  against  France,  January  31. 
■■  ■      The  French  Convention  declares  war  against  England  and  Holland^ 

February  1. 

Queen  of  France  condemned  to  death  and  beheaded,  October  15. 

1794  Robespierre,  with  his  chief  partisans,  guillotined,  July  28. 

1795  The  Stadiholder  takes  refuge  in  England.     Holland  overrun  by  the 

French,  January. 

Lyons  bombarded,  laid  in  ruins,  and  all  its  loyal  inhabitants  massacred, 

May. 

Lewis  XVII.  died  in  prison  at  Paris,  June  8. 

The  Cape  of  Good  Hope  taken  by  the  British,  September  16. 

Belgium  incorporated  with  the  French  Republic,  September  30. 

Stanislaus  II.  resigns  the   Crown  of  Poland.     The  kingdom  divided 

between  Russia,  Austria,  and  Prussia,  November  25. 

1796  The  French  overrun  and  plunder  Italy. 

— —  Death  of  Catharine  II.     Paul  Emjieror  of  Russia,  November  17. 

1797  John  Adams  President  of  the  United  States,  March  4. 

— —  The    Dutch   Fleet  beaten  and  captured  by  Admiral  Duncan,  Octo 
ber  11. 

1798  The  Papal  Government  suppressed  by  the  French.     The  Pope  quits 

Rome,  February  26. 

Ireland  in  open  rebellion.  May,  June,  &c. 

Admiral  Nelson  destroys  the  French  Fleet  in  the  battle  of  the  Nile, 

August  1., 

The  Swiss  finally  defeated,  and  their  Independence  abolished,  Sep- 

tember 19. 

1799  Seringapatam  taken  by  General  Harris,  and  Tippoo  Sultan  killed, 

fliay  4. 

Death  of  Pope  Pius  VI.,  September. 

A  Revolution  at  Paris.     Bonaparte  declared  First  Consul,  Decem- 

ber 25. 
4800 
Union  of  Britain  and  Ireland. 

Bonaparte  defeats  the  Austrians  in  the  battle  of  Marengo  in  Italy, 

June  14. 

Armistice  between  the  French  and  Austrians  in  Germany,  July  15. 

The  new  Pope,  Pius  VII.,  restored  to  his  government  by  the  Emperor, 

July  25. 

Malta  taken  by  the  British,  September  5. 

1801  First  meeting  of  the  Imperial  Parliament  of  Britain  and    Ireland, 

January. 

Thomas  Jefferson  President  of  the  United  States,  March  4. 

Death  of  Paul.     Alexander  I.  Emperor  of  Russia,  March  2.3. 

Battle  of  Copenhagen,  in  which  the  Danes  are  defeated  by  Lord  Nel 

son,  April  3. 

1802  The  Catholic  Religion  re-established  in  Franoe,  March. 

Treaty  of  peace  between  Britain  and  France. 

The  King  of  Sardinia  resigns  his  crown  to  his  brother,  July. 

Bonaparte  declared  Chief  Consul  for  lite,  July. 

— —  War  between  France,  and  Germany,  and  Russia,  in  which  the  Frwich 

are  successful. 
n03  War  between  Britain  «nd  France, 


5ia  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE. 

AD. 

ia04  Emperrn-  of  Germany  assumes  the  title  of  Emperor  of  Austria    Au- 
gust 11. 

Bonaparte  croicned  Emperor  of  France,  December  2. 

1805  Bonaparle  King  of  Italy,  March. 

Lord  Nelson  clelt;atR  the  combined  fleets  of  France  and  Spain  off  Cape 

Trafalgar,  takes  or  destroys  19  ships  of  the  line,  and  is  killed  in  the 
b<?ttle,  October  ai. 

War  bciweeu  England  and  Sj)ain. 

18()*J  Louis  Bonaparte  crowned  King  of  Holland,  June. 

The  Briti.sh  Pailiainent  vote  the  Abolition  of  the  Slave  Trade,  June  10. 

Francis  II.  reKi,;ns  the  office  of  Emperor  of  Germany,  August  2. 

War  between  France  and  Prussia. 

Battle  of  Jeua  and  total  defeat  of  the  Prussians,  October  14. 

1807  War  between  France  and  Russia,  in  which  tlie  French  are  successful. 

Copenhagen  taken  by  the  British,  and  the  Danish  fleet  carried  to  Eng- 

land. 

Treaty  of  Peace  between  France,  and  Russia,  and  Prussia. 

1308  Abolition  of  the  Slave  Trade  in  the  United  States  of  America,  Janua- 
ry 1. 

War  between  Russia  and  Sweden. 

Bonaparte  seizes  Portugal,  and  the  Royal  Family  flee  to  Brazil. 

Bonaparte  seizes  the  Royal  Family  of  Spain.     War  betweeu  France 

and  Spain.  > 

1809  Battle  of  Corunna,  January  16. 

Fall  of  Saragossa,  February  21. 

James  Madison  President  of  the  United  States,  March  4. 

Gustavus  IV.  King  of  Sweden  deposed,  and  Charles  XIII.  proclaimed', 

March  13.  - 

War  between  France  and  Austria,  April  6. 

French  enter  Vienna,  May  12. 

War  between  Russia  and  Austria,  May  22. 

Tlie  Papiil  States  united  to  France,  Jui;e  1. 

Bottle  of  Talavera,  July  2-1. 

Peace  of  Vienna  between  Austria  and  France,  October  14. 

1810  Bonaparte  divorces  the  Empress  Josephine,  January  IG. 

lie  marries  fhe  Areh-Duchcss  Maria  Louisa  of  Austria,  April  1. 

Louis  Bonapa-rte  abdicates  tlie  tlirone  of  Holland,  July  1. 

H<ill:ind  anne.'ccd  to  the  French. 

Population  of  tiic  United  States,  7,230,003. 

1811  Prince  of  Wales  appointed  Regi<nt,  February  8. 

Two  hundred   bui1ding.s  and  large  quantities  of  goods  burnt  in  New- 

buryport,  JNIass. 

Massacre   in   Cairo,   when  about   1,0(?0   Mamelukes   lost  their  lives, 

March  1. 

A  Son  born  to  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  styled  King  of  Rome,  March  20. 

Batavia  captured  by  the  English,  August  8. 

An  unusually  large  comet  appeared,  September  1. 

Richmond  Theatre  burnt.  ?)ecember  26. 

1812  Great  Earthquake  at  Carrac.cas,  March  26. 

Perceval,  Priim;  MinisJt^of  England,  assassinated,  May  11. 

War  against  Great  IJntain  declared  by  the  United  States,  June  18. 

General  Hull  and  his  army  taken  prisoners  in  Canada,  August  16. 

Bottle  of  Smolensko,  August  17. 

Battle  of  Moskwa,  September  7. 

The  French  army  enter  Mofejow,M4th  September. 

Biitish  Frigate  Guerriere  captured,  August  29. 

do.         do.      Macedonia  captured,  October  25. 
do.         do.      Java  captured,  December  29. 

1813  Lewis  XVIII.  publishes  an  Address  to  the  people  of  France,  FeV 

*uary  1. 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE.  513 

AD. 

1813  Treaty  between  Great  Britain  and  Sweden,  March  3. 

Sweden  declares  War  against  France,  March  3. 

The  Russian  troops  enter  Haniburo;h,  March  18. 

Prussia  joins  Russia  against  France,  March. 

Spanish  Inquisition  abolished  by  the  Cortes,  Apritl. 

Battle  of  Vittoria,  in  Spain,  June  2. 

Austria  declares  War  against  France,  August  11. 

General  Moreau  killed,  August  2^. 

Commodore  Perry  captures  the  British  squadron,  on  Jake  Erie,  Sep- 

tember 10. 

Battle  of  Lcipsic,  October  19 

The  Prince  of  Orange  assumes  the  title  of  Sovereign  Prince  of  the 

Netherlands,  December  2. 

The  Russians  and  thsnr  Allies  enter  France.  December  23. 

I>rl4  The  Pope  released  by  Bonaparte,  January  23. 

Lord  Wellington  took  possession  of  Bordeaux,  February  13. 

Paris  capitulates  to  the  Allies,  i^larch  30. 

The  Allies  enter  Paris,  April  1. 

Napoleon  Bonaparte  dethroned,  April  4,  and  banished  to  the  Island  ot 

Elba,  for  which  be  sails,  April  28. 

Louis  XVIIL,  being  culled  to  the  throne  of  France,  made  his  entiy 

into  Paris,  May  3. 

General  Peace  in  Europe,  May  30. 

■  The  Allied  Sovereigns  visit  Lcmdon,  June  8. 

Inquisition  restored  in  Spain,  JuJy  18. 

Norway  annexed  to  Sweden,  August  14. 

City  of  Washington  taken  by  the  British,  August  24. 

British  Squadron  on  Lake  Champlain  captured  by  Commodore  M'Don- 

ough,  September  11. 

General  Congress  of  Vienna,  November  7. 

— —  Pensacola  taken  by  General  Jackson,  November  7. 

Treaty  of  Peace  between  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain  signed 

at  Ghent,  December  24. 

The  British  repulsed  at  New-Orleans,  December  28. 

1815  The  Brilish   completely  defeated    and  General  Packenham  slain  at 
New-Orleans,  January  8. 

United  States  Frigate  President  taken  by  a  British  squadron,  Janua- 

ry 15. 
Peace  between  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States  ratified  Februa- 
ry 24. 

Bonaparte  sailed  from  Elba,  February  26 — lands  in  France,  March  1 — 

enters  Paris,  March  2(i. 

Bonaparte  left  Paris  to  meet  the  Allies,  May  2. 

Battle  of  Waterloo,  June  17  and  18. 

Bonaparte  surrenders  himself  to  the  British,  July  15. 

Joachim  Murat,  King  of  Naples,  shot  for  High  Treason,  October  13, 

Bonaparte  landed  at  St   Helena,  October  13. 

Marshal  Ney  siiot  for  High  Treason,  December  7. 

1810  Jesuits  expelled  from  Petersburgh  and  Moscow,  January  2. 

St.  Johns,  Newfounaland,  destroyed  by  fire,  February  18. 

Princess  Charlotte  of  Wales  married  to  Prince  Leopold,  May  2. 

•  Lord  Cochrane  tried  for  breaking  out  of  Prison,  August  17- 

He  is  released  by  a  penny  subscription,  December  7. 

Indiana  admitted  into  the  Union  as  a  State,  Di-cember. 

1817  United  States  Bank  opened  for  business  ut  Philadelphia,  January  1. 

American  Colonization  Society  for  fi-ee  Blacks  org.nnized,  January  1 

James  Monroe  President  of  the  United  States,  March  4. 

■ Pernumbuco  declared  itself  Independent,  April  5. 

■ Portuguese  authority  established  at  PernambOco,  May  18. 

•— —  Dey  of  Algiers  assassinated,  September. 


bi4  „  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE. 

AD. 

1817  Death  of  Princess  Caroline,  November  6. 

i^.JJNSissippi  admitted  into  the  Union  as  a  State,  December  11. 

1616  C-iueen  of  England  dies. 

Charles  XIII.  of  Sweden  dies,  and  is  succeeded  by  Prince  Bemadotte.. 

France  evacuated  by  the  Allies,  October. 

Illinois  admitted  into  the  Union  as  a  State,  December  4. 

Commercial  Treaties  concluded  between  the  United  States  on  one 

part  and  Great  Britain  and  Swwleu  on  the  other. 

Alleghany  College  establislied. 

1819  A  Treaty  for  the  cession  of  Florida  to  the  United  States  signed  at 

Washington,  February  23. 

First  Steam  Ship  sails  for  Europe,  May. 

Commodore  Perry  dies  in  the  West  Indies,  August  23. 

Alabama  admitted  into  tlie  L^nion  as  a  State,  December. 

1820  George  III.,  King  of  England,  dies  January  29. 

(SJfOr^t  I^  •  succeeds  to  the  throne  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 

Tlie  Duke  of  Berry  assassinated,  February  14. 

Maine  admitted  into  the  Union  as  a  State. 

(iui^en  Caroline  of  England  prosecuted  for  Adultery. 

Another  Revolution,  which  givcii  a  Free  Constitution  to  the  Spanish 

nation. 

Population  of  the  United  States,  9,625,734. 

1321   Missouri  admitted  into  the  Union  as  a  State. 

An  attempt  to  destroy  the  Royal  Family  of  France,  January  27. 

— — —  British  Government  issue  a  Manifesto  respecting  the  Holy  Alliance, 

February. 
— —  Napoleon  Bonaparte  dies  at  St.  Helena,  May  5,  1821,  aged  52. 

Q,ncen  Caroline  of  England  dies,  August  7,  1821. 

Elias  Boudinot,  President  of  the  American  Bible  Society,  diea.     . 

1822  William  Pinckney  dies,  February  26. 

Iturbide  declared  himself  Emperor  of  Mexico. 

Columbian  College  established. 

Massacre  of  Greeks  at  Scio. 

Revolution  in  Portugal  with  a  Cortes  and  Free  Constitution. 

■  Don  Pedro,  son  of  the  King  of  Portugal,  declared  Emperor  of  Brazils. 

1823  Iturbide  dethroned  and  banished  to  Italy. 

France  declares  Wa'r  against  Spain,  and  invades  it  witli  a  large  army. 

Counter  Revolution  in  Portugal. 

•■■-—  Treaty  of  Peace  between  Spain  and  Buenos  Ayres,  July  4. 


COMPARATIVE  VIEW 


ANCIENT 


AND  or 


MODERN  GEOGRAPHY. 


'W 


In  the  following  Tables  the  Countries  unknown  to  Ancients,  or  of  whicli 
the  Names  are  uncertain,  are  left  blank. 

The  same  numbers  in  the  two  adjacent  columns  on  each  page  indi«ate  tha 
ancient  and  modern  names  of  tiie  same  countries  or  places^ 


MODERN  EUROPE. 


ANCIENT  EUROPE 


GREENLAND,  or  the  Arctic  Conti- 
nent. 

SPITSBERGEN  (Island.) 

ICELAND,   (Island,)    belonging  to 
Norway. 

NORWAY. 

1.  Wardhuis,   or    Norwegian    Lap- 

land. 

2.  Dronthefta. 

3.  Bergen. 

4.  Aggerhuis,  or  Christiana. 

SWEDEN. 

1.  Lapland  and  West  Bothnia. 

2.  Sweden  Proper. 

3.  Gothland. 

4.  Finland. 

5.  Islands     of     Gothland— Oeland, 
Aland,  Riigen. 

DEiNMARK. 
Jutland. 
I.  Albnrg. 
S.  W/bufg. 


SCANDINAVIA,    SCANDIA,    v# 
BALTIA. 

S.  Nerigon. 
3.  Sitones. 


1.  Scritofinni. 

2.  Suiones. 

3.  -Gutae  et  Hilleviones. 

4.  Finuingia. 

5.  Insula  Sinus  Cedani. 


Chersonesus  Cmhrie: 
1.  Gimbri. 


816  COMPARATIVE  VIEW  Of 

MODERN  EUROPE.  ANCIENT  EUROPE. 


3.  Aurhusen. 

4.  Rypen. 

5.  Sieswick.  4 

Isl.inds  in  the  Ba.uc. 

1.  Zealand. 

2.  Funen. 

3.  Falster. 

4.  Loiigeiaiii. 

5.  Laland. 

6.  Feneren. 

7.  Aisen. 

8.  Muen. 

y.  Bornholm. 

RUSSIA  IN  EUROPE. 
1.  Livonia  and  Estonia. 
S.  luijiia,   or   the    Government   of 

Petersburg. 

3.  Carelia,   or  the  Government  of 

Wiburg. 

4.  Novogrod. 

5.  Arciiangei,  Sanioiediau 

6.  Moscow. 

7.  Ni.shnei  Novogrod. 

8.  Sinoienski. 

9.  Kiew. 

10.  Bielgorod. 

11.  Woronesk. 

12.  Azotr. 

FRANCE 

1.  Picardy. 

2.  Isle  of  IT  ranee. 

3.  Champagne. 

4.  Normandy. 

5.  Bretany. 

6.  Orleannois. 


7.  Lionnois. 

8.  Provence. 

9.  Languedoc 

1-0.  Guienne. 

11.  Gasroigne. 

12.  Dauphine. 

13.  Burgundy  and  Franche-eomte. 

14.  Lorraine  and  Alsace. 

UNITED  PROVINCES,  OR  KING- 
DOM OF  HOLLAND 
1.  Holland. 

%.  Friesland, 

3.  Zealand. 

4.  Groningea. 

5.  Overyasel. 


3.  Harudes. 

4.  Pliuiiiiusii,  Siguloneu, 

5.  Sabalingii. 

Insida  Sinus  Codani.; 
1,2   Tcutones. 


SARMATIA  EUROP^A. 
1.  Hirri  et  JEsin  vel  Ostiones. 


4.  Budini. 
6.  Basilici. 
8.  Carioncs. 

10  «fe4.  Budini. 

11.  Rosolani. 

12.  lazyges.  ^ 

GALLIA. 

1.  Amhiani. 

2.  Bellovaci,  Parisii,  Suessoneg. 

3.  Remi,   Catalauni,  Tricasses,  13 

Lingones. 

4.  Unelli  vel  Veneti,  Saii,  Lex-' 

ovii,  Veliocasses. 

5.  Osismii,  Veneti,  Namnetes, 

Andes,  Redonee. 

6.  Aureliani,  Carnutes,   Seno- 
.  nes,    Turones,     Pictones, 

Biiiiriges. 

7.  JEim,  Segusiani 

8.  iSalyes,  Cavares. 

9.  Volcae,    Arecomici,  Helvii,  To- 

losates. 

10.  Petrocorii,    Bituriges,    Cadurd, 

Ruteni. 

11.  A(|uitani. 

12.  AllobrogeR,  Centrones. 

13.  Lingones,  /Edui,  Sequani. 

14.  Leuci;     Mediomatrici,    Triboci, 

Nemetes. 


SAXONES. 


1,  2.  Frisii. 


4.  Caaei  vel  Qianiei. 
6.  Franoi. 


ANCIENT  AND  MODERN  GEOGRAPHY.  5|7 

MODERN  EUROPE.  ANCIENT  EUROPE. 


6.  Guelderland  and  Zutphen. 

7.  Utrecht. 

NETHERLANDS, 

BELONGING  TO  FRANCE  AND  HOLLAND. 

1.  Brabant. 

2.  Antwerp. 

3.  Mechlen  or  Malines. 

4.  Liniburgh. 

5.  Luxemburgh. 

6.  Namnr. 

7.  Hainault. 

8.  Cambresis. 

9.  Artois, 
10.  Flanders. 

GERMANY. 

1.  ITpper  Saxony. 

2.  Lower  Saxony. 

3.  Wefitphalia. 

4.  Upper  Rhine. 

5.  Lower  Rhine. 

6.  Franconia. 

7.  Austria. 

8.  Bavaria. 

9.  Suabia. 

BOHEMIA. 

1.  Bohemia  Proper. 

2.  Silesia. 

3.  Moravia. 

POLAND. 

1.  Greater  Poland. 

2.  Le^s  Poland. 

3.  Prussia  Royal. 

4.  Prussia  Ducal. 

5.  Samogitia. 

6.  Courland. 

7.  Lithuania, 

8.  Warsovia. 

9.  Polacliia. 

10.  Polesia. 

11.  Red  Russia. 

12.  Podoiia. 

13.  Volhinia. 

SPAIN. 

1.  Gallicia. 

2.  Asturia. 

3.  Biscay. 

4.  Navarre. 

5.  Arragon. 

6.  Catalonia. 

7.  Valentia. 

8.  Murcia. 

9.  Granada. 
10.  Aodalasia. 

Xx 


6.  Bructeri,  Catti,  Sicambri. 

7.  Batavi. 


BELG^,  &c. 

1.  Menapii,  Tungrii. 

2.  Toxandri. 

4,  5.  Alemanni. 

6.  Treveri. 

7.  Remi. 

9.  Atrebates,  Veromandui. 
10.  BelgEB,  Morini, 

NATIONES  GERMANICS 

1.  Seuvi,  Lingse,  &c. 

2.  Saxones,  Longobardi,  Gam- 

brivii. 

3.  Cherusci,  Chamavi,  Gauchi, 

Germania  Inferior. 

4.  Germania  Superior. 

5.  Marci,  Tincteri. 

6.  Marcomaimi,  Hermonduri. 

7.  Noricura. 

8.  Rhaefia. 

9.  Vindelicia. 


1.  BoiohoF?mum. 

2.  Corconti. 

3.  Quadi. 

GERMANO-SARMAT^. 

1.  Peucini. 

2.  Lugii. 

3j  4.    Burgundiones,     P-ugii,     Gu. 
fhones. 

5.  Ombroges. 

6.  Scyri. 

7.  8.  Germano-Sarmatia. 


11, 12,  13.  Bastarnse, 


HISPANIA,  vel  IBERIA. 

3,   2.    3.    Gallaecia — ^Cantabri,   As- 
tures,  Varduli. 


4,  5,  6.    Tarraconensis — Vasconea, 
Valetani. 


7,    8.    Carthaginensis ^dituni, 

Contestani. 
9,   10.    BcTtica — Bastiani,    Bastuli* 

Turdetani,  &c. 


f 


S18  COMPARATIVE  VIEW  OF 

MODERN  EUROPE.  ANCIENT  EUROPE. 


11.  Old  Castile. 

11.  Gallaeciae  pars — Accaei,  Arevaci, 

12.  New  Castile, 

12.  Tarraconensis    pars — Carpetani, 

Oretaiii 

13   Leon. 

13.  Gallaecife  pars — Vettonea. 

14.  Estremadiira. 

14.  Lusitaniae  pars — Bseturia. 

SPANISH  ISLANDS. 

INSULiE  IITSPANICyE. 

Ivica. 

Baleares. 

Majorca. 

Minorca. 

PORTUGAL 

LUSITANIA. 

Entie  Minho  e  Douro. 

Calliaci,  Lusitani,  Ceitici. 

Tralos  Monies. 

Beira. 

Estrcmadura. 

Entre  Tajo. 

Alentajo. 

Algarva. 

SWITZERLAND. 

HELVETIA. 

I.  Bern. 

1,  2,  3,  4.  Ambrones. 

2    FribiH-g. 

3    Basil  or  Bale 

"4.  Liicern. 

■   * 

5.  Soloturn. 

^ 

6.  Scliafthausen. 

6,  7»  8,  9,  10.  Tigurini. 

7    Znrick. 

8    Appenzel, 

9.  Zug. 

10    Schvveitz. 

)1.  Claris. 

12    Uri. 

\2    Underwald, 

14    Geneva. 

14.  Nantuatee. 

15.  Grisons,  &c. 

J 5.  Veragri,     Vallis    Pennina,    L«- 

ITALY 

pontn. 

ITALIA. 

i.  Savo}'. 

1.  Lepontii,  Segusini,   Tau-" 

nni. 

47 

2    Piedmont. 

2.  Orobi.       \ 

> 

3    Montferrat. 

4.  Insubres.  [  ^'g""*- 

4.  Milan. 

■E-iS 

5    Genoa. 

5.                   ) 

-13, 

H.   Parma. 
7    Modena. 

6.  Anamani. 

7.  Boii. 

.t  o 

2 

8.  Mautua. 

8.  Cenomani. 

= 

9.   V^enice. 

9.  Vcnetia. 

c3 

10    Trent. 

10.  Tridentini.                            J 

11.  The  Popedom. 

11.  Lingones,  Senones,  Picnum,  Um- 

bria,  Sabini,  Pars  Latii. 

12   Tuscany. 

12.  Tuscia  vel  Etruria. 

13,   Lucca. 

13.  Pars  Tusciae. 

L4    San  Marino. 

14.  Pars  Umbriae 

15.  Kiiigdom  of  Naple*. 

15.  Samniuni,   Pars    Latii,    Apulia, 

Citmpania,  Lucania,  Bruttium. 

ITALIAN  ISLANDS. 

FNSUL.^:  ITALICS. 

1.  Sjfily. 

1.  Sicilia,  Sicania,  vel  Trinacria. 

2.  Sardinia. 

2.  feardo,  vel  Sardinia. 

3.  Corsica. 

3.  Cyrnus,  vel  Corsica. 

4,  Malta. 

4.  Melita. 

ANCIENT  AND  MODERN  GEOGRAPHY.  5W 

MODERN  EUROPE.  ANCIENT  EUROPE. 


&.  Lipari  Islands. 

5. 

Liparise  Insnla). 

6.  Capri,  Ischia,  &c. 

G.  Capreie,  Ischia,  &c. 

HUNGARY. 

TRANSYLVANLV. 

DACIA. 

SCLAVONIA. 

PANNONIA. 

CROATIA. 

ILLYRICUJf. 

TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

1.  Dalmatia. 

1.  Dalmatia. 

2.  Bosnia. 

2.  Maesia  Superior. 

3.  Servia. 

3.  Dacia  Ripensis. 

4.  Wallachia. 

4.  GetsB. 

5.  Moldavia  and  BeEsarabia. 

5.  Pars  Daciae. 

6.  Bulgaria. 

G.  Maesia  fnterior. 

7.  Albania. 

'   7.  Epirus. 

8.  Macedonia. 

8.  Macedonia. 

0.  Romania. 

9.  Thraeia. 

10.  Livadia. 

*  / 

10.  Thessalia. 

11.  Morea. 

t 

11.  Pelop»nnesu9, 

12.  Budziac  Tartary  or  Bessarabia. 

6 

12.  Scythia  et  pars  Dacuc. 

13.  Little  Tartary. 

13.  Parva  Scythia. 

14.  Crimea. 

14.  Taurica  Chersonesuf, 

GREEK  ISLANDS. 

INSULiE  MARIS  lONU. 

1.  Corfu. 

1.  Corey ra. 

2.  Cephalonia. 

2.  Cephalenia. 

3.  Zante. 

3.  Zacynthiis. 

4.  Ithace,  Thiace,  &c. 

4.  Ithaca,  &c. 

GREEK    ISLANDS    IN    THE 

ARCHIPELAGO. 

INSULiE  MARIS  MGJEl 

].  Candia. 

1.  Creta. 

2.  Nes^ropont.         '' 

2.  Eubcea 

3.  Stalimene. 

3.  Lemnos. 

4.  Scyro,  &c. 

4. 

Scyros,  &«. 

GREAT  BRITAIN. 


SCOTLAND. 

1.  Edinburgh. 

2.  Haddington. 

3.  Berwick. 

4.  Roxburgh. 

5.  Selkirk. 

6.  Dumfries. 

7.  Kircudbright, 

8.  Peebles. 

9.  Wigton. 

10.  Lanerk. 

11.  Air. 

12.>  Dumbarton. 

13.  Bute. 

14.  Renfrew. 

15.  Stirling, 

16.  Linlithgow. 

17.  Fife. 

18.  Clackmannan. 
10.  Kinross. 

20.  Pu.-th. 

21.  Argyll. 


yecti\rion«s; 


SCOTIA 

>  Damnii.    f 
)ttodini.      ) 

>  Selgora 


Novantes. 


Damnii.    >  Picti. 


Caledonii.    >  Picti 


Ef>Jdii,  Gadeni,  Ceron«».^ 


.    >Pic 


630  COMPARATIVE  VIEW  OF 

M0DER]5I  EUROPE,  ANCIENT  EUROPE^ 


22.  Kincardine. 

23.  Forfar. 
^.  Aberdeen. 

25.  Banff'. 

26.  Eigin. 

27.  r^iairn. 

28.  IiivernesB. 

29.  Ross. 

30.  Cromarty. 

31.  Southerland: 
32  Caithness. 
38.  Orkney. 

34.  Shetland. 

ENGLAND. 

1.  Cornwall. 

2.  Devonshire. 

3.  Dorsetshire. 

4.  Hampshire. 

5.  Somersetshire. 

6.  Wiltshire. 

7.  Berkshire. 

8.  Oxfordshire. 

9.  Gloucestershire. 
jO.  Monmouthshire. 
Jl.  Herefordshire. 

12.  Worcestershire. 

13.  Staffordshire. 

14.  Shropshire. 

15.  Essex. 

16.  Hertfordshire. 

17.  Kent. 

18.  Surry. 

19.  Sussex. 

20.  Norfolk. 

21.  Sir'olk. 

82.  Cambridgeshire. 

23.  Huntingdonshire. 

24.  Bedfordshire.   _ 

25.  Buckinghamshire. 

26.  l.incohijhire. 

27.  Nottinghamshire. 

28.  Derbyshire. 

29.  Rutlandshire. 

30.  Leicestershire. 

31.  Warwickshire. 

32.  Northamptonshire. 

S3.  Northumberland. 

34.  Durham. 

35.  Yorkshire. 
56.  Lancashire. 
37.  Westmoreland. 
3S.  Cumberland. 
39.  Cheshire. 

40   Middlesex. 


2S  Vernicones. ' 

23.  Horestae. 

24.  ) 

25.  J-Tsezali. 

26.  ) 

gg'  [  Vacomagi. 

29' 
30. 
31. 

32.  Mertae. 

33.  Orcades. 

34.  Thule. 


Cantas. 


Attacoti . 


Scoti. 


ANGLIA. 

„■    >  Damnonii. 
3.  Durotriges. 


i\ 


Belgs. 


Attrebatii. 
Dobuni. 

Silures. 
Cornavii. 


7. 
8. 
9. 

n. 
11. 

12. 
13. 
14. 

15.  Trinobantes. 

16.  Catieuchlani. 

17.  Cantii. 


18. 
19. 


Regni. 


20. 
21. 

S  Simeni,  vcl  Iceiil 

V  Catieuchlani. 
Attrebatii. 

22. 

23. 

24. 
25. 

26. 

-X 

27. 

# 

28. 

>  Corita^i, 

29. 

i 

30. 

J 

31. 

Comavi. 

32. 

Catieuchlani. 

33. 
34 

S  Otadeni. 

35. 

\ 

36. 
37. 

>  Brigantea. 

3.3. 

3 

89. 

Cornavii. 

40. 

Attrel^ates  et  Cati«uchl«ni^ 

ANCIENT  AND  MODERN  GEOGHAPHY.  BSl 

MODERN  EUROPE.  ANCIENT  EUROPE 


1.  Anglesey 

2.  Flintshire. 

3.  Montgomery. 

4.  Denbiglishire, 

5.  Carnarvonslure. 

6.  Merioneth. 

V.  Cardiganshire. 

8.  Carmarthenshire. 

9.  Pembrokeshire. 
JO.  Radnorshire. 
M.  Brecknockshire. 
12.  Giamorjranshire. 


IRELAND. 

1.  Louth. 

2.  Meath  East. 

3.  Meath  Westr 

4.  Longford. 

5.  Dublin. 
G.  Kiidare. 

7.  King's  County. 

8.  Queen's  County. 

9.  Wicklow. 
10.  Carlovv. 
n.  Wexford. 
12.  Kilkenny. 

'  13.  Donnegal  or  Tyrconnel. 
14.  Londonderry. 
1.5.  Antrim. 
16.  Tyrone. 
<^  17.  Fermanagh, 

18.  Armagh. 

19.  Down. 

20.  Monagiian. 
L21.  Cavam 


WALES. 

J. 

2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 
6. 


tJ 


<*^S 


r22.  Cork  County. 

23.  Waterford. 

24.  Tipperary. 

25.  Limerick. 

26.  Kerry. 
t27.  Clare. 


-•  r28.  Galvvay. 

ip    29.  Roscomraau. 

«  {  30.  Mayo, 

c   I  31.  Sligoc, 

Xj  1_32.  Leitrim. 

BRITANNIC  ISLANDS. 

1.  Shetland  ami  Orkney. 

2.  Western  Isles  of  Scotland. 

3.  Man. 

4.  Anglesey. 
S.Wight. 

X  X  2 


Mona  Insula. 
>  Ordovices. 

Demetse. 


i: 

10. 

11. 

12. 


22.  Vodiae,  Iverni. 


Silures. 

f 
HIBERNIA,  vel  IRENE. 

Voluntii. 
S  Cauci. 
Auteri. 

>  Blanii. 

>  Corondi. 
Blanii. 

>  Manapii. 

Coriondi. 
Vennicnii. 


Brigantes. 


Velabori. 


23. 
24. 
25. 
26. 
27. 

Gangani. 

.CO. 

29.  Auteri. 

30.  ) 

31.  >Nagnata. 

32.  ) 

INSUL.E  BRITANNICiE. 

1.  Thtile. 

2.  Ebudes  Insulae. 

3.  Monaeda  vel  Mona. 

4.  Alona. 

5.  Vectie. 

66 


sal  COMPARATIVE  VIEW  OF 

MODERN  ASIA.  ANCIENT  ASIA. 


TURKEY  IN  ASIA. 

ASIA  MINOR. 

1.  Natolia. 

1.  Mysia,   Lydia,    Caria,   Phrygia, 

Bithynia,    Galatia,    Paphlago- 

nia. 

2.  Amasia  or  Si  was. 

2.  Pontus. 

3.  Aladulia. 

3.  Armenia. 

4.  Caramanio. 

4.  Cappadocia,  Cilieia,  &g> 

5.  Irak. 

5.  Babylonia,  Chaldea. 

6.  Diarbeck. 

6.  Mesopotamia. 

7.  Cuidistan. 

7.  As.syria. 

8.  Turcomania. 

9.  Georgia. 

8     ) 

q'    >  Armenia  Major. 

10.  Syria  and  Palestine. 

10.  Syria,  Palmy rene,  Phoenicia,  Ju- 

daea. 

ARABIA- 

ARABIA. 

Arabia  Petrtea. 

Arabia  Petraea. 

Arabia  Deserta. 

Arabia  Deserta. 

Arabia  Felix. 

Arabia  Felix. 

PERSIA. 

PERSIA. 

1.  Chorassan. 

1.  Pars  Hyrcanias  et  Sogdianap. 

2.  Balk,  Sablustan,  Candahar. 

2.  Bactrania. 

3.  Sigistan. 

3.  Drangiana. 

4.  Makeran. 

4. 

n.  Kerinan. 

5.  Gedrosia. 

6.  Farsistao. 

C.  Persis. 

7.  Chusestan. 

7.  Susiana. 

8.  Irak  Ageni. 

8.  Parthia. 

9.  Ciirdestan. 

9.  Pars  Assyrie. 

10.  Aderbeitzen. 

10.  Media. 

11.  Georgia. 

11.    ) 

12.  Gar.gea. 

12.    >  Iberia,  Colchis,  et  Albania. 

13.  Dagestan. 

13.    S 

14.  Mazanderam. 

15.  Gilan  Taberistan. 

1.5.  Pars  Hyrcaniae. 

16.  Chirvan. 

16.  Pf^rs  Albauiae. 

INDIA. 

INDIA. 

Mogol. 

India  intra  Gamgem. 

Delhi. 

Palibothra. 

Agra. 

Agora. 

Cacibaia. 

Regna  Pori  et  Taxilie. 

Bengal. 

India  within  the  Ganges. 

Decan. 

Dachanos.     . 

Gulconda, 

Prasii  vel  Gangaridae. 

Bisna.gar. 

Jklalabar. 

Male. 

Island  of  Ceylon. 

Taprobana  Insula  vel  Salice, 

India  beyond  the  Ganges. 

India  extra  Gangem. 

Pegu 

Tonquin. 

CodunchicB 

Siam. 

Sinarum  Repe. 

CHINA. 

Pfiiich*. 

OorwI. 

ANCIENT  AND  MODERN  GEOGRAPHY.  638 

MODERN  ASIA.  ANCIENT  ASIA. 


Laotong. 

Pekin. 

Xansi. 

Xensi. 

Xantuni. 

Nanking. 

Cliekiara. 

Honan. 

Huquam. 

Kiainsi. 

Fokien. 

Canton. 

Suchuen. 

Qiiecheu. 

Yunam. 

Formosa. 
Ainan. 
Mav.ao. 
Bashee  Islands. 


Sinse. 
Seriea. 


CHINESE  ISLANDS. 


RUSSIA  iN  ASIA. 


Ir 


Sarmatia  Asiatics. 


Scythia  intra  Imauin. 


1.  Astracan. 

2.  Orenburg. 

3.  Casan. 

4.  Siberia — Tobolsk,   Jeuiseia, 

kutsk,  Kamscliatka.  ) 

INDEPENDENT   TARTARY. 

1.  Great  Bucharici.  1.  Bactriana,  Sogdiana 

2.  Karasm.  2.  Aria. 


ALUTH  T.\RTARS. 

1.  Little  Bucharia. 

2.  Casgar. 

3.  Turkestan. 

4.  Kalmac  Tartars. 

5.  Thibet. 

6.  Little  Thibet. 

CHINESE  TARTARY. 

Kalkas. 

Mongol  Tartars. 
Mantchou  Tartars. 
Corea. 

ISLANDS    OF    CHINESE  TAR- 
TARY. 

Sagalien-Ula-hata. 
Jedso. 

ISLANDS  OF  JAPAN. 

Japan  or  Niphon. 

Xicoco. 

Ximo. 

PHILIPPINE  ISLES. 

Lucon  or  Manilla. 
Mindanao,  &c. 

MARIAN    OR    LADRONE. 
ISLANDS. 

Tinian. 


SCYTHIA  extra  IMAUW 


amJEr 


524  COMPARATIVE  VIEW  OF 

MODERN  ASIA.  ANCIENT  ASIA. 

ISLES  OF  SUNDA. 

Borneo. 
Sumatra. 
Java,  &c. 

MOLUCCA  ISLES. 

Celebes. 

Aniboyna. 

Ceram. 

Timor. 

Flores,  &c. 

MALDIVA  ISLES. 


MODERN  AFRICA. 

BARBARY. 

1.  Morocco. 

2.  Algiers. 

3.  Tunis. 

4.  Tripoli. 

5.  Barca. 

1.  Egypt. 

2.  BiLUULGERlI). 

3.  Zaara,  or  (he  Desert 

4.  Negrol4nd. 

5.  Guinea. 

C.  Upper  ExHioriA- 


Nubia,  Abyssinia.  Abex. 
LoAVFR  Ethiopia 


8.  Lower  Guinea 

Loango,  Congo,  Angola,  Ben- 
guela,  Malanan. 

9.  Ajan. 

10.  Zangueear. 

IL    MoNOMOTAPA. 

12.  MoNOEMUGI. 

13.  SoFOLA. 

14.  Terra  de  N^XAI.- 

15.  Cafraria,    or    country    of   the 

Hottentots. 


ANCIENT  AFRICA. 


1.  Mauritania  Tingitana. 

2.  Mauritania  Ca?siiriensis. 

3.  Nutnidia,  Africa  Propria. 

4.  Tripolitana. 

5.  Cyrenaica,  Libya  Superior. 

1.  .(^Egyptus. 

2.  Libya  I.nferior,  G^tulia 

3.  solitudines. 

4.  autololes. 

6.  yExHiopiJE  et  LiBY£  pari, 

7.  iExHiopiiE  paw. 


NORTH  AMERICA. 


BRITISH  AMERICA. 

1.  The  countries  on  the  east  and  west  side  of  Baffin's  and  Hudsoa's  Bayf, 

2.  Labrador,  or  New  Britain. 

3.  Canada. 

4.  Nova  Scotia. 


Newfoundland,  Cape  Breton. 


Islands. 


British  Islands  in  the  West  Indies. 

Bermudas,  Bahama  Islands,  Jamaica,  St.  Christopher's,,  Nerie,  Montserrtt, 
Antigua,  Dominica,  St.  Vincent,  Tobago,  Grenada,  Barbadoes,  &c.  &«. 


ANCIENT  AND  MODERN  GEOGRAPHY.  626 

UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA. 

New  England—  Maine,  New-Hampshire,  Vermont,  Massachusetts,  Connects 
icut,  and  Rhode-Island. 

State  of  New-York,  New-Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Delaware,  Maryland,  Vir- 
ginia, North-Carolina,  South-Carolina,  Georgia,  Tennessee,  Kentucky, 
Ohio,  Indiana,  Louisiana,  Alabama,  Missouri,  Mississippi,  lUinois. 

The  district  of  Columbia,  the  territories  of  Michigan,  Arkansas. 

SPANISH  AMERICA. 

Mexico  or  New  Spain,  New  Mexico. 

NORTH  AMERICA. 

Spanish  Islands  in  the  West  Indies. 
Cuba,  Porto  Rico,  west  part  of  St.  Domingo,  Trinidad,  Margarita,  Cuba 
gua,  ifcc. 

Dutth  Islands  in  the  West  Indies. 

Part  of  St.  Martin's  Isle,  Eustatius,  Aves,  Buenos  Ayres,  Curacoa,  Aruba. 

French  Islands  in  the  West  Indies. 
Miquelon,  St.  Pierre,  part  of  St.  Martin's  Isle,  St.  Bartholomew,  Martinico, 
Gaadaloupe,  Desjada,  Mariegalant,  St.  Lucia,  part  of  St.  Dominjfo. 

Danish  Islands  in  the  West  Indies. 
St.  Thomas,  Santa  Cruz. 

SOUTH  AMERICA, 

FRENCH. 
Part  of  the  Province  of  Guiana,  Cayenne,  &.e. 

SPANISH. 

Terra  Firma,  Country  of  the  Amazons,  Peru,  Chili,  Terra  Ma^Uaniei^ 
Paraguay,  Tucuman. 

DUTCH. 

Part  of  Guiana,  Surinam,  &c. 

PORTUGUESE. 
Brazil,  and  many  Islands  on  the  coast,  part  of  Guiana.    . 


ANCIENT   EMPIRES. 


The  Empire  of  Assyria,  under  Ninus  and  Semiramis,  about  2200  b«foie 
J.  C,  compreJiended,  Asia  Minor,  Colcliis,  Assyria,  Media  Chaldaa, 
Egypt. 


526  COMPARATIVE  VIEW  OF 

The  Empire  of  Assyria,  as  drvidtd  about  820  bftfore  J.  C,  formed  three 
K-ngdorrii,  Media,  Babylo-ClMildea,  (Syria  and  Chaldea,)  Lydia,  (all 
Asia  Minor.) 

The  Empire  of  the  Pf.rsians,  under  Darius  Hystaspes,  522  before  J.  C, 
co:ripreheiKl«d,  Prrsis,  Hiisiaiia,  Chaldea,  Assyria,  Media,  Bactriana, 
Arineni.i,  A^ia,  Parthia,  Iberia,  Albania,  Colchis,  Asia  Minor,  Egypt, 
part  of  Ethiopia,  part  of  Scytliia. 

Tf'he  Empire  of  Alexander  the  oreat,  330  before  J.  C,  consisted  of, 
1,  all  Maredonia  and  Greece,  except  Peloponnesus;  2,  all  the  Persiau 
Empire,  as  above  described  ;  3,  India  to  the  banks  of  the  Indus  on  th« 
east,  and  the  laj^artcs  or  Tanais  on  the  north. 

The  Empire  of  Ai-examder  was  thus  divided,  306  before  J.  C,  bctwe«» 
Ptolemv   Caasunder,  Lysimachus,  and  Seleucus 

Empire  of  Ptolemy. 

Lybia,  Arabia,  Coelosyria,  Palestine. 

Empire  of  Cassander. 


Macedonia,  Greece. 
Thrace,  Bithynia. 


Empire  of  Lysimachus. 


Empire  of  Seleucus. 

Syria,  and  all  the  rest  oi  Alexander's  Empire. 

The  Empire  of  tlie  PARTiriAMs,  140  before  J.  C,  comprehended  Parthia, 
Hyrcania,  Media,  Petsis,  Bactriana,  Babylonia,  Mesopotamia,  India  to 
the  Indus. 

The  Roman  Empire,  under  the  King.**,  was  confined  to  the  city  of  Rome, 
and  a  few  milo«  round  it. 

The  Roman  Emjjire,  at  the  end  of  the  Repu1)lic,  comprehended  all  Italy, 
great  pnrt  of  Gaul,  pant  of  Britain,  Africa  Proper,  ^reat  p:irt  of  Sp;iiri, 
Illyria,  Istria,  Liburnia,  Dahnatia,  Achaia,  Macedonia,  Uardania,  Mfflsia, 
Thracia,  Poutus,  Armenia,  Juda;a,  Cilicia,  Syria,  Egypt. 

Under  the  Emperors  the  following  countries  were  reduced  into  Roman 
Provinces. 

All  Spain,  the  Alpcs  Maritime,  Piedmont,  «fcc.  Rhjetia,  Noricum,  Panno- 
nia,  and  Mcesia,  Pontus,  Armenia,  Assyria,  Arabia,  Egypt. 

Con«tantiu9  Chlorus  and  Galerius  divided  the  Empire  into  Easterh  and 
VVestcrn  ;  and  under  Constantine  each  Empire  had  a  distinct  capital  or 
seat  of  government 

The  extent  of  each  division  was  fhictiiatin^  from  time  to  time  ;  but,  in  gen- 
«ral,  the  Wes-krn  Empire  tomprehended  Italy,  Illyria,  Africa,  Spain, 
the  Gauls,  Britain. 

The  E\STEns  Empire  coniprehcr»ded  Asia  Minor,  Pontus,  Armenia,  Asayria^ 
Media,  tXtc.  Egypt,  Thrace,  Dacia,  Mat-«donia. 


ANCIENT  AND  MODERN  GEOGRAPITY. 


527 


Tlie  Empire  <jf  Charlemagne,  A.  D.  800,iroiiiprelieiided  France,  Mnrca 
Hi-,panii-a,  (or  Navarre  aud  Caialonia,)  Majorca,  Minorca,  and  Ivi'a' 
€<--->;ica,  Italy  as  far  soutli  as  Naj.lts,  Istria,  Liburnia,  Dalniafia  l{iia;,!a' 
ViiMiclica,  Noriciiin,  Germany,  from  the  Kliine  to  tJie  Oder,  and  to  the 
banks  of  the  liaiiio. 

Frame  contained,  I,  Neiistria,  r.omprchending  Brctnny,  Normandy,  Isle  of 
Fr-iice,  Urleannois ;  2,  Atisi  i.-..  coi.:prolipnding  Picardy,  and  «hain- 
p:  /jiic  ;  :'.,  Aqnittmia,  comprcliond.n;:  Guicnnc.  and  Gabcony  ;  4,  Eurffun- 
dia,  couiprekending  Burgundy,  Lio«nois,  Languedoc,  Dauphine,  Proveivc©*- 


NAMES  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL   RIVERS  IN  EUROPE. 


ANCIENT. 

•  MOD 

J.  Rha. 
2.  Timais. 

I. 
2. 

Wolga. 
Don. 

3.  Rorystenes. 

3. 

Nipper. 

4.  Tyros 

4. 

Niester. 

5.  Dhiiijbiusor  Ister. 

5. 

D^mube. 

6.  Padiie. 

6. 

Po. 

7.  Rhodanus. 

7. 

Rhone. 

8.  iberus. 

8. 

Ehro. 

9.  Bcetis. 

9. 

GuadalquiTtr. 

10.  Anas. 

10. 

Guafiiana. 

11.  Tagus. 

11. 

Tayo. 

12.  Dui'iitB. 

12. 

Douro. 

13.  Garumna. 

13. 

Garonne. 

14.  Lijrer. 

14 

Loire. 

15.  iSe'iiiana. 

1.'. 

vr'eiiie. 

16.  yainara. 

16. 

Soni;n€. 

17.  Sraldis. 

17 

Sclieldt, 

18.  Mof=a. 

18. 

Maese, 

19    Rhenui. 

19. 

Rhine. 

20.  Visurgis. 

2(1. 

Wcser. 

21.  Albis. 

9). 

Elbe. 

22.  Viadrus. 

22. 

Oder. 

The  Vhtuh,  the  Dwina  at  Riga,  and  the  Dwina  st  Archangd 


END. 


QUESTIONS 


rOR  THE 


EXAMINATION  OF  SCHOLARS 


TYTLER'S  ELEMENTS 


@117:SlEiLlL;  ^!IS^®1£?« 


BY  AN  EXPERIENCED  TEACHER. 


CONCORD,  JV.  H. 

PRINTED  BY  MANAHAN,  HOAG   Sf  C«. 

1827. 


DISTRICT  OF  NEW-HAMPSHIRE,  to  wit . 

District  Clerk's  office. 

BE  IT  REMEMBERED,  mat  on  the  fourth  day  of  September,  A.  D. 
1,823,  and  in  tJie  forty-eighth  year  of  the  Independence  of  the  United 
States  of  America,  ISAAC  HILL,  of  tiie  said  District,  hath  deposited  in 
this  office  the  title  of  a  book,  the  right  whereof  he  claims  as  proprietor,  in 
the  words  following,  to  wit .- — 

"  Elements  of  General  History,  ancient  and  modem.  By  Alexander 
Fraser  Tytler,  F.  R.  S  E.  Processor  of  History  in  the  LTniversity  of  Edin- 
bikrgh.  With  a  continuation,  terminating  at  the  demise  of  King  George  III., 
1,820.  By  Rev.  Ddvjard  Nares,  D.  D.  Professor  of  Modern  History  in  the 
University  of  Oxford.:  To  which  are  added,  a  succinct  History  of  the  Unit- 
ed States  ;  an  improved  Table  of  Chronology  ;  a  comparative  view  of 
Ancient  and  Modern  Geography  ;  and  Questions  on  ench  section.  Adapted 
for  the  use  of  Schools  and  Academies.     Bj'  an  experienced  Teacher." 

In  conformity  to  the  act  of  the  Congress  of  the  United  States,  entitled, 
"  An  act  for  the  encourasement  of  learning,  by  securing  the  copies  of  maps, 
charts,  and  books,  to  the  authors  and  proprietors  of  such  copies,  during 
the  times  therein  mentioned  ;''  and  also  an  act,  entitled,  "  An  act  supple- 
mentary to  an  act,  entitled  an  act  for  the  encouragement  of  learning,  by 
securing  the  copies  of  maps,  charts,  and  books,  to  the  authors  and  pro- 
prietors of  such  copies  during  the  times  therein  mentioned,  and  extending 
the  benefits  thereof  to  the  arts  of  designing,  engraving,  and  etching  historical 
and  other  prints." 

WILLIAM  CLAGGETT,    Clerk 

of  the  District  of  JVew- Hampshire. 
A  true  copy  of  Record. 

Attest WILLIAM  CLAGGETT,  Clerk. 


QUESTIONS, 

PART  FIRST. 

SECTION  I. 

1.  What  books  afford  the  earliest  authentic  history  of  the  ages  uame- 

diately  following  the  deluge  ? 

2.  VMieu  were  Babylon  and  Niueveh  built? 

3.  By  wlwm  were  they  built  ? 

4.  Who  are  said  to  have  raised  Assyria  to  a  high  degree  of  splendouf  ? 

5.  What  is  the  condition  of  the  early  parts  of  Egyptian  history? 

6.  Who  was  the  first  king  of  Egypt  ? 

7.  How  was  Egypt  divided  ? 

SECTION  II. 

8.  What  is  the  earliest  mode  of  government  ? 

9.  Of  what  description  were  the  first  monarchies  ? 

10.  ^\  hat  was  the  rank  of  the  kings  of  Scripture  ? 

11.  What  was  the  character  of  the  first  penal  laws  in  human  society 

12.  What  were  the  earliest  laws  formed  for  the  benefit  of  society  ? 

13.  What  singular  usages  prevailed  among  the  ancient  nations  relating 

to  matrimony  ? 

14.  WTiat  laws  next  succeeded  in  order  to  those  of  marriage  ? 

15.  AVhat  were  the  earliest  methods  of  authenticating  contracts? 

16.  What  nation  used  hieroglyphics,   and  for  what  purpose  were  they 

used  ? 

17.  What  were  the  methods  for  recording  historical  facts,  and  publishing 

them  among  the  ancients  ? 

18.  What  are  among  the  earliest  institutions  that  have  existed  ? 

19.  How  was  the  priesthood  anciently  exercised? 

20.  Of  what  are  useful  arts  the  offspring  ? 

21.  Of  what  are  some  of  the  earliest  of  them  ? 

22.  What  were  the  first  sciences  cultivated  ? 

SECTION  III. 

23.  To  what  nation  is  most  of  the  knowledge  of  ancient  nations  to  be 

traced  ? 

24.  How  did  that  knowledge  descend  to  modern  nations  ? 

£5.  What  presumption  does  the  country  afford  of  the  antiquity  of  the 
Egyptian  empire  ? 

26.  To  what  are  the  inundations  of  the  river  Nile  owing  ? 

27.  What  was  the  government  of  Egypt  ? 

28.  What  was  the  character  of  their  penal  laws  ? 

29.  ^Vhat  was  the  manner  of  conferring  funeral  rites  in  Egypt? 

30.  What  regulation  was  there  concerning  the  borrowing  of  money  ? 

31.  In  the  knowledge   and   cultivation  of  what  useful  arts  and  scieuMi 

were  the  Egyptians  distinguished  ? 

32.  What  samples  of  their  architecture  still  remain 

33.  When  were  the  pyramids  built  ? 

34.  For  what  were  they  probably  built  ? 


4  QUESTIONS. 

35.  What  was  the  national  character  of  the  Egyptians? 

36.  What  circuiustanceu  served  to  debase  them  in  the  opinion  of  contem- 

porary nations  ? 

SECTION  IV. 

37.  By  what  name  were  the  hhoenicians  known  in  Scripture  ? 

38.  For  what  are  we  indebted  to  them  ? 

39.  What  is  said  of  them  in  the  time  of  Abraham  ? 

40.  What  is  the  antiquity  of  their  writings  ? 

SECTION  V. 

41.  To  what  early  nations  were  the  Grecians  indebted  for  their  first  rudi- 

ments of  civilization  ? 

42.  Who  were  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  Greece? 

43.  What  colony  settled  in  the  country  about  the  time  of  Moses  ? 

44.  Who  settled  Attica  and  at  what  time  ? 

45.  Who  established  the  court  of  Areopagus? 

46.  Who  established  the  Amphictyonic  Council  ? 

47.  Who  introduced  into  Greece,  and  at  what  time,  alphabetic  writing  ? 

48.  How  many  letters  did  the  alphabet  then  contain? 

49.  What  was  then  the  mode  of  writing  ? 

SECTION  VI. 

50.  What  i<  said  of  the  Pelasgi,  of  Ancient  Greece*?' 

51.  What  was  a  predominant  diaracteristic  of  the  early  Greeks? 

62.  What  were  the  names  of  their  four  solemn  Games,  as  they  were 

termed  ? 

63.  Of  what  did  they  consist  ? 

54.  What  good  political  effects  did  these  games  have  ? 

SECTION  VII. 

55.  Who  instituted  the  Eleusinian  mysteries  ? 

56.  What  was  the  nature  of  these  mysteries  ?  He 

57.  Who  laid  the  foundation  of  the  grandeur  of  Attica  ? 

58.  When  and  how  did  he  do  it  ? 

59.  What  was  the  object  of  the  Aijgonautic  expedition? 

60.  What  was  the  character  of  the  atfack  and  defence  in  the  sieges  of 

Thebes  and  Troy  ? 

61.  On  whose  authority  rests  ths  detail  of  the  war  of  Troy  ? 

6^  What  are  the  principal  facts  recorded  of  that  war  by  Homer  ? 

63.  How  were  military  exptiditions  then  conducted  ? 

SECTION  VIII. 

64.  When  did  the  Greeks  begin  to  Cf>lonize  ? 

65.  Who  was  elected  the  first  chief  magistn.te  of  the  Athenian  republic  ? 

66.  What  caused  the  Greeks  to  seek  refuge  in  other  countries  by  estab- 

lishing colonies  ? 

67.  What  caused  Greece  to  abolish  the  regal  and  establish  a  republican 

government  ? 

68.  What  distinguished  civilians  arose  in  Sparta  and  Athens  at  this  time  ? 

SECTION  IX. 

69.  What  period  was  Lycurgus  invested  with  the  power  of  reforming  and 

new-modelling  the  constitution  of  his  country  ? 

70.  What  was  the  government  of  Sparta  as  new-modelled  by  Lycurgus  ? 

71.  To  what  did  he  particularly  bend  his  attention? 

72.  How  did  he  divide  the  territory  ? 


^  QUESTIONS.  5 

73.  What  regulation  did  he  make  concerning  the  use  of  money  ? 

74.  By  whom  were  the  necessary  arts  practised  ? 

75.  What  was  the  course  of  Spartan  education? 

76.  By  what  was  the  general  excellence  of  the  institutions  of  Lycurgus 

impaired  ? 

77.  How  were  the  slaves  treated  ?  , 

78.  What  was. the  end  of  the  institutions  of  Lycurgus  ? 

SECTION  X. 

79.  What  was  the  nature  of  the   change   in   the  Athenian  constitution 

when  the  regal  office  was  abolished  ? 

80.  What  was  the  tenure  by  which  the  Archonship  was  held  ? 
8).  'Who  attempted  a  reform  in  the  constitution,  624  B.  C.  ? 

82.  VMien  did  Solon  attain  the  Archonship? 

83.  What  was  his  character  ^ 

84.  How  did  he  divide  the  citizens  ? 

85.  How  did  he  counterbalance  the  weight  of  the  popular  assemblies  ? 

86.  How  did  the  particular  laws  of  Athens  compare  with  her  form  ol 

government  ? 

87.  What  was  the  nature  of  the  laws  relating  to  debtors  and  slaves? 

88.  What  was  the  condition  of  women  at  this  time  in  Athens? 

89.  What  was  one  of  the  most  iniquitous  and  absurd  peculiarities  of  the 

Athenian  and  some  of  the  other  Grecian  governments  ? 

90.  How  were  the  arts  viewed  in  Athens  ? 

91.  How  did  the  character  of  the  Athenians  compare  with  that  of  the 

Spartans  ? 
9'2.  To  whom  were  the  liberties  of  Athens  surrendered,  550  B.  C.  ? 
93.   Who  afterwards  restored  the  democracy^ 

SECTION  XI. 

f)4.  Under  whom  did  the  first  empire  of  the  Assyrians  terminate  ? 

95.  V\  hat  three  monarchies  arose  from  its  ruins  ? 

96.  What  king  of  Assyria,  led  the  Jews  into  captivity,  took  Jerusalem 

and  Tyre,  and  subdued  Kgypt  ? 

97.  v'\'ho  was  the  succissor  of  C'amhyses  in  the  throne  of  Persia  ? 

98.  What  countries  did  Cyrus  annex  to  his  empire?- 

99.  What  was  the  government  of  Persia  ? 

100.  To  whose  care  was  tlie  children  and  youth  of  Persia  committed  for 

education  ? 

101.  What  was  the  nature  of  the  laws  in  Persia  ? 

102.  \^'hat  was  the  religion  of  Persia? 

103.  What  was  the  sacred  book  of  the  Persians  called  ? 

104.  On  what  is  the  theology  of  the  Zepdavesta  founded  ? 

SECTION  XII. 

105.  What  king  of  Persia  invaded  Greece? 

106.  Where  was  the  Persian  army  defeated  ? 

107.  Who  commanded  the  Greeks  in  the  battle  of  Marathon  ? 

108.  What  reward  did  Miltiades  receive  for  his  eminent  services  from  the 

Athenians  ? 

109.  Who  were  the  successors  of  Miltiades  in  the  war  with  the  Persians  ? 

110.  Who  succeeded  Darius  in  the  command  of  tVie  Persians? 

111.  With  what  force  did  Xerxes  attempt  the  conquest  of  Greece  ? 

112.  Who  was  Leonidas  ? 

113.  With  what  force   did   Leonidas  contend  with   the   vast  army  of 

Xerxes  ? 

1 14.  At  what  place  was  it  r 

115.  What  was  the  result? 

Xx 


6  aUESTIONS. 

J 16.  What  was  the  success  of  Xerxes  with  his  fleet  at  sea? 

117.  Where  were  the  Persians  totally  defeated  on  land,  by  the  combined 

army  of  the  Athenians  and  Lacedajmonians  ? 

118.  What  was  the  end  of  Xerxes? 

119.  What  was  the  national  character  of  the  Greeks  at  this  time? 

SECTION  XIII. 

120.  Who  governed  Athens  after  the  Persian  war? 

121.  In  what  manner  did  he  govern  it? 

1^2.  \A'hat  gave  rise  to  the  war  during  the  reign  of  Pericles  between 
Athens  and  Lacedaemon  ? 

123.  On  what  account  was  Alcibiades  condemned  to  death  for  treason? 

124.  By  whom  did  the  Laceda-monians  reduce  the  power  of  the  Athe- 

nians ? 

125.  What  eminent  philosopher  was  then  in  Athens  at  this  time  ? 

126.  What  was  particularly  disgraceful  to  the  Athenians  in  regard  to 

him  ? 

127.  What  is  the  subject  of  the  history  written  by  Xenophon  ? 

SECTION  XIV. 

128.  On  the  decline  of  Athens  and  Sparta,  what  other  Grecian  Republic 

rose  to  a  high'degree  of  eminence  among  the  contemporary  states? 

129.  \^'hat  led  to  the  war  between  Thebes  and  Sparta? 

130.  What  two  distinguished  Generals  did  Thebes  employ  in  conducting 

this  war  ? 

131.  How  did  this  war  terminate? 

SECTION  XV. 

132.  Who  at  this  time  attempted  to  bring  the  whole  of  Greece  under  his 

dominion  ? 

133.  What  caused  what  was  called  the  Sacred  War  of  this  period  ? 

134.  What  distinguished  Grecian  orator  exposed  the   artful  designs  of 

Philip  ? 
J35.  In  what  battle  was  the  fate  of  Greece,  so  that  all  her  states  became 
gubj«-ct  to  Philip  ? 

136.  What  great  enterprise  did  he  attempt  ? 

137.  Did  he  complete  it? 

138.  Why  not? 

SECTION  XVI. 

J39.  Who  was  the  successor  of  Philip  ? 

140.  At  what  age  did  .Alexander  ascend  the  throne  of  Macedon? 

141.  How  large  was  his  army  at  this  time  ? 

142.  What  was  his  first  enterprise? 

143.  W'ho  was  king  of  Persia  at  this  time  ? 

144.  With  what  force  did  Darius  meet  Alexander? 

145.  Where  did  they  meet  ? 

146.  What  was  the  result  of  the  battle  of  Granicus? 

147.  What  were  the  respective  losses  of  the  Greeks  and  Persians  in  the 

battle  of  Issus  ? 

148.  What  opportunity  did  Alexander  have  for  th     display  of  generosity 

after  the  battle  of  Issus  ? 

149.  What  was  the  consequence  of  the  battle  of  Issus? 

J 50.  What  caused  Alexander  to  storm  and  subject  the  city  of  Tyre? 

151.  What  was  the  fate  of  its  inhabitants  ? 

152.  What  was  disgraceful  to  Alexander  in  his  capture  of  Gaaa? 

153.  S^'hat  opened  Egypt  to  Alexander's  victorious  arms? 

154.  What  city  did  be  build  in  his  return  Srom  Eg^ypt? 


QUESTIONS.  7 

f.55.  \VTio  met  Alexander  at  Arbela  with  an  army  of  700,006  men? 

156.   What  was  the  risult  of  the  baXle  at  Arbela? 

)57.   When  was  Persia  conquered  by  Alexander? 

153.  What  project  did  he  attempt  alter  the  conquest  of  Persia? 

159.  What  prevented  his  conquest  of  India  ? 

160.  What  became  of  Alexander  on  finding  a  limit  to  his  victories  ? 

SECTION  XVII 

161.  What  wish  did  Alexandsr  express  as  to  a  successor? 

162.  What  became  of  his  family  ? 

163.  Which  were  the  most  powerful  monarchies  formed  from  his  vast 

empires  ? 

SECTION  XVIII. 

164.  What  distinguished  orator  of  Greece  attempted  to  arouse  his  coun- 

trymen, to  shake  off  the  yoke  of  Macedon,  on  the  death  of  Alexan- 
der ? 

165.  What  empire  arose  in  Europe  on  the  decline  of  the   Macedonian 

power  ? 

166.  How  was  Greece  added  to  the  Roman  empire  ? 

167.  When  was  the  conquest  of  Greece  completed  ? 

SECTION  XIX. 

168.  What  is  said  of  the  nature  of  the  P^epublican  government  of  Greece  ? 

169.  What  was  the  condition  of  the  people  unfier  them  ? 

170.  In  what  periods  of  the   Grecian  history  are  we  to  look  for  splendid 

examples  of  patriotism  ? 

171.  What  is  the  most  remarkable  circumstance  that  strikes    us    on  com- 

paring the  latter  with  the  more  early  periods  of  ihe  history  of  the 
Greeks? 

SECTION  XX. 

172.  In  -what  description  of  the  arts  did  the  Grecians  excel  ? 

173.  Which  of  the  Fine  Arts  did  they  carry  to  the  greatest  degree  of  per 

feet  ion  ? 

174.  In  whose  reign  did  the  Fine  Arts  flourish  most  ? 

175.  What  were  their  three  orders  of  architt-cture  ? 

176.  What  other  orders  of  architecture  are  there  ? 

177.  What  was  the  state  of  sculpture  in  Greece  ? 

178.  How  did  the  paintings  and  music  of  the  Greciama  compare  with 

those  of  the  moderns  ? 

SECTION  XXI. 

179.  How  does  poetry  compare  with  prose  as  to  antiquity? 

180.  When  did  Homer  flourish  ? 

181.  Who  aie  some  of  the  other  principal  poets  of  ancient  Greece  ? 

182.  When  was  the  origin  of  dramatic  composition  among  the  Greeks  i 

SECTION  XXII. 

18*?.  W^hat  eminent  historians  of  Greece  were  contemporaries? 

184.  When  did  they  flourish  ? 

185.  Who  were  some  of  the  latter  distingniphed  historians  of  Greece? 

186.  What  is  said  of  Plutarch's  Lives  of  Illustrious  Men  ? 

SECTION  XXIII. 
017.  What  wais  the  most  ancient  school  of  philosophy  ia  Greece? 


8  QUESTIONS. 

188.  Who  founded  the  Italian  sect  of  philosophers  in  Greece  ? 

189.  When  did    Socrates  flourish  ? 

190.  Who  founded  the  Academic  sect? 

191.  Who  founded  the  Peripatetic  sect  ? 

192.  Who  are  sosie  of  the  other  Greek  philosophers? 

193.  What  is  the  effect  of  the  Greek  philosophy  on  morality  and  the  prog- 

ress of  useful  knowledge  ? 

SECTION  XXIV. 

194.  After  the  conquest  of  Greece  what  Power  became  an  object  of  par- 

ticular importance  ? 

195.  What  was  the  character  of  the  first  inhabitants  of  Italy  ? 

196.  Who  were  they  : 

197.  V/hat  is  the  opinion  of  Dionysius  concerning  the  origin  of  Rome  ? 

198.  What  is  the  vulgar  account  of  the  origin  of  the  city  built  by  Rom- 

ulus ? 

199.  At  what  time  was  it  founded  ? 

200.  Who  were  the  most  formidable  enemies  of  the  early  Romans? 

201.  Who  was  the  second  king  of  Rome  ? 

202.  Who  added  100  Plebeians  to  the  Roman  Senate? 

203.  Who  removed  the  poorer  citizens  from  all  share  in  the  government  of 

Rome  ? 

204.  What  became  of  Servius  Tullius  ? 

205.  ^Vho  succeeded  him  on  the  throne  ? 

206.  What  caused  the  expulsion  of  Tarquiuius  ? 

207.  What  was  the  first  retrenchment  in  the  power  of  the  Roman  Sen- 

ate ? 

208.  What  use  did  the  early  Romans  make  of  their  victories  ? 

209.  How  long  did  the  regal  government  of  Rome  continue  ? 

210.  How  many  kings  were  there  ? 

211.  What  is  said  of  the  wars  in  which  Rome  was  almost  continually  eU' 

gaged  ? 

SECTION  XXV. 

212.  What  government  succeeded  the  regal  one  in  Rome  ? 

213.  Who  were  the  two  first  consuls  ? 

214.  What  law  is  mentioned  that  was  made  under  the  direction  of  Vale- 

rius ? 

215.  What  gave  rise  to  the  office  of  Dictator  ? 

216.  What  was  the  power  of  the  Dictator  ? 

217.  What  gave  rise  to  the  office  of  Tribune  ;  and  what  were  the  powers 

of  that  office  ? 

SECTION  XXVI. 

218.  What  effect  had  the  office  of  Tribune  on  the  powers  of  the  Senate  ? 

219.  Under  what  circumstances  was  Valero  made  Tribune  ? 

220.  When  did  the  Roman  constitution  become  a  complete  democracy  i 

SECTION  XXVII. 

221.  For  what  purpose  were  th"  Decemviri  chosen  ? 

222.  What  were  the  laws  called,  which  they  framed  ? 

223.  At  what  time  were  they  made  i 

224.  With  what  powers  were  the  Decemviri  invested  ? 

225.  Who  was  at  the  head  of  the  Decemvirate .' 

226.  What  caused  the  abolition  of  this  office  .* 
2%7.  Qow  long  did  it  exist  ? 


QUESTIONS.  9 

SECTION  XXVIII. 

228.  What  two  barriers  separated  the  patricians  and  plebeians  ? 
g29.  What  two  offices  were  created,  437  B.  C.  ? 

230.  What  successful  expedient  did  the  senate  adopt  for  filling;  the  Ro- 

man armies  ? 

231.  What  city  was  taken  by  Caniillus  ' 

232.  At  what  period  and  after  how  lon»  a  siege  ? 

233.  To  what  event  do  the  Roman  writers  attribute  the  loss  of  all  the  rec- 

ords and  monuments  of  their  early  history  ? 

234.  What  is  there    singular  in  regard  to    most   of   the    revolutions  in 

Rome  ? 

SECTION  XXIX. 

235.  How  long  after  the  foundation  of  their  city  did  Rome^become  mistress 

of  all  Italy  ? 
238.  What  was  the  policy  observed  by  the  Romans  with  respect  to  the 
nations  they  had  conquered  ? 

237.  A\  hat  gave  rise  to  the  Punic  wars  ? 

SECTION  XXX. 

238.  By  whom  and  when  was  Carthage  founded  ? 

239.  How  many  smaller  cities  were  under  the  dominion  of  Carthage  at 

the  time  of  the  Punic  wars  f 

240.  What  was  the  form  of  government  ? 

241.  To  what  was  the  wealth  and  splendour  of  Carthage  owing  ? 

SECTION  XXXI. 

242.  Who  founded  Syracuse  ? 

243.  What  was  the  government  of  it  ? 

SECTION  XXXII. 

244.  Where  did  the  war  between  Rome  and  Carthage  commence  ? 

245.  What  Roman  consul  was  takeJn  by  the  Carthaginians  in  the  first 

Punic  war  ? 

246.  What  patriotic  act  did  Regulus  perform  when  a   prisoner    to  the 

Carthaginians  ? 

247.  How  did  the  first  Punic  war  terminate  ? 

248.  How  long  did  the  peace  between  Rome  and  Carthage  continue -? 

249.  How  did  the  second  Punic  war  begin  ? 

250.  Who  was  the  Carthaginian  general  in  this  war  ? 

251.  How  did  Hannibal  conduct  this  war  ? 

252.  Where  did  the  Romans  meet  with  complete  defeat  ? 

253.  How  many  were  slain  in  the  battle  of  Canae  ? 

254.  What  is  supposed  would  have  been  the  consequence  had  Hannibal 

improved  this  victory  ? 

255.  In  what  way  did  the  Romans  compel  the  Carthaginians  to  sue  for 

peace  ? 
25G.  What  Roman  general  carried  war  to  the  gates  of  Carthag^e  ? 

257.  At  what  time  did  the  second  Punic  war  close  ? 

258.  When  (iid  the  third  commence  ? 

259.  What  was  the  issue  of  this  war  ? 

260.  When  was  Carthage  destroyed  ? 

261.  What  other  success  attended  the  Romans  this  year.* 

SECTION  XXXIII. 

262.  What  two  persons,  at  this  time,  undertook  to  reform  the  coFruptioni 

of  the  Romans  ? 


10  QUESTIONS. 

263.  What  circumstances  attending  the  war  of  Jugurtha  gave  decisire 

proof  of  the  corruption  of  the  Roman  manners  ? 

264.  What  became  of  Jugurtha? 

265.  Between  what  two  rivals  did  a  civil  war  now  break  out  in  Rome  ? 

266.  What  became  of  Marius  ? 

267.  To  what  office  was  Sylla  afterwards  elected  ? 

268.  What  magnanimous  act  characterized  the  latter  part  of  his  life  ? 

269.  Between  whom  was  the  civil  war  revived  after  the  death  of  Sylla  ? 

270.  What   conspiracy,    at    this    time,   threatened    the   destruction    of 

Rome  ? 

271.  By  whose  provident  zeal  and  patriotism  was  it  extinguished  ? 
27!2.   \Vhat  distinguished  individual  now  rose  into  notice  i 

273.  Under  what  circumstances  was  the  first  Triumvirate  formed  ? 

274.  What  Roman  general  invaded  and  conquered  Britain,  64  B.  C. 

275.  Who  procured  the  banishment  of  Cicero  ? 

276.  Who  effected  his  recall  from  exile  ? 

277.  What  dissolved  the  Triumvirate  ? 

SECTION  XXXIV. 

270.  What  proposition  was  made  at  this  time  by  Cssar  ?• 

279.   Did  Pompey  accede  to  it  ? 

2C0.   Did  war  ensue  betAveen  them  .' 

281.   ^^'hat  decree  did  the  senate  pronounce  ? 

2f;'2.  Where  was  a  decisive  battle  fought  ? 

2Q3.  What  became  of  Pompey  ? 

284.  In  what  war  was  the  famous  library  of  Alexandria  burnt  ? 

285.  \^  hat  was  the  character  of  Caesar's  administration  of  the  goyera- 

ment,  after  the  complete  overthrow  of  Pompey's  partisans .' 
206.  To  what  offices  was  he  appointed  ? 
2^7.  What  was  the  end  of  (.'acsar  ? 

288.  Under  what  circumstances  was  the  second  Triumvirate  formed  ? 

289.  For  what  did  Antony  summon  Cleopatra  to  appear  before  him.' 

290.  V>  hat  caused  the  overthrow  of  Antouy? 
-  291 .   What  became  of  him  ? 

292.  What  induced  Cleopatra  to  destroy  herself? 

SECTION  XXXV. 

293.  What  power  was  given  to  every  head  of  a  family  ? 

294.  v^  hat  were  reckoned  the  highest  points  of  female  merit? 

295.  What  qualifications  contributed  most  to  elevate  persons  to  the  high- 

est offices  and  dignities  of  the  state  ? 

SECTION  XXXVI. 

296.  What  was  the  state  of  literature  in  the  early  ages  of  the  Roman  re- 

public ? 

297.  Who  were  the  principal  Roman  historians? 
£98.   Who  were  the  principal  Roman  poets? 

SECTION  XXXVII. 

299.  Was   much   attention  paid  to  the  study  of  philosophy  in  the  early 

periods  of  Rome  ? 

300.  At  what  time  did  philosophy  become  an  object  of  attention  with  the 

Romans  ? 

301.  Who  first  diffused   a  taste  for  the  study  of  philosophy  among  tbe 

Ro'iiatis  ? 

302.  Who  may  be  reckoned  their  most  eminent  philosopher  ? 


QUESTIONS.  n 

SECTION  XXXVIII. 

303.  What  were  some  of  the  most  distinguishing  traits  of  character  in  th« 

early  Romans  ? 

304.  What  contributed  chiefly  to  their  change  of  character  and  maa- 

nfirs  ? 

305.  What  were  some  of  the  amusements  of  the  Romans  ? 

SECTION  XXXIX, 

306.  To  what  may  be  ascribed  the  extensive  conquests  of  the  Romans  ? 

307.  What  was  the  number  of  soldiers  in  a  Roman  legion  ? 

30b.  When  is  it  supposed  that  the  tactic  of  the  Romans  was  at  its  height 
of  excellence  ? 

309.  By  whom  was  the  art  of  entrenchment  carried  to  great  perfection  ? 

310.  When  was  the  naval  military  art  first  known  among  the  Romans  ? 

SECTION  XL. 

311.  When  did  the  most  material  change   for  the  worse  in  the  national 

character  of  the  Romans  take  place  .' 

312.  What  were  the  morals  of  the  Romans  in  the  last  ages  of  the  com- 

monwealth ? 

313.  From  what  circumstances  did  Roman  virtue  so  rapidly  decline  ? 

314.  To  what  did  the  Roman  republic  owe  its  d'ssolution  ? 

SECTION  XLI. 

315.  What  battle  decided  the  fate  of  the  commonwealth  and  made  Octa- 

vius  master  of  Rome  ? 

316.  By  what  name  was  he  now  called  ? 

317.  What  event  said  to  be  productive  of  universal  joy  distinguished  his 

reign  ? 

318.  What  methods  did  he  practice  to  keep  himself  in  the  favour  of  the 

people  ? 

319.  When  did  Augustus  die  and  at  what  age  ? 

320.  How  long  did  he  reigu  ? 

321.  Who  succeeded  him  ? 

322.  What  was  the  character  of  Tiberius  ? 

323.  In  what  manner  was  he  related  to  Augustus  ? 

324.  What  was  the  end  of  Tiberius  ? 

325.  In  what  year  of  his  reign  was  Jesus  Christ  crucified  ? 

326.  Who  was  the  successor  of  Tiberius  ? 

327.  What  was  bis  character  ? 

328.  What  became  of  him  ? 

329.  Who  succeeded  Caligula  ? 

SECTION  XLII. 

330.  By  what  acts  of  triolence  was  the  reign  of  Nero,  the  successor  of  Clatf 

dius,  characterised  .'' 

331.  Who  were  the  three  next  Roman  emperors? 

332.  Under  which  of  the  emperors  was  Jerusalem  taken  ? 

333.  Who  succeeded  Vespasian  ? 

334.  What  was  the  character  of  Titus  ? 

335.  How  was  it  suspected  Titus  came  to  his  death? 

336.  What  three  emperors  next  in  order  succeeded  Domitian? 

337.  What  was  the  character  of  Trajan  and  Adrian  ? 

SECTION  XLIII. 

338.  For  what  length  of  time  did  the  AntoQinei  reign  ? 
3J9.  What  «u  their  dxanicter? 


12  QUESTIONS 

340.  What  lenwth  of  time  was  there  from  the  death  of  the  Antonines  to 

tht  accession  of  Diocletian  ? 

341.  What  was  the' character  of  the  emperors  that  reigned  in  this  jierioJ? 

342.  What  chaii°:i:  in  the  government  did  I'iocletian  nitroduce  ? 

343.  Under  whom  was  the  seat  of  the  Roman  empire  removed  and  when  f 

344.  What  was  bis  religion? 

SECTION  XLIV. 

345.  What  was  the  general  character  of  the  government  of  Rome  under 
Constantine  ? 

346.  In  what  way  did  he  injure  the  army? 

347.  What  was  the  policy  pursued  by  the  emperor  Julian  towards  Chris- 

tianity r 

348.  Who  were  the  three  emperors  that  succeeded  in  order  to  Julian  ? 

SECTION  XLV. 

349.  In  whose  reign  did  Christianity  become  the  established  religion  of  the 
Roman  empire  ? 

350.  Why  were  the  Romans  less  tolerant  towards  the  Christian  than  they 

were  towards  the  difTi  ri  nt  pagan  religions  of  other  nations? 

351.  When  were  the  books  of  the  New  Testament  collected  into  a  vol- 

ume ? 

352.  When  was  the  Old  Testament  translated  into  Greek  from  the  origi- 

nal Hebrew  ? 

353.  In  what  way  did  Christianity  suffer  in  the  third  century  ? 

354.  Did  Christianity  become  more  or  less   pure    as  it    received  favour 

from  the  civil  powers  ? 

SECTION  XL VI. 
455.  When  and  by  whom  was  the  city  of  Rome  sacked  and  plundered  ? 

356.  What  is  the  length  c{  time  from  the  building  of  Rome  to  the  extinc- 

tion of  the  empire  ? 

357.  What  may  be  considered  the  ultimate  cause  of  the  ruin  of  the  Ro- 

man Empire  ? 

358.  Who  was  the  last  emperor  of  Rome  ? 

369.   When  was  he  compelled  to  resign  the  throne  ? 

360.  By  whom  was  he  compelled  to  do  it? 

SECTION  XL VII. 

361.  From  what  country  is  it  supposed  that  the  Goths  were  originaHj'  de- 

rived ? 

362.  What  was  the  character  of  the  ancient  Scythians  ? 

363.  Of  what  nation  were  the  Germans  a  branch? 

364.  W  hat  effect  had  the  religion  of  the  Goths  upon  them,  ai  a  warlike 

people  ? 

SECTION  XLVIIL 

365.  Were  the  Roman  laws  retained  after  Italy  wag  conquered  by  the 

Goths  ? 

366.  What  character  does  Tytler  give  the  conquerors  of  Italy? 

367.  What  government  did  the  Goths  establish  in  Italy  after  ita  conquert  ? 

368.  Was  it  elective  or  hereditary  ? 

SECTION  XLIX. 

369.  What  are  the  most  ancient  books  of  history  in  existence  ? 

370.  Who  are  some  of  the  earliest  writers  of  profans  history  wh^e  works 

are  still  extant  ? 


QUESTIONS.  IS 

S71.  VVliat  modern  histories  of  Greece  and  Rome  are  mdst  worthy  of  p«. 
rasal  to  the  person  who  has  attended  to  original  works  named  ' 

372.  What  may  be  considered  the  greatest  magazine  of  historical  kaowl- 

edge  ever  collected  ? 

373.  What  are  esteemed  the  li^hls  of  history  ? 

PART  SECOND. 

MODERN   HISTORY. 

SECTION  I. 

374.  At  what  aera  is  the  commencement  of  profane  history  dated? 

375.  What  new  and  powerful  dominion  arose  in  the  latter  part  of  the  sixth 

century  ? 

376.  .To  whom  do  the  Arabians  trace  their  descent? 

377.  When  and  where  was  Mahomet  born  ? 

378.  What  was  his  descent  and  education  ? 

379.  What  is  the  sacred  book  of  the  Mahometan  religion  called  •' 

380.  By  whom  and  under  what  circumstances  was  it  written  ? 

381.  What  are  the  nature  and  substance  of  Mahometan  religion? 

382.  What  caused  the  banishment  of  Mahomet  from  Mecca  ? 

383.  What  is  his  flight  called  ? 

384.  When  did  it  take  place  ? 

385.  Did  the  Mahometan  religion  have  a  rapid  increase? 

386.  What  was  the  title  of  the  head  of  this  empire? 

SECTION  II, 

387.  Who  were  the  Franks  ? 

388.  From  what  did  they  receive  this  name? 

389.  Under  whom  and  what  circumstances  were  the  Franks  converted  t« 

Christianity? 

390.  Who  delivered  France  from  the  ravages  of  the  SaraccM? 

391.  At  what  time  did  this  take  place  ? 

392.  With  whom  and  under  what  circumstances  commenced  the  secooil 

race  of  kings  in  France  ? 

393.  Who  succeeded  Pepin  in  the  sovereignty  of  Frsmce  ? 

SECTION  III. 

394.  IIow  was  the  power  of  the  government  divided  and  exeroiied  in  the 

early  parts  of  the  French  monarchy  ? 

395.  What  was  the  religious  cliaracter  of  the  ancient  Germans? 

396.  What  new  system  of  policy  arose  at  this  time  among  the  united 

Germans  and  Franks,  which  extended  itself  over  most  nations  of 
Europe  ? 

397.  Wh^L^t  is  to  be  understood  by  the  Feudal  System  ? 

398.  What  effect  had  the  Feudal  System  on  the  power  of  the  sovt«^n  t 

399.  By  what  name  is  the  second  race  of  French  kings  called  ? 

SECTION  ly. 

400.  How  came  Charlemagne  into  possession  of  the  aadirided  awKviaiM 

of  France  ?  "»■"» 

401.  What  was  his  private  cbanwter  i 

402.  When  did  h«  die  f 

493.  Wbe  was  bk  succ^iiior  f 


i  QUESTIONS 

SECTION  V. 

404.  What  is  said  of  Charlemagne  in  relation  to  commerce  ? 

405.  How  did  he  vie'sv  literature  ? 

406.  What  style  of  architecture  was  successfully  studied  and  cultivated 

in  that  age  ? 

407.  What  sanguinary  and  most  iniquitous  custom  of  the  present  time 

may  be  traced  to  the  age  of  Charlemagne? 

SECTION  VI. 

408.  What  great  heresies  existed   in   the  Christian  church   about  thi* 

time  ? 

409.  By  whom  and  when  was  the  Arian  heresy  condemned  ? 

410.  What  was  a  source  of  the  most  obstinate  controversy  in  those  ages  ? 

411.  What  gave  rise  to  penances  and  other  religious  voluntary  suflFering  f 

412.  What  effect  had  the  conqaests  of  Charlemagne  on  Christianity  ? 

SECTION  VII. 

413.  Who  was  the  immediate  successor  of  Charlemagne  ? 

414.  Did  his  empire  remain  entire  under  his  successors  ? 

415.  What  was  the  character  of  his  successors  ? 

I 

SECTION  VIII. 

416.  What  was  the  condition  of  the  Eastern  empire  during  the  eighth  and 

ninth  centuries? 

417.  What  was  the  character  of  the  emperors  ? 

418.  What  religious  dispute  prevailed  at  this  time  ? 

SECTION  IX. 

419.  Under  whom  did  the  Pope  begin  to  acquire  temporal  power? 

420.  What  is  said  of  the  religious  character  of  the  temporal  princ«s  of  thi* 

period  ? 

421.  What  check  was  there,  at  this  time,  to  the  increasing  power  of  the 

church  of  Rome  ? 

422.  What  is  the  character  of  the  clergy  of  this  period  ? 

SECTION  X. 

423.  By  whom  was  the  empire  of  Morocco  founded  ? 

424.  When  did  the  Saracens  overrun  and  conquer  Spain  ? 

425.  Was  the  Mahometan  religion  extensively  professed  ? 

426.  What  prevented  the  Saracens  from  raising  an  extensive  empire  ? 

SECTION  XI. 

427.  What  had  become  the  condition  of  the  empire  founded  by  Charle- 

magne, in  the  tenth  and  eleventh  centuries  ? 

428.  How  were  the  emperors  at  this  time  elected  ? 

429.  Who  were  some  of  the  most  distinguished  monarchs  of  Germany  in 

the  middle  ages? 

430.  Were  there  frequent  disputes  between  the  Popes  of  Rome  and  Ger- 

man emperors  ? 

SECTION  XII. 

431.  From  whom  is  it  probable  the  British  isles  derived  their  first  inhabi- 

tants ? 

432.  What  was  the  condition  of  the  country  when  mvaied  by  the  R** 

mans? 
483.  When  4id  JuHub  Caeear  enter  Britain  ? 


QUESTIONS.  -15 

434.  When  did  a  complete  reduction  of  the  island  take  place,  and  put  it 

under  the  Roman  power  ? 

435.  When  did  the  Romans  abandon  the  country? 

436.  What  led  the  Saxons  into  Britain  ? 

437.  How  lortg  were  the  Saxons  in  conqueringf  the  Britons? 

438.  What  was  the  government  called,  established  by  the  Saxons? 

439.  When  and  by  whom  was  the  Saxon  Heptarchy  brought  under  one 

sovereign  ? 

440.  What  piratical  people  for  a  long  period  subsequent  to  this,  desolated 

the  coasts  of  Britain  ? 

441.  What  relationship  was  there  between  Alfred  the  Great  and  Egbert? 

442.  What  is  the  character  of  Alfred  ? 

443.  When  did  he  die? 

444.  Who  were  the  immediate  successors  of  Alfred  ? 

445.  What  people  invaded  and  obtained  the  government  of  England  sub- 

sequent to  the  time  of  Alfred  ? 

446.  When  was  William  di;ke  of  Normandy  put  in  possession  of  the  throne 

of  England? 

SECTION  XIII. 

447.  What  was  the  character  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  government? 
44!f.  How  many  ranks  of  people  wt-re  there  ' 

449.  How  did  the  Anglo-Saxons  compere  with  the  Normans  in  point  of 

civilization  ? 

SECTION  XIV. 

450.  Who  was  elected  to  the  throne  of  France,  A.  D.  987? 

451.  What  was  the  prevailing  passion  among  the  nations  of  Europe  dur- 

ing the  tenth  and  eleventh  centuries  ? 

452.  What  was  the  state  of  the  Northern  powers  of  Europe  in  point  of  civ- 

ilization, at  this  time  ? 

453.  What  was  a  subject  of  dispute  between  the  Popes  and  the  Emperors  ? 

SECTION  XV. 

45i.  What  was  the  consequence  of  the  battle  of  Hastings  ? 

455.  What  was  the  end  of  \Villiam  the  conqueror? 

456.  What  important  law  did  he  introduce  into  England  ? 

457.  Which  part  of  his  subjects  were  treated  with  most  favour? 

458.  Who  were  some  of  the  immediate  successors  of  William  the  conquer- 

or ? 

459.  Who  effected  the  conquest  of  Ireland  ? 

4C0.  What  clouded  the  latter  part  of  the  reign  of  Henrj'  II.? 
4G1.   What  was  the  character  of  this  monarch? 

462.  Who  succeeded  him  on  the  throne  ? 

463.  How  came  Richard  I.  to  be  imprisoned  in  Germany? 

464.  Under  what  sovereign  was  the  Magna  Charta  produced  ? 

SECTION  XVI. 

465.  What  two  factions  were  there  in  Italy  in  the  thirteenth  century.^ 

466.  What  occasioned  them  ? 

467.  What  was  the  political  state  of  Europe  at  this  time  ? 

SECTION  XVII. 

468.  Who  was  the  first  promoter  of  the  Crusades  ? 

469.  What  was  the  object  of  the  Crusades  ? 

470.  What  was  the  number  of  I'eter's  army,  and  when  did  he  comm«iee 

his  crusade  to  the  Holy  Laud  ? 


i6  QUESTIONS. 

471.  What  became  of  this  army  ? 

472.  When  was  a  second  crusade  undertaken  and  how  many  engaged  in 

473.  What  was  the  fate  of  this  expedition? 

474.  "Who  hea*ded  the  third  crusade  ? 

475.  When  was  the  fourth  fitted  out  ? 

476.  What  particular  success  attended  one,  and  what  was  its  issue? 

477.  Who  undertook  the  last  crusade  into  the  East  ? 

478.  What  became  of  Lewis  IX.  ? 

479.  How  many,  is  it  supposed,  of  the  persons  who  engaged  in  the  cru- 

sades, perished  ? 

480.  What  benefit  resulted  from  the  crusades  ? 

SECTION  XVIII. 

481.  How  was  the  profession  of  arms  esteemed  among  the  Germans? 

482.  What  is  said  to  have  been  characteristic  of  the  Gothic  manncia  ? 

483.  When  did  chivalry  attain  its  perfection  ? 

484.  What  writings  accompanied  the  adventures  of  chivalry  ? 

485.  Are  works  of  fiction  capable  of  producing  good  moral  eiFccts? 

SECTION  XIX. 

486. •  When  did  the  crusaders  take  Constantinople  ? 

487.  How  long  <iid  the  French  emperors  govern  it? 

488.  Wl>en  may  the  rise  of  the  house  of  Austria  be  dated  ? 

489.  How  did  the  states  of  Italy  compare  at  this  time  with  most  of  the 

other  coimtries  of  Europe  ? 
<190.  What  gtivere  and  Idoody  measure  WTis  adopted  in  relation  to  the 
Kniglits  Tt^mplars  ; 

SECTION  XX. 

491.'  When  did  Switzerland  become  independent  ? 
492.  By  what  name  was  it  then  called  ?   ~  - 
493. /To  what  government  had  it  been  subject  ?\ 

494."  What  was  the  number  of  battles  fotaght  before  it  became  indepc«- 
dent  ? 

SECTION  XX r. 

405.  What  prince  imposed  a  tribute  on  all  the  Italian  states?   • 

496.  In  whose  time  was  the  Popedom  removed  to  Avignon  ?  ^ 

497.  How  long  did  it  remain  there  ? 

498.  What  act  distinguished  tlie  reign  of  Charles  IV.  ? 

499.  Who  summoned  tlie  council  of  Constance,  1414?      I  , 
TiOO.  What  martyrdoms  were  the  consequence  of  this  council  ?    •'        ! 

501.  By  whom  was  the  wealth  of  the  Germanic  states  possessed?    - 

SECTION  XXII. 

502.  Wliat  character  is  given  of  Henry  III.  ? 

503.  By  whom  was  he  made  a  prisoner  ? 

504.  Who  succeeded  Henry  HI.  on  the  throne  of  England  .' 

505.  When  and  by  whom  was  Wales  conquered  ? 

SECTION  XXIH. 

506.  What  is  the  state  of  the  Scottish  history  before  the  time  of  Malcoln* 

III.  ? 

507.  Who  were  the  two  next  succeeding  kings  of  Scotland? 

508.  Who  became  competitors  to  the  crown,  1285. 

509.  How  was  the  dispute  decided  ?  _i 


QUESTIONS.  17 

510.  What  distinguished  warrior  arose,  at  this  time,  to  assert  the  liberties 

of  his  country  ?     '•'  ' 

511.  What  became  )f  Wallace  ?       ,      ^ 

512.  Who  finally  succeeded  in  delivering  Scotland  from  the  English  and 

was  crowned  sovereign  of  it,  1306  ? 

SECTION  XXIV. 

£>!3.  What  statute  was  passed  by  Edward  I.  which  related  to  taxes  and 
imposts  ? 

514.  How  many  times  in  his  reign  is  he  said  to  have  ratified  the  Magna 

Charta .? 

515.  With  how  large  an  army  did  he  invade  Scotland? 

516.  With  what  force  did  Bruce  meet  him? 

517.  Who  dethroned  Edward  II.  and  under  what  circumstances? 

518.  In  what  manner  did  Edward  III.  revenge  the  murder  of  his  father? 

519.  On  what  did  he  found  his  claim  to  the  throne  of  France  ? 

520.  When  are  the  English  said  for  the  first  time  to  have  used  artillery  ia 

battle  ? 

521.  What  king  of  France  was  carried  captive  to  England,  and  by  whom  ? 

522.  What  became  of  the  captive  king  of  f^rance  ? 

523.  Who  succeeded  John  in  France  and  Edward  III.  in  England  ? 

SECTION  XXV. 

524.  What  became  of  Richard  II.  and  who  succeeded  him  ? 

525.  What  was  the  origin  of  the  quarrels  between  the  houses  of  Lancas- 

ter a-id  York  ? 

526.  What  induced  Henry  V.  to  invade  France? 

527.  What  was  the  result  of  this  expedition  ? 

528.  On  what  terms  did  Henry  V.  receive  a  right  to  the  throne  of  France 

during  the  life  of  Charles  V'i.  ? 

529.  By  what  aid  was  Charles  VII.  enabled  to  secure  the  throne  of  Fraacfe 

to  himself? 

530.  What  became  of  the  Maid  of  Orleans  ? 

531.  What  was  the  state  of  society  in  Europe  at  this  period? 

532.  What  circumstances  show  that  it  was  in  a  low  state? 

SECTION  XXVI. 

533.  At  what  time  did  the  Turks  cross  over  into  Europe  ? 

534.  What   A-iatic  conqueror  arose  in  the  14th  century,  who  for  a  time 

checked  the  Turks  in  their  career  of  conquest  and  oppression? 

535.  What  effect  did  the  death  of  Tamerlane  have  on  the  Turks  ? 

536.  What  prince  subjected  Constantinople  to  the  power  of  the  Turks? 

537.  When  did  this  take  place,  and  how  long  had  the  eastern  empire 

then  subsisted  ? 
638.  Did  this  terminate  the  empire  of  the  East,  as  it  was  termed  ?  .'^ 

SECTION  XXVII. 

539.  What  is  the  government  of  Turkey  ? 

540.  What  limits  and  restraints  are  there  upon  a  Turkish  Sultan  ? 

541.  What  is  the  character  oi  the  people  ? 

642.'>With  what  officer  are  the  principal  functions  of  the  govemmenl  A- 

trusted  ? 
543.  How  are  the  tevenues  of  the  government  obtamed? 

SECTION  XXVIII. 

644.  What  greatly  ^creased  the  power  of  the  French  crown  in  the  ISA 
century  ? 

Yy  3 


18  QUESTIONS. 

645.  What  was  the  character  of  Lewis  XI.  ? 

546.  .Who  Wire  the  two  immediate  successors  of  Lewis  XL,  on  the  throne 

of  France  ? 
547/ Jn  what  foreign  enterprise  did  Charles  VIIL  of  France  engage  ? 

SECTION  XXIX. 

548.  What  circumstance  united  the  kingdoms  of  Arragon  and  Castile 

under  the  same  sovereigns  •* 

549.  What  institutions  were  formed  in  this  period  for  the  discovery  and 

punishment  of  crimes  ? 

550.  "When  did  Ferdinand  take  the  title,  king  of  Spain  ? 

5§L  How  long  time  did  the  dominion  of  the  Moors  continue  in  Spain  ? 

552.  On  what  account  and  when  did  Ferdinand  expel  the  Jews  from 

Spain  .'' 

553.  How  numerous  were  they  ? 

554.  What  memorable  discovery  was  made  in  this  reign  ? 

SECTION  XXX. 

555.  What  was  the  character  of  pope  Alexander  VI.  ? 

556.  What  became  of  him  ? 

557.  ^Mio  conspired  to  deprive  Lewis  XII.  of  Navarre  ? 

558.  When  did  he  die  ? 

SECTION  XXXI. 

559.  How  did  the  partisans  of  York  and  Lancaster  distinguish  themselves 

from  each  other .'" 

560.  W^hich  parly  triumphed? 

561.  How  many  of  the  Lancastrians  were  slain  in  the  battle  near  Teuton  ? 

562.  To  whom  was  Edward  IV^.  in  the  first  instance  indebted  for  his 

throne  ? 

563.  What  caused  Warwick  to  turn  against  Edward  ? 

564.  What  epithet  was  given  to  Warwick  ? 

665.  Who  was  the  queen  of  Henry  VI.  and  what  is  said  of  her  character  ? 

566.  What  of  Henry  VI. — of  his  queen  Margaret — and  of  the  Prince, 

their  son  ? 

567.  Who  was  Richard  III  ? 

568.  How  did  he  come  to  the  throne  ? 

569.  What  became  of  him  ? 

670.  What  became  of  Edward  V.  ? 

571.  How  were  the  Houses  of  York  and  Lancaster  united,  which  put  a 

period  to  the  civil  wars  between  them  ? 

572.  What  is  said  of  the  government  of  Henry  VII.  ? 

SECTION  XXXII. 

573.  What  was  the  -state  of  the  feudal  system  in  Scotland  ? 
W4.   What  was  a  constant  policy  of  the  Scottish  kings  ? 

875.  What  Scottish  king  was  prisoner  in  London  in  company  with  John^ 

king  of  France  ? 
■y76.  How  long  was  he  held  in  captivity  there  ? 
577    How  long  was  James  I.  held  in  captivity  by  the  Erglish  ? 

878.  What  advantage  did  he  derive  from  this  captivity  ? 

879.  To  what  end  did  the  five  Jameses  come  ? 

860.  With  what' English  sovereign  was  James  V.  contemporary,  and  efl" 
gaged  in  war  i 

SECTION  XXXIII. 
/     m.  What  was  the  oonstaut  policy  of  the  &o»ttieh  kiag^s? 


QUESTIONS.  19 

582.  What  rendered  this  policy  necessary  ?  "O- 

583.  In  whom  resided  the  leg^islative  power  ?       * 

584.  Of  what  did  the  revenue  of  the  sovereign  consist? 

SECTION   XXXIV. 

585.  Who  were  the  first  restorers  of  learnin;^  in  Europe  ?  / 

586.  What  sovereigns  in  this  age  encouraged  the  revival  of  learning  in 

Europe  ?  . 

507.  What  distinguished  genius  appeared  in  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth    . 

century? 

508.  In  what  did  the  genius  of  Bacon  discover  itself? 

589.  What  led  to  a  discovery  of  many  of  the  ancient  authors,  during  the  jj> 

fifteenth  century  ? 

590.  What  contributed  most  to  the  dissemination  of  knowledge  at  this  C 

period  ? 

591.  To  what  is  to  be  traced  modern  dramatic  composition? 

SECTION  XXXV. 

592.  What  was  the  boldest  naval  enterprise  of  the  ancients 

593.  What  parts  of  Europe  were  unknown  to  the  ancients  ? 

594.  To  what  sea  was  the  commerce  of  the  ancients  mostly  confined  ? 

595.  What  cities  of  modern  Europe  first  became  commercial? 

596.  When  and  where  was  first  established  a  national  bank  ? 

597.  What  were  the  Italian  merchants  called  in  the  middle  ages? 

598.  \>  hat  give  rise  to  bills  of  Exchange  ? 

599.  When  did  commerce  extend  itself  to  the  north  of  Europe? 

600.  For  what  purpose  was  the  League  of  the  Hanse  towns  formed  ? 

601.  When  did  the  woollen  manufactures  of  England  become  important? 

602.  AVhat  English  sovereigns  in  these  ages  pailicularly  encouraged  com- 

merce and  the  useful  arts  ? 

SECTION  XXXVl. 

603.  When  was  the  mariner's  compass  first  used  ? 

604.  What  nation  became  particularly  distinguished  in  the  fifteenth  cen- 

tury for  naval  enterprise  ? 

605.  When  and  by  whom  was  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  doubled? 

606.  How  extensive  did  the  Portuguese  possessions  in  India  become  at 

this  time  ? 

607.  What  effect  had  these  discoveries  on  the  commerce  of  Europe  ? 

608.  Who  made  repeated  attempts  to  destroy  the  trade  of  the  Portuguese? 

609.  What  V^esides  the  Portuguese   discoveries  produced   a  spirit  of  suc- 

cessful enterprise  in  England  ? 

610.  What  has  been  the  increase  of  population  in  Britain  since  the  reign 

of  Elizabeth  ? 

611.  What  proportion  of  the  population  is  supposed  to  be  employed  in 

manufactures  and  commerce  ? 

612.  How  does  it  appear  that  there  has  been  a  great  increase  of  national 

wealth  in  Britain  ? 

SECTION  XXXVII. 

613.  Who  were  the  parents  of  Chad-  '■' .  ? 

614.  When  did  h<-  come  to  the  throne  of  Spain? 

615.  Who  was  the  competitor  of  Charles  V.  for  the  throne  of  Austria  oa 

the  death  of  Maximilian  ? 

616.  Who  was  king  of  England  at  this  time  ? 

617.  How  did  the  war  terminate  between  Charles  and  Francis? 

618.  With  whom  did  'ienry  VIII.  take  part  on  the  rmewal  of  the  war? 

619.  What  induced  Charles  to  conclude  a  treaty  with  Fraucie,  in  1544  *' 


$C  QUESTIONS. 

620.  When  and  by  whom  was  the  order  of  Jesuits  founded? 

621.  What  was  the  principle  of  the  order  ? 

622.  What  gave  Charles  perpetual  disquiet  in  Germany  ? 

623.  At  what  age  and  where  did  he  resign  his  dominions  ? 

SECTION  XXXVIII. 

624.  What  was  the  condition  of  the  Germanic  empire  previous  to  the  reign 

of  Maximilian  1.  ? 

625.  What  emperor  acquired  the  greatest  power  in  Germany  ? 

SECTION  XXXIX. 

626.  What  important  events  distinguished  the  age  of  Charles  V.  ? 

627.  Who  was  a  leading  character  in  producing  the  Reformation  ? 

628.  Who  was  Roman  Pontiff  at  this  time  ? 

629.  What  practice  of  the  Romish  church  did  Luther  first  attack? 

630.  What  procured  Henry  VIII.  the  title  of  Defender  of  the  Faith  ? 

631.  What  distinguished  reformer  arose  in  Switzerland? 

632.  What  sovereign  at  this  time  was  upon  the  thrones  of  Sweden,  Den- 

mark, and  Norway  ? 

633.  Who  was  Gustavus  Vasa  ? 

634.  What  act  of  Leo  X.  and  of  Christiern  II.  contributed  to  the  reforma- 

tion in  the  north  ? 

635.  From  what  circumstance  did  the  Lutherans  derive  the  name  of  Prot- 

estants ? 

636.  Who  became  a  distinguished  convert  to  the  doctrines  of  the  refor- 

mation in  Geneva? 

637.  What  is  said  of  the  character  of  Calvin  ? 

SECTION  XL. 

638.  What  reformer  arose  in  England  in  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  cen- 

tury ? 

639.  In  what  way  had  Wickliffe  prepared  the  minds  of  the  people  of  Eng- 

land for  the  reformation  ? 

640.  Who  was  the  immediate  cause  of  it? 

641-   What  led  Henry  Vlil.  to  declare  himself  head  of  (he  church  in  Eng- 
land ? 

642.  When  did  he  die,  and  by  whom  was  he  succeeded  ? 

643.  What  checked  the  progress  of  reformation  in  England,  in  the  year 

1553? 

644.  How  many  Protestants  suffered  martyrdom  during  the  reign  of  Mary, 

in  England  ? 

645.  In  whose  reign  did  the  Protestant  religion  become  established  accord- 

ing to  its  present  form  in  England  ? 

SECTION  XLI. 

646.  Who  discovered  America  ? 

647.  To  whom  did  he  apply  in  vain  for  aid  in  making  discoveries  ? 

648.  Who  finally  furnished  him  for  the  voyage  ? 

649.  How  long  after  Columbus  left  the  Canaries,  before  he  discovered 

land  ? 

650.  In  which  of  his  voyages  did  he  discover  the  continent  of  America? 

651.  From  whom  was  the  name  of  America  received? 

652.  How  did  the  Spaniards  treat  the  inhabitants  of  the  newly  discovered 

countries  ? 

653.  When  and  by  whom  was  the  continent  of  America  explored  ? 

654.  Ho-vr  long  had  the  .VIexican  empire  been  founded  at  thie  time? 
«55.  Who  yr3k2  ths  sovereiga  cf  it  ? 


QUESTIONS.  21 

656.  What  was  the  result  of  the  expedition  against  the  Mexicans  i 

657.  Who  and  with  what  success  attempted  to  supersede  Cortez  ? 

658.  What  became  of  Montezuma? 

659.  Who  was  his  successor,  and  what  became  of  him  ? 

660.  When  and  by  whom  was  an  expedition  undertaken  against  Peru  ? 

661.  What  are  some  of  the  most  important  circumstances  that  attended 

this  expedition  ? 

662.  What  became  of  D'Almagro  and  Pizarro? 

663.  What  constituted  the  principal  value  of  the  American  Spanish  poa 

sessions  ? 

SECTION  XLII. 

664.  \Miat  effect  had  the  success  of  the  Spaniards  on  the  other  nations  of 

Europe  ? 

665.  Who  first  settled  Brazil,  Florida,  and  Canada  ? 

666.  From  what  did  England  derive  her  right  to  her   American  settle- 

ments ? 

667.  Who  first  planted  an  English  colony  in  America  ? 

603.  How  do  those  parts  of  America  at  first  settled  by  British  colonists 
compare  in  natural  richness  with  the  Spanish  possessions  ? 

SECTION  XLIII. 

669.  What  was  the  state  of  the  fine  arts  in  Europe  in  the  time  of  Leo  X.  ? 

670.  What  was  their  progress  ? 

671.  In  what  arts  did  the  Italians  excel  ? 

672.  Who  were  some  of  the  most  distinguished  Italian  painters  ? 

673.  Who  were  some  of  the  most  distinguished  Italian  sculptors  ? 

674.  WTien  is  the  invention  of  engraving  on  copper  dated  ? 

SECTION  XLIV. 

675.  What  is  the  character  of  the  Turks  in  the  fifteenth  century  ? 

676.  From  whom  did  the  Turks  take  the  island  of  Rhodes  ? 

677.  From  what  ancient  nation  are  derived  the  principles  of  maritime  ju« 

risprudence  existing  among  modern  nations  ? 

678.  What  conquests  did  the  Turks  make  ia  the  sixteenth  century  ? 

SECTION  XLV. 

675.  What  occasioned  a  revolution  in  Persia  in  the  latter  part  of  the  fif- 
teenth century  ? 

680.  What  is  the  government  of  Persia  ? 

681.  From  what  country  have  proceeded  the  conquerors  who  occasioned 

the  principal  revolutions  of  Asia  ? 

682.  What  singular  phenomenon  does  the  kingdom  of  Thibet  exhibit  ? 

SECTION  XLVI. 

683.  Who  has  furnished  the  earliest  accounts  of  India  ? 

684.  How  do  those  accounts  compare  with  the  present  condition  of  tlie 

Hindoos  ? 

685.  When  did  the  Mahometans  bejin  an  establishment  in  India? 

686.  What  was  the  condition  of  the  Mogul  empire  is  the  beginning  of  the 

eighteenth  century  ? 

687.  Who  conquered  and  obtained  possession  of  the  Mogul  empire  about 

the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  ? 

SECTION  XLVII. 

S88.  How  have  the  remains  of  the  ancient  knowledge  of  the  Hindoos  been 
preserved  ? 


22  QUESTIONS. 

6S9.  How  has  the  body  of  Hindoo  people  been  divided  ? 

690.  What  inference  is  to  be  drawn  from  this  classification  of  the  Hindoos, 

as  to  their  early  civilization  ? 
601.  What  was  the  civil  policy  of  the  Hindoos  in  the  time  of  Alexander 

the  great  ? 

692.  What  is  the   antiquity  of  some  Hindoo  compositions  lately  trans- 

lated ? 

693.  'V^  hat  is  the  antiquity  of  some  numerical  tables  lately  obtained  from 

the  Bramins  by  M.  Gentil  ? 

694.  \\  hat  do  the  wiiting-s  of  the  Hindoo  priests  demonstrate? 

695.  What  is  the  religion  of  India  generally  ? 

SECTIOxN  XLVHI. 

696.  What  is  said  of  the  laws  and  system  of  government  in  China? 

697.  When  did  the  Tartars  establish  themselves  permanently  in  the  sov- 

ereignty of  China  ? 

698.  When  and  by  whom  was  the  empire  of  Japan  d'isrovered  ? 

699.  A\  ho  carried  on  a  beneficial  trade  with  the  people  of  Japan? 
"700.   M  hat  caused  this  trade  to  be  broken  off? 

701.  Why  is  it  that  the  Dutch  are  still  allowed  to  trade  with  the  Japa- 

nese ? 

SECTION  XLIX. 

702.  To  whom  does  Sir  William  Jones  trace  the  origin  of  the  Chinese? 

703.  ^^"hat  is  the  government  of  China? 

704.  How  are  honours  bestowed  in  C'hina  ? 

705.  AVhat  is  the  state  of  the  sciences  in  China  at  this  time  ? 

706.  What  arts  in  China  are  carried  to  great  perfection  ? 

707.  AMiat  are  the  morals  of  the  Chinese  ? 

708.  What  Chinese  writer  is  said  to  have  produced  a  good  system  of  mo- 

rality ? 

709.  What  is  the  religion  of  the  emperor  and  the  higher  mandarins  ? 

SECTION  L. 

710.  What  was  the  opinion  of  Mr.  Bailly  concerning  the  arts  and  sciences 

amons;  the  nations  of  the  east  ? 

711.  How  long  have  they  been  stationary  with  the  Chinese? 

712.  At  how  <  arly  a  period  are  the  Chaldeans  represented  to  have  been 

an  enlightened  people  ? 

713.  Is  the  opinion  of  Mr.  Bailly  well  founded  ? 

SECTION  LI. 

714.  Who  took  Calais  from  the  English  for  the  French  ? 

715.  How  long  had  it  been  in  posst-ssion  of  the  English? 

716.  What  was  the  character  of  Philip  II.  ? 

717.  The  government  did  he  confer  on  the  Prince  of  Orange? 

718.  For  what  purpose  did  he  establish  the  Inquisition  in  those  provinces  ? 

719.  What  led  to  the  establishment  of  the  republic  of  the  seven  united 

provinces  ? 

720.  \\  hat  is  the  chief  magistrate  called  ? 

721.  AVhat  became  of  the  Prince  of  Orange  ? 

722.  Who  aided  this  republic  in  obtaining  independence  ? 

SECTION  LII. 

723.  WViat  was  the  government  of  the  seven  united  provinces  ? 

724.  What  important  evil  is  there  in  the  constitution  of  the  government  ^ 

725.  What  wa»  the  authority  of  the  chief  magistrate  ? 


QUESTIONS.  23 

726.  Who  almost  annihilated  the  republic  ? 

727.  Wiiea.  was  the  Stadtholdership  made  hereditau"y  ? 

SECTION  LIII. 

728.  How  was  the  loss  of  the  Netherlands  compensated  to  Philip  II.  ? 

729.  When  did  he  take  possession  of  Portugal  ? 

730.  What  naval  enterprise  engaged  the  attention  of  Philip  ? 

731.  What  was  the  result  of  it? 

732.  What  is  the  character  of  Philip  ? 

SECTION  LIV. 

733.  W^hat  accelerated  the  progress  of  reformation  in  France  ? 

734.  What  two  parties  were  engaged  in  a  civil  war  in  the  latter  part  ol 

the  sixteenth  century .'' 

735.  When  was  the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew  ? 

736.  What  was  the  character  of  Charles  IX.  of  France  ? 

737.  Who  were  his  two  immediate  successors  ? 

738.  What  became  of  them  ? 

739.  What  great  project  was  Henry  IV.  meditating,  when  assassinaterf ? 

SECTION  LV. 

740.  Wken  did  Elizabeth  come  to  the  throne  of  England  ? 

741.  What  was  the  state  of  the  kingdom  during  her  reign  ? 

74'2.   What  fixed  a  stain  on  Elizabeth's  character .'  'lH 

743.  Under  what  pretence  did  Mary  of  Scots  assume  the  arms  and  title  of 

queen  of  England  ? 

744.  What  form  of  religion  became  established  in  Scotland,  in  the  reign  of 

Elizabeth  ? 

745.  Who  was  a  distinguished  reformer  in  Scotland  ? 

746.  Who  were  the  two  husbands  of  Mary  ? 

747.  How  came  Mary  in  the  hands  of  Elizabeth  ? 

748.  Under  what  pretence  was  Mary  condemned  and  execwted  ? 

749.  How  long  was  she  a  captive  in  England  .' 

750.  At  what  age  and  when  did  Elizabeth  die  ? 

♦ 
SECTION  LVI. 

751.  AVho  succeeded  Elizabeth  on  the  throne  of  England.'* 

752.  What  rendered  James  unpopular  with  his  subjects  ? 

753.  What  was  the  object  of  the  gunpwwder  treason  ? 

754.  By  whom  was  the  conspiracy  formed  ? 

755.  What  was  a  favourite  object  with  James  ? 

756.  Who  was  his  successor  ? 

757.  W^hat  were  some  of  the  principal  subjects  of  dispute  between  Charlei 

and  his  parliaments  ? 

758.  What  caused  the  Scots  to  rebel  and  take  up  arms  against  the  govern- 

ment of  Charles  ? 

759.  W^hat  two  distinguished  individuals  at  this  time  were  impeached  by 

the  commons  and  beheaded? 

760.  What  important  occurrence  was  there  at  this  time  in  Ireland  ? 

761.  When  the  civil  war  commenced,  who  were  on  the  side  of  the  kin*. 

and  who  on  that  of  the  parliament  ? 

762.  Who  directed  the  measures  of  the  army  of  parliament  ? 

763.  In  what  way  was  Cromwell  able  to  procure  the  death  of  Charles  ? 

764.  When  was  he  beheaded  ? 

7«6.  How  far  were  tbe^proceediuga  of  the  conuaonsjastifiable? 


24  QUESTIONS. 

SECTION  LVII. 

766.  WTiat  part  did  the  pailiament  of  Scotland  take  in  regard  to  the  king? 
■^7.  On  what  condition  was  Charles  II.  proclaimed  kin»  of  Scotland.' 
TuS.   V^' ho  were  the  Cci^Man^er^  of  Scotland  ? 

769.  What  became  of  Charles  II.  when  overcame  by  Cromwell? 

770.  What  was  the  title  of  Cromwell  ? 

771.  What  was  the  character  of  his  government? 

772.  At  what  age  did  he  die,  and  who  was  his  successor? 

773.  What  was  the  parliament  called  that  put  to  death  king  Charles? 

774.  Under  what  circumstances  and  when  was  Charles  IL  restored  ? 

SECTION  LVIII. 
■  775.  What  was  the  character  of  Charles  II.  ? 
7'76.  When  were  the  epithets  of  Whig  and  Tory  first  known,  and  how 
were  they  applied  ? 

777.  W'ho  was  the  successor  of  Charles  II.  ? 

778.  What  made  him  unpopular  with  his  subjects  ? 

779.  By  what  means  was  Charles  removed  from  the  throne  ? 

780.  On  whom  was  the  crown  then  settled  ? 

781.  What  became  of  James  ? 

I  SECTION  LIX. 

<l^ -782.  To  what  period  may  the  rudiments  of  the  English  constitution  be 
traced  ? 

j?63.  In  whose  reign  was  instituted  the  trial  by  jury? 

784.  In  whose  reign  did  the  Magna  Charta  originate  ? 

785.  In  whose  reign  was  the  act  of  Habeas  Corpus  passed  ? 

786.  Of  what  does  the  parliament  of  Great  Britain  consist  ? 

787.  Of  what  does  the  house  of  lords  consist  ? 

788.  Of  what  does  the  house  of  commons  consist  ? 

789.  What  is  the  act  of  Habeas  Corpus  ? 

SECTION  LX. 

790.  How  are  the  pecuniary  supplies  of  the  sovereign  obtained  ? 

791.  When  did  the  English  natipnal  debt  arise? 
•792.   What  constitutes  the  Sinking  Fund  ? 

793.  Is  it  probable  the  debt  will  ever  become  extinct  ? 

SECTION  LXI. 

794.  To  what  minister  was  France  indebted  for  much  of  her  good  success 

in  the  reign  of  Lewis  XIII.  ? 

795.  What  was  the  character  of  Lewis  XIII.  ? 

796.  What  became  the  condition  of  the  Protestants  in  the  reigrnof  Lewis 

XIIL? 

797.  When  did  he  die  ? 

SECTION  LXII. 

798.  "What  weak  and  despicable  act  did  Philip  III.  commit? 

799.  When  did  Portugal  become  an  independent  sovereignty  ? 

800.  Who  became  her  first  king  ? 

801.  What  is  said  of  Spain  in  the  reigns  of  Philip  III.  and  IV.  ? 

SECTION  LXIII. 

802.  What  -was  the  condition  of  Germany  when  Charles  V.  abdicated  the 

throne  ? 

803.  What  was  then  and  for  a  long  period  afterwards  a  subject  of  conten* 

ti«A  IB  Germar^  ? 


aUESTIONS.  91 

804.  What  peace  put  a  period  to  this  contention  ? 

805.  When  did  the  peace  of  Westphalia  take  place  ? 

SECTION  LXIV. 

806.  When  did  Lewis  XIV,  come  to  the  throne  of  France? 

807.  At  what  age  ? 

808.  What  led  to  a  civil  war  in  the  early  part  of  his  reign  ? 

809.  ^^  hen  did  Mazarin  die  ? 

810.  What  change  took  place  in  the  affairs  of  France  at  this  time  ? 

811.  What  was  reckoned  one  of  the  weakest  and  most  impolitic  measures 

of  Lewis  XIV.  ? 

812.  What  was  the  state  of  the  finances  of  France  in  the  latter  part  of 

the  reign  of  Lewis  XIV,  ? 

813.  What  character  is  given  of  Lewis  XIV.  ? 

814.  At  what  age  and  when  did  he  die  ? 

SECTION  LXV. 

815.  What  change  took  place  in  the  government  of  France,  under  the 

Capet  an  race  of  kings  ? 

816.  What  power  arose  to  limit  and  check  the  royal  prerogative,  in  and 

from  the  reign  of  Lewis  XIII.  , 

817.  What  made  the  powers  of  parliament  a  constant  subject  of  dispute  * 

818.  In  what  way  was  the  crov/n  of  France  to  descend? 

819.  What  w  s  the  established  religion  of  France? 

820.  What  took  place  in  the  assembly  of  the  Gallican  church,  in  1682  ? 

SECTION  LXVI. 

821.  What  two  distinguished  characters  in  the  north  of  Europe  were 

contemporary  with  Lewis  XIV.  ? 

822.  When  is  Russia  said  to  have  received  Chrrstianity  ? 

823.  What  sovereign  first  published  a  code  of  laws  in  Russia  ? 

824.  When  was  Siberia  added  to  tiie  Russian  empire  ? 

825.  When  and  how  did  Peter  become  master  of  the  Russian  empire? 

826.  How  was  the  early  part  of  his  life  spent  ? 

827.  What  method  did  he  adopt  to  improve  himself  in  the  sciences  an^  a 

useful  arts  ? 

828.  When  and  at  what  age  did  Charles  XII.  come  to  the  throne  of  Sweden 

829.  At  what  age  and  with  what  success  was  his  first  campaign  made  ? 

830.  What  change  did  he  effect  in  the  government  of  Poland  ? 

831.  By  whom  was  he  defeated  ? 

832.  How  many  of  his  army  remained  to  him  after  this  defeat? 

833.  To  what  means  did  Charles  then  resort  to  regain  hh  lost  power  ? 

834.  What  became  of  Charles  XII.  ? 
836.  When  did  Peter  the  Great  die  ? 

SECTION  LXVII. 

836.  Who  were  the  principal  philosophers  iu  the  seventeenth  century  ? 

837.  For  what  was  Galileo  imprisoned  ? 

838.  What  institutions  were  formed  which  contributed  to  the  advance- 

ment of  science  and  the  arts  ? 

839.  What  work  of  Newton  contains  the  elements  of  all  philosophy  ? 
S40.  What  was  Locke's  theory  concerning  the  human  mind  ? 

841.  What  are  some  of  the  most  distinguished  poetical  productions  of 

modern  times  ? 

842.  Who  are  some  of  the  most  eminent  English  Poets  ? 

843.  Who  were  distinguished  writers  in  hiitory  during  the  16th  and  ITth 

centuries  ? 

4 


/  ti  QUESTIONS. 


APPENDIX. 

HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS. 

SECTION  I. 

844.  Whai  constitutes  the  basis  of  t<lie  first  historical  records  ? 

845.  How  can  we  account  for  the  fabulous  relations  of  the  first  hist<K 

rians  ? 

846.  From  what  period  are  the  details  in  profane  history  to  be  received 

as  facts  ? 

847.  What  historical  records  are  the  most  ancient  as  well  as  the  most  ra- 

tional ? 

848.  What  historical  facts  do  they  contain,  not  found  in  other  history ' 

SECTION  II. 

849.  Who  were  the  Israelites  ? 

850.  Why  were  they  suffered  to  be  subdued  by  the  Romans  ? 

851.  In  what  condition  do  their  descendants  exist? 

852.  What  circumstance  illustrates  the  truth  and  inspiration  of  the  pro 

phetic  writings  i 

SECTION  III. 

853.  How  long  before  Herodotus  did  Moses  live  ? 

854.  What  acknowledgment  did  Porphyry  make  as  to  the  antiquity  of 

the  writings  of  Moses  ? 

855.  What  pa°:an  traditions  confirm  the  truth  of  the  Pentateuch  ? 

856.  What  is  said  of  Zoroaster  ? 

857.  What   Tewish  historian  successfully  vindicates  the  authority  of  the 

Jewish  scriptures  f 

SECTION  IV. 

858.  What  are  the  principal  facts  recorded  in  the  book  of  Genesis  ? 

859.  What  remarkable  prophecy  of  Isaiah  ia  there  concemimg  Cyrus? 

860.  And  what  one  concerning  Babylon  ? 

861.  What  was  the  length  of  time  from  the  giving  of  the  law  to  Moses  to 

the   reformation  in  worship  and  government  of  the  Jews  by  Nshe- 
miah  ? 

862.  What  hereditary  distinction  of  rank  existed  among  the  Jews  ? 

863.  What  is  said  of  Moses,  El:sha,  and  Gideon  ? 

864.  What  internal  undoubted  characteristic  of  truth  is  therein  tb«  scrip- 

tures  ? 

SECTION  V. 

865.  When  wae  the  creation  of  the  world  accomplished  ? 

B66<  What  was  one  of  the  most  remarkable  circumstances  of  the  antedi- 
luvians ? 
$67.  How  long  did  some  of  the  oldest  of  them  live  ? 

868.  Why  did  the  Almighty  destroy  the  world  by  a  deluge  of  water  ^ 

869.  Who  were  saved  from  it  and  by  what  means  ? 

170.  Who  were  tome  of  the  first  in  venters  of  the  useful  arts? 

SECTION  VI. 
871.  Whati««<udtfttietbrf««omiofNc9<>'» 


QUESTIONS.  ai 

872.  What  is  the  most  important  event  between  the  delug«  and  the  ««# 

of  Abraham  ? 

873.  Of  what  city  was  Babel  the  beginning  ? 

SECTION  VII. 

874.  From  whom  do  the  Jews  derive  theii  origin? 

«75.  What  relationship  was  there  between  Jacob  and  Abraham? 

876.  How  came  Joseph,  the  son  of  Jacob,  to  be  in  Egypt? 

877.  By  what  means  was  he  made  governor  of  Egypt  ? 
i>78.   How  came  his  father  and  brethren  to  remove  thither  ? 
5(79,   How  long  did  the  Israelites  remain  in  Egypt  ? 

880.  What  were  some  of  the  circumstances  connected  with  their  leaving 

it? 

881.  How  long  after  leaving  Egypt  did  Moses  die? 

SECTION  VIII. 

882.  What  caused  a  league  to  be  formed  between  the  Syrian  chiefs  ? 

883.  Who  was  the  successor  of  Moses  in  the  government  of  Israel  ? 

884.  How  were  the  Israelites  governed  alter  the  death  of  Joshua? 

885.  Who  were  the  two  last  Judges  of  Israel  ? 

QHG.  What  change  took  place  in  the  government  on  the  death  of  Samuel? 

SECTION  IX. 

887.  What  was  the  original  government  of  Israel  called  ? 

888.  What  moral  and  political  change  took  place  on  the  death  of  Joshua, 

in  the  condition  of  Israel? 

889.  Why  was  the  regal  government  introduced  ? 

SECTION  X. 

890.  How  long  did  Saul  reign  over  Israel? 

891.  By  what  means  was  David  raised  to  the  throne  as  his  successoi*? 

892.  What  prosperous  events  characterized  the  reign  of  David? 

893.  What  adverse  ones  characterized  it  ? 

894.  How  long  did  David  reign,  and  who  succeeded  him  ? 

895.  What  is  the  most  remarkable  event  in  the  reign  of  Solomon? 

896.  What  books  are  ascribed  to  him  ? 

897.  Under  what  circumstances  was  the  kingdom  divided  ? 

898.  By  what  names  were  the  two  kingdoms  subsequently  to  this  dirisioB 

called  ? 

899.  What  became  of  the  ten  tribes  who  constituted  the  kingdom  of  Is- 

rael ? 

900.  Whence  sprang  the  Samaritans? 

tH)l.  When  and  in  what  manner  ended  the  kingdom  of  Judah? 

SECTION   XI. 

902.  How  long  were  the  Jews  held  captive  in  Babylon  ? 

903.  By  whom  were  they  released  ? 

904.  From  what  time  and  circumstance  were  the  Israelites  called  Jews  ? 

905.  What  caused  Alexander  the  great  to  march  to  Jerusalem  with  hos- 

tile intentions  ? 

906.  By  what  means  was  he  appeased  ? 

907.  What  favours  did  he  then  bestow  on  them  ? 

908.  What  advantage  did  Ptolemy  take  of  the  regard  which  the  Jews  paid 

to  the  Sabbath  ? 

909.  In  what  manner  did  the  five  brothers  named  Maccabeus  becone  d}» 

tinguished  ? 

910.  Who  was  their  father  ? 


M  QUESTIONS. 

911.  When  and  by  whom  were  the  Jews  subjected  to  the  Romans  ? 

912.  Who  was  then  placed  on  the  throne  of  David  under  the  protection 

of  the  Romans  ? 

913.  By  what  memorable  event  was  the  reign  of  Herod  distinguished  ? 

914.  By  whom  and  when  was  the  Jewish  nation  extinguished  ? 

916.  How  many  Jews  are  supposed  to  have  perished  in  their  last  war 
with  the  Romans  i 

SECTION  XII. 

916.  What  is  the  period  of  scriptural  history  ? 

917.  Where  is  it  supposed  that  the  Jews  obtained  their  knowledge  of  the 

arts  and  sciences  ? 

918.  What  was  the  state  of  commerce  among  the  Jews  ? 

919.  With  what  inference  does  Tytler  conclude  his  work  on  history  ? 

^  — Q«0©-' 

eONTINUATlON,  OR  PART  THIRD. 

SECTION  I. 

920.  What  was  the  age  of  Lewis  XV.  when  the  crown  of  France  descend- 

ed to  him  f 

921.  When  and  what  heirs  to  the  crown  of  France,  died  within  a  few 

months  f 

922.  What  made  it  necessary  for  France  on  the  death  of  Lewis  XIV.  to 

preservcvpeace  with  foreign  states .' 

923.  Who  was  regent  of  France  during  the  minority  of  Lewis  XV.  ? 

924.  What  distinguished  minister   was   at  the  court  of  Spain,  in  this 

period  ? 

925.  What  was  the  character  of  the  duke  of  Orleans,  the  regent  of 

France  .' 

926.  By  what  means  were  the  duchies  of  Lorrain  and  Bar  made  to  revert 

to  France  ? 

SECTION  II. 

927.  Who  succeeded  queen  Anne  on  the  throne  of  Britain  ? 

928.  What  acts  of  parliament  had  passed  connected  with  the  accessioa 

of  George  I.  concerning  religion  ? 

929.  When  did  he  enter  his  new  dominions  .' 

930.  How  did  the  rebellion  of  1715  in  Scotland,  terminate? 

931.  By  what  name  were  the  adherents  to  the  Pretender  called  ? 

932.  By  vi^hat  name  was  the  party  called  to  which  George  I.  committed 

the  government  of  the  realm  ? 

933.  Who  was  king  of  Sweden  at  this  time  ? 

934.  For  what  purpose  and  by  whom  was  he  nearly  instigated  to  invade 

Britain  ? 

935.  What  ruined  the  prospects  of  Alberoni  ? 

936.  In  what  way  did  he  attempt  obtaining  revenge  ? 

937.  Why  did  he  not  succeed  .■" 

938.  At  what  age  and  when  did  George  I.  die  ? 

SECTION  HI. 

939.  When  did  Charles  VI.  become  emperor  of  Austria  and  Germany  ? 

940.  Who  was  the  Austrian  commander  in  the  first  war  of  Charlei  VI. 

with  the  Turks? 


QUESTIONS.  9» 

941.  What  arrangement  did  he  make  for  the  descent  of  the  Austrism 

crown  ? 

942.  What  was  this  arrangement  or  his  act  in  making  it  called? 

943.  When  did  Charles  VI.  die,  and  who  succeeded  him  ? 

944.  Was  she  permitted  to  enjoy  unmolested  the  dominiors  descended  (• 

her? 

945.  What  circumstances  were  calculated  to  raise  up  competitors  for  dif- 

ferent parts  of  her  estates  ? 

946.  Who  was  the  most  forward  and  active  of  the  queen's  opponents  ? 

947.  What  prevented  the  competitors  of  the  queen  from  succeeding  ia 

obtaining  their  claims  ? 

948.  Which  one  of  them  succeeded  in  obtaining  the  imperial  crown  in 

1741  ? 

949.  How  long  after  this  did  he  live  ?  ^ 

950.  On  his  death  who  obtained  the  imperial  crown  ? 

951.  When  did  the  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  take  place  ? 

SECTION   IV. 

952.  At  what  time  and  age  did  George  II.  come  to  the  throne  of  Eag 

land? 

953.  Who  was  his  queen  ? 

954.  Who  was  prime  minister  of  England  at  this  time  ? 

955.  What  caused  him  to  resign  ? 

936.  Upon  what  two  occasions  had  his  views  been  thwarted? 

957.  When  did  he  die  ? 

958.  What  interesting  event  occurred  in  Scotland  the  same  year  ? 

959.  ^Vhat  was  the  object  of  the  insurrection  in  Scotland  ? 

960.  In  what  battle  were  the  hopes  of  the  Stuart  family  for  ever  blasted  ^ 

961.  What  became  of  the  heir  of  this  family  after  that  battle  ? 

962.  What   is  considered  the  most  melancholy  circumstance  attending 

the  Scottish  rebellion  ? 

963.  What  singular  act  of  parliament  was  passed  in  the  year  1751  ? 

964.  When  and  at  what  age  did  George  II.  die  ? 

SECTION  V. 

965.  By  what  treaty  was  the  house  of  Hanover  effectually  established 

on  the  British  throne  ? 

966.  How  was  the  British  naval  force  left  by  this  treaty  compared  with 

the  naval  forces  of  other  European  nations  ? 

967.  What  did  Austria  lose  by  the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  ? 

968.  What  did  Prussia  gain  by  it? 

969.  How  did  it  effect  Holland  ? 

970.  By  what  means  was  Russia  introduced  into  the  southern  states  of 

Europe  ? 

SECTION  VI. 

971.  What  became  a  subject  of  jealousy  and  future  warfare,  after  the 

peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  between  France  and  England  ? 

972.  In  what  respect  did  the  peace  of  Europe,  in  1748,  extend  to  Asia 

and  America? 

973.  What  F'rench  governor  in  the  East  Indies  attempted  to  bring  the 

Mogul  empire  under  the  dominion  of  France  ? 

974.  In  what  way  did  the  French  in  America  gain  an  advantage  over  the 

English  ? 

975.  When  did  the  French  war  rn  America  commence  ? 

970.  What  number  of  French  merchant  vessels  was  captured  aad  oav 
ried  into  the  Enalisb  ports  tti«  first  year  of  the  war? 


39  aUESTIONS. 

977.  When  the  war  was  extended  to  Europe,  what  powwrs  arranged 

themselv.  s  against  each  other  ? 
078.    Who  was  kiug  of  Prussia  at  this  time  ? 

979.  ^\Tiat  is  his  character  ? 

980.  What  has  this  war  been  termed  ? 

9aj.   How  many  men  have  been  supposed  to  have  perished  annually  in 

the  campaigTis  of  it  ? 
982-  What  adv-antagfe  did  the  English  gain  in  America? 

983.  What  new  ally  did  France  obtain  in  the  year  of  1761  ? 

984.  What  induced  him  to  join  the  league  against  England? 

985.  What  advantages  did  England  gain  by  this  war  ? 

886.  What  change  in  the  ministry  of  England  contributed  to  the  peace  •■ 

SECTIQN  VII. 

987.  When  did  George  III.  succeed  to  the  throne  of  Britain  ? 
98b.  What  was  one  of  his  first  acts  Which  showed  him  to  be  the  friend 
of  liberty  ? 

989.  What  gave  rise  to  distressing  tumults  in  the  year  1762? 

990.  How  did  the  measures  of  lord  Bute  differ  from  those  of  Mr.  Pitt? 

991.  What  contributed  to  make  the  first  years  of  George  III.  unquiet? 

992.  What  besides  public  addresses  and  remonstrances  contributed  to  the 

popular  fervour  and  agitation  of  public  feeling  at  this  period? 

993.  What  constitutional  question  came  under  discussion  at  this  time  ? 

994.  For  what  is  the  year  1764  remarkable  ? 

SECTION  VIII. 

995.  What  was  the  pretence  for  taxing  the  American  colonies  ? 

996.  What  was  the  first  instance  of  imposing  direct  taxes  without  their 

consent  ? 

997.  When  was  this  imposed  ? 

998.  When  was  it  formally  repealed  ? 

999.  What  reason  is  there  for  supposing  that  the  Americans  did  not  con- 

template independence  when  they  first  made  opposition  to  the 
British  government  ? 
UIOO.  How  long  was  it  after  the  passing  of  the  stamp  act  before  the  c»m- 
mencement  of  hostilities  ? 

1001.  "WTien  and  where  was  American  independence  declared  ? 

1002.  Who  were  sent  to  France,  and  when,  to  solicit  aid  for  the  Ameri- 

cans? 
J003.  What  other  powers  besides  that  of  France,  united  against  England  ? 

1004.  When  did  Great  Britain  ratify  the  treaty  which  admitted  the  Amer- 

ican independence  ? 

SECTION  IX. 

1005.  Whe  laid  the  foundation  for  the  French  revolution  ? 

1006.  Why  were  the  Jesuits  banished  from  Portugal  in  the  year  1750? 

1007.  What  charge   was  attempted  to  be  fixed  on  them  at  Paris,  subse- 

quent to  this  ? 
J008.  When  was  the  order  of  Jesuits  abolished  in  France  ? 

1009.  From  what  other  countries  were  they  expelled,  and  when? 

1010.  Whom  did  the  dauphin  of  France,  afterwards  Lewis  XIV.  marry? 

1011.  When  did  he  come  to  the  throne  ? 

1012.  When  was  an  alliance  formed  between  the  court  of  Versailles  and 

America  ? 

1113.  Who  were  the  most  eminent  friends  of  liberty  in  the  British  parlia- 
ment? 

M|4.  What,  at  this  time,  produced  an  extraordinary  effect  on  the  Pail- 
•MOB)  againaC  th«  extravagaect:  of  th«  Freosh  court  ? 


QUESTIONS.  31 

1015.  What  particular  difl5culties  had  the  king  to  encounter  ? 

1016.  What,  in  ths  year  1783,  tended  to  hasten  the  French  revolution 

and  bring  matters  to  a  crisis  ? 

1017.  Who  first  called  for  the  statt-s-general  ? 

1018.  Who  was  in  the  French  ministry  when  the  states-general  was  call- 

ed? 

SECTION  X. 

1019.  What  inconsistency  was  there  in  the  conduct  of  Maria  Theresa  con- 

cerning Poland  ? 

1020.  What  led  to  a  war  between  Austria  and  Prussia,  in  the  year  1778  ? 

1021.  What  part  did  Austria  take  in  regard  to  the  war  for  American  in- 

dependence ? 

1022.  When  and  at  what  age  did  Maria  Theresa  die  ? 

SECTION  XI. 

1023.  How  long  before  the  death  of  his  mother,  Maria  Theresa,  did  Jo- 

seph II.  come  to  the  imperial  throne  of  Austria  ? 

1024.  In  what  manner  did  he  labour  to  acquire  the  information  needful  to 

his  subjects  ? 

1025.  Whajt  was  the  population  of  his  dominions  ? 

1026.  What  important  edict  was  passed  by  him,  October  31, 1781  ? 

1027.  When  did  the  Netherlands  declare  themselves  independent  of  Aus* 

tria? 

1028.  When  did  Joseph  II.  die,  and  by  whom  was  he  succeeded  ? 

1029.  How  long  did  Leopold  reign  .'' 

1030.  Who  succeeded  him  and  when  ? 

1031.  What  evil  did  he  experience  from  taking  part  against  the  French 

revolutionists  ? 

1032.  By  whom  were  the  Austrians  assisted  against  the  French  in  the 

war  of  1799 ' 

SECTION  XII. 

1033.  When  was  the  states-general' assembled  ? 

1034.  What  was  the  French  state  prison  called? 

1035.  What  became  of  it  ? 

1036.  How  many  families  were  there  at  this  time  in  France  of  the  ancient 

hereditary  nobility  ? 

1037.  In  what  way  did  the  king  attempt  to  rescue  himself  from  the  re- 

straints imposed  on  him  ? 

1038.  When  was  the  national  assembly  dissolved  ? 

1039.  What  prevented  Sweden  and  Russia  from  engaging  in  hostilities 

against  the  French  ? 

1040.  What  furnished  the  demagogues  with  opportunity  for  charging  the 

king  with  making  war  upon  his  people  ? 

1041.  What  has  this  period  of  the  French  history  been  called  ? 

1042.  Who  was  at  the  head  of  aflfairs  in  France  ? 

1043.  How  many,  suspected  of  being  aristocrats,  were  assassinated  on  the 

second  of  September  ? 

1044.  When  was  the  king  brought  to  trial  ? 

1045.  When  was  he  executed  > 

1046.  into  how  many  factions  were  the  revolutionists  divided,  and  whtt 

were  they  called  ? 

1047.  Which  one  triumphed  ? 

1048.  What  became  of  the  queea  of  France  f 


S«  QUESTIONS. 


SECTION  XIII. 

J049.  What  change  look  place  in  the  ministry  of  Great  Britain  after  the 
peace  with  America  ? 

1050.  Who  succeeded  Mr.  Fox  in  the  British  ministry  ? 

1051.  What  is  the  Sinking  Fund  of  Great  Britain? 

1052.  What  important  prosecution  was   undertaken  at  this  time  by  the 

British  parliament? 

1053.  How  long  did  it  last,  and  what  was  its  result  ? 

1054.  When  was  the  attention  of  the  house  of  commons  first  called  to  the 

slave  trade  ? 

1055.  When  was  it  abolished  ? 

1056.  What  event  compelled  the  British  parliament  to  meet  on  the  20th 

of  November,  1788? 

1057.  What  occurrence    arose  to  threaten   war  between  England   and 

Spain,  in  the  year  1790  ? 

1058.  What  led  to  the   declaration  of  war   against  the  king  of  Great 

Britain,  by  France,  in  the  year  1793? 

1059.  With  what, success  was  the  war  prosecuted  ? 

1060.  V^'hat  important  occurrence  took  place  in  Ireland,  1798  ? 

1061.  What  important  event  to  Ireland  succeeded  the  suppression  of  t'.ie 

rebellion  ? 

1062.  What  took  place   in  India  during  the  last  year  of  the  eighteenth 

century  ?  _ 

1063.  What  led  to  the  peace  of  Amiens,  between  France  and  England, 

October  1st,  ISOi  ? 

SECTION  XIV. 

1064.  What  was  the  situation  of  France  towards  the  close  of  the  year 

1793  ? 

1065.  What  took  place  on  the  17th  of  November,  1793? 

1066.  What  alteration  was  there  made  in  the  calendar? 

1067.  When  and  where  did  Napoleon  Bonaparte  first  distinguish  himself? 

1068.  What  became  of  Robespierre  ? 

1069.  What   was  the  government  of  France,  established  and  proclaimed 

in  1795? 

1070.  What  were  the  affairs  of  France  externally  at  this  time  ? 

1071.  Who  were  some  of  her  most  distinguished  generals? 
107-2.  What  territories  were  added  to  the  French  republic? 

1073.  What  became  of  Lewie  XVII,  ? 

SECTION   XV. 

1074.  When  did  Bonaparte  receive  the  chief  command  of  the  French 

army  in  Italy? 

1075.  What  was  his  age  at  that  time  ? 

1076.  On  the  reduction  of  Mantua,  what  did  he  state  to  his  soldiers  had 

been  their  succeE:-  ? 

1077.  Why  were  the  Venetians  unwilling  to  take  part  either  with  the 

Austrians  or  French  ? 

1078.  Of  what  dishonourable  conduct  was  Bonaparte  guilty,  in  relation 

to  the  Venetians  ? 

1079.  What  took  place  on  the  4th  and  5th  of  September,  1797  ? 

1080.  Upon  what  expedition  did  Bonaparte  enter,  in  the  year  1798  ? 
lOfil.  What  success  did  he  have  in  this  expedition  ? 

1082.  What  lessened  his  triumph  and  gave  a  new  torn  to  the  war  ? 

1083.  What  change  took  place  in  the  French  goTcrnmeat  on  Bonaparte** 

return  from  Egypt  i 


QUESTIONS.  38 

1084.  When,  by  whom  and  with  what  result  was  the  battle  of  Marengo 

fought  ? 

1085.  When  and  between  whom  was  the  treaty  of  Luneville  signed  ? 

1086.  When  and  between  whom  was  the  treaty  of  Amiens  signed  ? 

1087.  What  was  the  French  power,  and  what  were  her  possessions  at  thi» 

time  ? 

SECTION  XVI. 

1088.  What  regulation  did  Bonaparte  make  for  religion  in  France  ? 

1089.  What  took  place  on  the  2d  of  August,  1802? 

1090.  What  led  to  a  renewal  of  hostilities  between  France  suid  England, 

1803  ? 

1091.  On  the  renewal  of  hostilities,  what  security  did  Bonaparte  take  for 

the  future  good  conduct  of  England  ? 

1092.  What  military  enterprise  did  he  project.' 

1093.  What  took  place  on  the  18tb  of  May,  and  the  2d  of  December, 

1804  ? 

1094.  Why  did  general  Moreau  come  to  America  ? 

1095.  What  induced  Russia,  Prussia,   and  Austria,  to  unite  in  hostilities 

against  Napoleon  ? 
1090.  What  took  place  on  the  21st  of  October,  1805  ? 

1097.  After  what  battle  did  the  emperor  of  Austria  solicit  peace  ? 

1098.  What  appeared  to  lead   to  the  eajiltation  of  Joseph  Bonaparte  to 

the  throne  of  Naples  ? 

1099.  What  change  took  place  in  the  government  of  Holland,  in  1806? 

1100.  What  change  took  place,  in  the  same  ytar,  in  the  political  conditioa 

of  Germany  ? 

1101.  How  came  Bonaparte  to  be  in  Berlin,  in  November,  of  this  year? 

1102.  What  extraordinary  decree  did  he  dictate,  while  there? 

1103.  What  concessions  did  the  emperor  of  Russia  make  to  the  French 

emperor  in  the  treaty  of  Tilsit  ? 

SECTION  XVII. 

1104.  When  did  Charles  IV.  come  to  the  throne  of  France  ? 

1105.  What  caused  the  Spaniarda,  ki  1793,  toj^nvade  France  ? 

1 106.  What  was  the  consequence  of  this  invasion  to  Spain  ? 

1107.  By  what  means  did  St.  Domingo  fall  into  the  hands  of  the  French? 

1108.  What  led  to  the  war  between  England  and  Spain  in  1805  ? 

1109.  Why  did  the  royal  family  of  Portugal  remove  to  America,  and  when  ? 

1110.  On  what  account  was  Ferdinand  arrested  and  imprisoned  by  the 

Spanish  authorities  ? 

1111.  By  what   means   was   the   Spanish   throne    declared   racant   and 

Joseph  Bonaparte  proclaimed  king  of  Spain  ? 

1112.  W'hat  foreign  power  aided  Spain  and  Portugal,  againit  the  French  ? 

1113.  In  what  battle  were  the  French  beaten  and  compelled  to  eracuate 

Portugal  ? 

1114.  When  and  under  whom  did  the  British  army  enter  Spain? 

1115.  What  became  of  Sir  John  Moore  ? 

1116.  When  did  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley,  with  fresh  troops  from  England 

enter  Spain  ? 

1117.  For  what  service  was  he  raised  to  a  peerage  ? 

1118.  What  battle  caused  the  gates  of  Madrid  to  be  thrown  open  to  the 

Spanish  patriots  in  1812? 

1119.  When  was  the  battle  of  Vittoria  fought? 

\120.  What  were  the  consequences  of  it  to  the  French? 

SECTION  XVIII 
1121.  What  was  the  partition  treaty  between  France  and  Spain  ? 

5 


84  QUESTIONS. 

1122.  What  TfM  the  Milan  decree? 

1123.  Who  was  created  king  of  Naples  'when  Joseph  Bonaparte  removed 

to  Spain  ? 
{ 124.  How  long  did  the  war  of  Austria  last,  which  commenced  in  1809  ? 
1123.  Oi  what  condition  was  Austria  able  to  obtain  peace  ? 

1126.  When  did  Bonaparte's  second  marriage  take  place  ? 

1127.  When  was  the  war  renewed  with  Russia  ? 

1128.  With  how  large  an  army  did  Bonaparte  invade  Russia,  in  1812^ 

1129.  What  was  the  success  of  this  expedition  ? 

1130.  With  what  force  did  he  commence  hostilities  in  1813? 

1131.  What  battle  completely  discomfited  the  French  emperor? 

1132.  When  did  the  allies  pass  the  Rhine  ? 

1133.  When  did  they  reach  Paris  ? 

1134.  On  what  conditions  was  Bonaparte  permitted  to  abdicate  the  Frenck 

throne  ? 

1135.  When  did  the  Bourbons  return  to  Paris? 


SECTION  XIX. 

1136.  From  what  cause  had  Poland  suffered  much  ? 

1137.  What  change  did  Charles  XII.  make  in  the  state  of  Poland  ? 

1138.  By  the  aid  of  whose  power  was  the  family  of  Augustus  kept  upon 

the  throne  of  Poland  during  the  first  half  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury ? 

1139.  Who  succeeded  Augustus  III.  and  when  ? 

1140.  What  internal  dispute  greatly  distracted  Poland  at  this  time? 

1141.  With  whom  did  the  plan  of  dismembering  Poland,  originate  ? 
Ji42.   What  rtasous  were;,'iTcn  by  the  partitioning  powers  for  the  dis- 
memberment of  Poland  ? 

1 143.  Did  the  Poles  willingly  acquiesce  in  the  measure  ? 

1144.  When  was  the  division  actually  agreed  upon  and  sanctioned  by  the 

Polish  diet  ? 

1145.  When  did  a  second  partition  take  place,  and  when  a  third? 

1146.  What  became  of  Stanislaus,  the  last  king  of  Poland  ? 

J 147.   When  and  by  whom  was  the  kingdom  declared  re-established? 
1 148.   What  is  the  present  political  condition  of  it  ? 


SECTION  XX. 

1149.  When  were  hostilities  renewed  by  England  against  France? 

1150.  What  caused  Spain  also  to  be  involved  with  Great  Britain  ? 

1151.  How  did  the  English  violate  the  rules  of  justice  in  regard  to  Spain  ? 

What  splendid  victory  did  the  English  obtain  over  the    French 
and  Spanish,  in  1805  ? 

1 152.  Of  what  act  of  injustice  were  the  English  judged  guilty  towards  the 

Danes  ? 

1153.  What  caused  the  royal  family  of  France  to  take  refuge  in  England, 

in  1807? 

1154.  What  were  the  English  orders  in  couruil  issued  in  January  and  No- 

vember, 1807? 

1155.  When  was  the  prince  of  Wales  appointed  regent  of  Great  Britain? 

1156.  Why  was  he  appointed  ? 

1157.  What  distinguished  personage  was  assassinated  in  the  month  of  May, 

1812? 

1158.  What  intf  resting  event  took  place  in  England,  in  May,  1816  ? 

1159.  By  what  melancholy  event  was  it  succeeded  in  November  ^f  the 

following  year  ? 

1 160.  When  did  George  III.  die  ' 


QUESTIONS.  9k 

SECTION  XXI. 

1161.  How  did  the  French  army  feel  toward  the  eroperor  Napoleon,  afl«r 

he  waa  exiled  ? 

1162.  When  did  Bonaparte  land  in  France,  on  his  return  from  Elba? 

1163.  When  did  he  enter  Paris? 

1164.  Whe»  was  the  battle  of  Waterloo  fought,  which  for  ever  terminat- 

ed his  prospects  ? 

1165.  When  did  he  arrive  at  St.  Helena,  to  which  he  was  banished? 

1166.  What  resolution  was  adopted  by  the  allied  military  commanders  in 

relation  to  the  works  of  art,  which  the  French  had  collected  ia 
former  victories  ? 

1167.  What  precaution  did  the  allies  adopt  to  prevent  future  revolutions 

in  that  country  ? 

SECTION  XXII. 

1168.  Who  were  the  three  immediate  successors  of  Peter  I.  upon  the 

throne  of  Russia  ? 

1169.  How  long  after  the  death  of  her  father  did  the  princess  Elizabeth 

come  to  the  throne  ? 

1170.  How  long  did  the  reign,  and  who  succeeded  her? 
ini.  What  became  of  Peter  III.  ? 

1172.  What  was  the  character  of  Catharine  II.  his  widow,  who  succeed- 

ed ? 

1173.  When  did  Alexander,  the  present  emperor  of  Russia,  come  to  the 

throne  ? 

1 1 74.  V/hat  became  of  his  predecessor  ? 

1175.  How  long  has  Prussia  existed  as  a  kingdom? 

1176.  How  many  kings  have  reigned  over  it? 

1177.  Whicn  of  them  did  most  toward  raising  the  kingdom  to  the  first 

degree  of  power  and  renown  ? 

1178.  What  two  factions  were  there  in  Sweden  in  the  reign  of  Frederick? 

1179.  How  long  did  Gustavus  ift.  reign  ? 

1180.  How  did  h*  come  bv  his  death  ? 

1181.  Why  did  Gvstavus  IV.  abdicate  the  throne  ? 

1182.  Who  is  the  p-esent  king  of  Sweden  ? 

1183.  When  did  he  tome  to  the  throne  ? 

1184.  How  many  kinjs  have  reigned  in  Denmark  since  ^!he  close  of  th« 

seventeenth  Ctntury  ? 

1185.  In  what  war  was  Christian  VII.  connected  with  George  III.  of  Eng- 

land ? 

1186.  Why  did  his  queeus  Caroline  Matilda,  retire  to,  and  end  her  dayt 

in  Germany  ? 

1 187.  Who  is  the  present  fcng  of  Denmark  ? 

SECTION  xxni. 

1188.  In  what  disputes  was  Switzerland  involved  during^  the  first  pRft  ol 
the  18th  century  ? 

1189.  Which  of  the  popes  of  Rone  suppressed  the  order  of  Jesuits? 

1190.  Who  was  rasied  to  the  papU  chair  in  1775? 

1191.  At  what  age,  when,  and  where  did  he  die? 

1192.  How  came  he  at  Valence  ? 

1193.  When  was  his  successor  chosen,  and  by  what  name  is  he  called? 

1194.  When  did  he  ^id  in  establishing  the  cathoiic  religion  in  Fnmce? 

1195.  What  injury  did  be  afterwards  receive  from  France  ? 

SECTION  XXIV. 

119f .  Who  was  the  Teigaias  prince  of  India  ia  the  bcgiontog;  of  the  \%Vk 
•e&tory? 


36  QUESTIONS. 

1197.  To  what  a»e  did  he  live  ? 

1 198.  In  what  manner  did  he  come  to  the  throne  ? 

1199.  What  singular  fact  is  mentioned  as  evidence  of  the  contentions 

common  for  the  throne,  with  that  semi-barbarous  people  ? 

1200.  What  chartered  privilege  has  the    English   East  India  Company 

with  this  people  ? 

1201.  W^hen  did  the  Company  receive  this  privilege  ? 

1202.  W^hat  description  of  this  people  is  called  Sepoys? 

1203.  Who  is  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  British  empire  in  India  ? 

1204.  When  did  the  British  parliament  make  provision  to  prevent  abuses 

of  power  in  India  ? 

1205.  What  distinguished  individuals  were  instrumental  in  the  first  re- 

forms under  the  new  system? 

1206.  What  is  the  reason  why  this  system  was  not  scrupulously  adhere 

to? 

1207.  What  was  the  object  of  Tippoo  in  regard  to  the  English  ? 

1208.  For  wnat  object  was  the  East  India  College  established  ? 

1209.  What  13  the  population  of  British  India? 


STATE  OF   ARTS,  SCIENCES,  RELIGION,   LAWS,   GOVERN- 
MENT,  &c. 

1210.  What  countries  have  been  particularly  distinguished  in  literature, 

arts,  and  science,  in  the  18th  century? 

1211.  Which  of  the  sciences  in  particular  have  been  much  cultivated  and 

advanced  in  that  time  ? 

1212.  In  what  particulars  has  chemistry  undergone  important  changes  in 

the  latter  part  of  the  18th  century  ? 

1213.  Who  claim  to  be  the  authors  of  the  new  theory  of  chem^try? 

1214.  What  is  now  ascertained  to  be  the  nature  of  atmosphe'ic  air? 

1215.  ffy  whom  was  the  discovery  of  vital  air,  or  oxygen  g?s,  made  ? 

1216.  To  what  branch  of  chemistry  is  the  discovery  of  the  decomposition 

of  water  owing  ? 

1217.  Who  discovered  the  constituent  parts  or  principle^  of  water? 

1218.  What  are  they  called  ? 

1219.  Who  are  some  of  the  most  distinguished  chemists  of  the  18th  cen 

tury  ? 

BOTANY. 

1220.  Where  and  when  was  Liiinaeus  born  ? 

1221.  What  is  the  foundation  of  his  systematic  bi^any  ? 

1222.  W'ith  how  many  species  of  plants  are  botanists  now  said  to  be  ac- 

quainted ? 

1223.  What  French  botanist  has  done  much  fof  the  benefit  of  the  science  ? 

1224.  What  is  the  difference  between  the  system  of  Linnaeus  and  that  of 

Jussien  ? 

ELECTRICITY. 

1225.  Who  were  some  of  the  persons  vho  first  wrote  learnedly  on  the 

subject  of  electricity? 

1226.  Who  proved  that  the"  electric  fluid  and  lightning  are  the  tame 

thing? 

1227.  To  what  practical  purposes  did  he  apply  this  ? 

1228.  Of  whom  was  Galvanism  the  discovery  f' 

1229.  What  is  Galvanism  called? 

1230.  What  English  philosopher  has  become  much  celebrated  for  hU  el«#« 

tro-chetoical  reseaicheaf 


QUESTIONS.  37 

MINERALOGY  AND  GEOLOGY. 

1231.  When  did  the  modern  scientific  arrangements  of  minerals  be^in  to 

oconpy  the  attention  of  naturalists  ? 

1232.  Who  has  the  credit  of  reducing  the  science  into  classes  and  orders  ? 

1233.  From  what  did  geology  arise  ? 

1234.  What  is  geology  ? 

GEOGRAPHY. 

1235.  What  two  new  quarters  of  the  world  have  been  presented  to  us,  in 

the  last  century,  according  to  the  French  geograpliers  ? 

1236.  What  does  Australasia  include  i 

1237.  What  does  Polynesia  include  ? 

1238.  What  look  place  iu  1761,  in  evidence  of  the  improvements  in  civili- 

zation ? 

1239.  What  eminent  Prussian  traveller  has  contributed  to  the  perfection 

of  geographical  knowledge  ? 

1240.  From  what  period  have  the   Russian  sovereigns  made  laudable  ef- 

forts to  obtain  correct  geographical  information  ? 

1241.  Has  the  science  of  astronomy  undergone  as  great  changes  as  the 

other  sciences  named  during  the  last  century  ? 

1242.  How  many  planets  have  been  discovered  in  that  time  ? 

1243.  What  fact  is  stated  from  which  we  can  form  some  conjecture  of  tha 

number  of  fixed  stars  ? 


1244.  Wbat  French  writer  did  much  to  unsettle  the  minds  of  his  country- 

men on  religion  and  politics  .'' 

1245.  From  whom  has  it  been  supposed  that  Voltaire  imbibed  his  delstical 

sentiments? 

1246.  Who  were  the  principal  deistical  writers  of  England  ? 

1247.  What  countera  .ted  the  tendency  of  their  writings  ? 

1248.  What  other  eminent   F>ench   philosopher  visited  England,  besidei 

Voltaire,  about  the  same  time  ? 

1249.  To  what  did  he  principally  confine  his  views  ? 

1250.  What  were  the  political  opinions  of  Rousseau  ? 

1251.  What  was  the  origin  of  the  French  Encyclopedia  ? 

1252.  What  courts  of  Europe   were  thrown  open  to  the  French  philoso- 

phers ? 
1S53.  Is  it  to  be  supposed  that  the  French  philosophers,  to  whor,i   the  rev- 
olution has  been  imputed,  contemplated  the  awful  catastrophe 
of  that  event  ? 

1254.  Who  was  chieily  instrumental  in  introducing  the  improvements  of 

the  18th  century  into  Russia  ? 

DISCOVERIES  AND  INVENTIONS. 

1255.  What  are  the  principal  discoveries  and  inventions  of  modern  times? 

1256.  What  effect  had  the  French  revolution  on  the  people  of  other  coun 

tries  ? 

1257.  What  moral  improvements  have  taken  place  in  the  condition  ofra 

rious  civilized  nattions  ? 

RELIGION. 
1S58.  In  what  coautriei  does  paganism  prevail  ? 

1259.  What  is  the  present  condition  of  the  Jews  ? 

1260.  WTiere  does  Mahometan  ism  prevail  ? 

1261.  W^hat  are  the  principal  sects  of  the  Christian  religion  i 
l^fiS.  What  sects  have  been  most  active  as  miseionariei  ? 

B 


38  QUESTIONS. 

1263.  What  change  has  the  papal  authority  experienced  in  the  tine  un- 
der coDsideratioa  i 

HISTORY,  POLITE  LITERATURE,  FINE  ARTS,  &c. 

It64.  What  Germans  have  beea  distinf  uished  in  literature,  and  the  fine 
arts  ' 

1265.  Who  in  France  ? 

1266.  Who  in  Great  Britain  ? 
K67.  Who  in  Haly  ? 

TREATY  OF  VIENNA,  1815. 

1268.  What  addition  of  territory  was  given  to  Russia,  and  what  new  ti- 

tle to  the  Czar  : 

1269.  What  is  to  be  the  condition  of  Cracow? 

1270.  How  did  this  treaty  affect  Saxony  ? 

1271.  How  did  it  affect  Prussia? 

1272.  What  change  took  place  in  the  Netherlands  ? 

PART  FOURTH. 


UNITED  STATES. 

SECTION  I. 
•273.  When  and  by  whom  was  America  discovered  ? 

1274.  Under  whose  patronage  was  it  discovered  ? 

1275.  What  part  ot  it  was  discovered  first  ? 

1276.  Why  werf  the  islands  first  discovered  called  the  West  Indies  ? 

1277.  Why  was  the  continent  called  America  ? 

1278.  How  long  time  after  Columbus  sailed  from  the  Canaries  before  he 

reached  St.  Salvador  ? 

1279.  To  what  governments  did  he  apply  for  patronage  withoat  success  ? 

SECTION  II. 

1280.  By  whom  and  when  was  tlie  continent  of  North  America  discover- 

ed ? 

1281.  On  what  account  did  Virginia  derive  its  name  ? 

1282.  Who  made  the  first  attempt  to  colonize  this  part  of  the  continent  ? 

1283.  To  whom  did  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  afterward  assign  hia  interest  in 

the  country  ? 

1284.  From  what  did  James  river  take  its  name  ? 

1285.  On  what  account  did,capt.  John  Smith  obtain  his  first  release  frorn 

the  Indians  ? 

1286.  Who  effected  his  second  release  from  them  ? 

1287.  On  what  account  was  the  cultivation  of  the  soil  ncglcete<J  by  the 

first  colonists  ? 

1288.  What  is  the  history  of  Pocahontas  subsequent  to  saring  the  life  of 

capt.  Smith  ? 

1289.  Who  first  brought  the  African  negroes  into  this  part  of  the  country  r 

1290.  What  part  did  the   Virginians  take  in  relation  to  the  rerolution  of 

the  mother  country  under  Cromwell  ? 
IWl.  What  was  the  population  of  Virginia,  in  16*6  ? 


QUESTIONS.  99 

SECTION  III. 

1292.  What  was  the  origin  of  the  Plymouth  colony? 

1293.  When  was  the  st  ttlement  made  ? 

1294.  Of  how  many  persons  did  the  colony  at  first  consist? 

1295.  Of  how  many  did  it  consist  ten  years  afterwards  ? 

1296.  How  many  emigrants  came  to  Massachusetts,  in  the  year  1630  ? 

1297.  What  led  to  the  first  settlement  of  Rhode  Island  and  Providenoe 

plantations  ? 

1298.  Who  laid  the   foundation  of  Hartford,  Springfield,  and  Weathen- 

field  ? 

1299.  When  and  by  whom  was  New-Hampshire  first  settled  ? 

1300.  When  did  a  systematic  warfare  commence  between  the  English 

and  Indians  ? 

1301.  What  number  of  British  subjects  had  settled  in  New-England,  up 

to  1638  ? 

1302.  What  instances  of  religious  persecution  took  place  in  Massachuietts, 

about  the  middle  of  the  17th  century? 

1303.  When  and  what  were  the  particulars  of  the  Salem  witchcraft? 

1304.  When  was  Harvard  college  founded  ? 

1305.  From  whom  did  Maryland  derive  its  name,  and  by  whom  wa«  it 

first  settled  ? 

1306.  By  whom  was  New-York  first  settled  ? 

1307.  When  was  it  surrendered  to  the  English  ? 

130B.  By  vihom  and  under  what  circumstances  was  FeDnsylvaBia  settled? 
13C9.  When  and  by  whom  was  Georgia  settled? 

SECTION  IV. 

1310.  What  settlements  had  the  French  in  America? 

1311.  In  what  way  did  France  endeavour  to  confine  the  English  within 

narrow  limits,  or  to  drive  them  from  the  continent  ? 

1312.  When,  and  what  method  did  the  Virginia  assembly  adopt  to  sup- 

port  the  English  claims,  over  the  disputed  territory  ? 

1313.  When  and  with  wJiat  force  was  general  Braddock  sent  ovet  to  sup- 

port these  claims  ? 

1314.  What  was  the  success  of  Braddock's  expedition  ? 

1315.  How  many  campaigns  were  attended  only  with  expense  and  disap- 

pointment to  the  English  ? 

1316.  What  led  to  a  change  in  English  prospects  ? 

1317.  Wliat   celebrated  English  general   was  killed  in  the   capture   of 

Quebec  ? 

1318.  How  many  soldiers  did  the  colonies  furnish  in  the  French  war? 

1319.  When  was  the  British  stamp  act  passed? 

1320.  Where  in  the  colonies  was  it  first  opposed  ? 

1321.  Which  of  the  colonies  proposed  a  continental  cong;rejs  to  be  holden 

at  New- York  ? 

1322.  When  was  the  law  repealed  ? 

1323.  W^hat  bill  was  passed  on  the  repeal  of  this  ? 

1324.  What  disturbances  took  place  at  Boston,  in  1763  ? 

1325.  What  change  took  place  on  the  elevation  of  Lord  North  ? 

1326.  What  disturbances  took  place  in  Boston,  in  March  1770  ? 

1327.  What  took  place  in  1773  ? 

1328.  What  resistance  was  macle,  1773,  in  Boston,  to  the  British  j^orero? 

ment  in  relation  to  tea  ? 

1329.  Who  was  the  British  commander-in-chief  in  Boston,  at  this  time  ? 

1330.  What  took  place  at  the  congress  of  1774,  holden  in  Philadelphia  ? 

1331.  Where  and  under  what  circumstances  was  spilt  the  first  blood  of 

the  revolutionary  war  ? 

1332.  What  led  to  the  burning  of  Charleitown  ? 


40  QUESTIONS. 

1333.  Who  headed  an  expvedition  into  Canada? 

1334.  With  Avhat  success  was  it  made  ? 

1335.  By  whom  was  general  Gage  superseded? 

1336.  When  did  the  British  evacuate  Boston  ? 

1337.  When  was  published  the  declaration  of  American  Independence? 

1338.  What  tended  ipuch  to  raise  the  desponding  hopes  of  America  in 

the  latter  part  of  1776  ? 

1339.  What  splendid  advantages  did  the  Americans  gain  in  1777?  ' 

1340.  When  was  a  treaty  of  alliance  formed  between  the  French  and 

Americans  ? 

1341.  Who  took  the  command  of  the  English  sirmy  on  the  return  of  gen- 

eral Howe  ? 

1342.  Why  was  general  Lee  suspended? 

1343.  What  took  place  on  the  15th  July,  1779? 

1344.  Where,  and  under  what  circumstances  was  count  Polaski  mortally 

wounded  ? 

1345.  What  prevented  West  Point  from  falling  into  the  possession  of  the 

English? 

1346.  What  distinguished  French  military  and  naval  commanders  were 

sent  to  the  aid  of  America  ? 

1347.  What  event  is  reckoned  to  have  decided  the  contest  between  Eng- 

land and  America? 

1348.  How  much  money  did  England  expend,   and  how  many  lives  did 

she  sacrifice  in  this  war  ? 

SECTION  V. 

1349.  When  did  the  convention  meet  to  form  a  new  constitution  ? 

1350.  When  and  where  did  the  first  congress  meet  under  the  new  consti- 

tution ? 

1351.  What  produced  an  insurrection  in  the  western  part   of  Pennsylva- 

nia? 
1332.  What  was  the  state  of  affairs  between  the  United  States  and  France, 
durine-  th»-  r<^voluf.ion  iu  the  latter? 

1353.  When  did  congress  first  meet  in  the  city  of  Washington  ? 

1354.  What  are  the  principal  particulars  of  the  war  with  Tripoli? 

1355.  W  hen  and  for  how  much  was  Louisiana  purchased  ? 

SECTION  VI. 

1356.  What  were  the  particulars  that  led  to  the  suspension  of  commodore 

Barron  ? 

1357.  What  led  to  the  declaration  of  war  on  the    18th  of  June,  1812,  be- 

tween the  United  States  and  Great  Britain? 

1358.  What   were    some    of   the   principal  disasters   on  land,  which  lh« 

Americans  experienced  during  the  war? 

1359.  What  were  their  principal  and  most  brilliant  successes  on  land? 

1360.  What  naval  victories  did  they  obtain  ? 

1361.  What  naval  losses  did  they  experience? 

1362.  What  American  officers  were  killed  during  the  war  ? 

1363.  What  British  ofTicers  were  killed  during  it  ? 

1364.  When  and  v/here  was  a  treaty  of  peace  signed  ? 

1365.  W  ho  were  the  commissioners  ? 

1366.  What  states,  since  the  admission  of  Louisiana  in   1812,  have  been 

admitted  into  the  union  ? 

1367.  What  accession  of  territory  did  the  United  States  receive  in  1819  ? 

1368.  What  was  the  population  of  the  United  States  in  1820  ? 


QUESTIONS. 


PART  FIFTH. 


SECTION  I. 

1,'.';:'.  Wiiat  iirc-.imslauce  agitated  France  in  J820? 

I;;Trt.  >\';i.  n  did  I'oii.ipat-le  die,  and  at  what  age  ? 

r'.TI.  ^V'!.:it  is  said  of  him  r 

]M-1.  Wl'.nl  war  occurred  iii  1823,  and  what  were  its  effects  ? 

I  ;73.  When  did  Louis  XVIII.  die,  and  who  succeeded  him? 

\,\74.  \\'h:\t  circumstances  occurred  in  Portugal  in  1820,  in  1821,  and  in 

1823  ? 

V^7n.  Who  succeeded  George  III.  ? 

i:?7(i.  What  remarkable  events  occurred  in  England  in  1820  ? 

1377.  For  what  was  the  Summer  of  1821  remarkable,  and  what  were  iti 

consequences  ? 

1378.  What  important  decree  was  issued  by  tlie  Emperor  of  Russia  in  1811  ? 

1379.  Whiit  change  has  since   taken    place    in    the  constitution  of  that 

Empire  .'' 

1380.  What  was  the  declaration  of  the  Congress  of  Vienna  in  1815,  with 

regard  to  the  slave  trade  ? 

1381.  IIow  far  wore  their  purposes  in  this  respect  carried  into  eflect  ? 

1382.  What  circumstances  occurred  vvilli  regard  to  the  Jesuits  in  1816  and 

in  1820? 

1383.  When  did  Pope  Pius  VII.  die,  and  who  succeeded  him  ? 

1384.  What  were  the  principal  events  in  the  life  of  the  present  pope,  pr» 

vious  to  iiis  elevation  to  the  papal  tlirone  ? 

1385.  What  occurred  in  Naples  and  Sicily  in  1^20  and  1821. 

1386.  When  did  the  Greeks  revolt  against  the  Turks? 

1387.  What  is  said  of  this  war  ? 

SECTION  II. 

1388.  From  what  must  we  estimate  the  degree  of  civilization  to  which  th« 

an'^ient  Mexicans  had  attained  ? 

1389.  What  is  said  of  the  political  system  ? 

1390.  What  of  the  ecclesiastical  ? 

1391.  Wiiat  crimes  were  made  capital  ? 

13i''2.  To  what  was  the  attention  of  government  principally  directed? 

1393.  What  is  said  of  the  other  governments  in  the  country  ? 

1304.  What  of  the  arts  and  scieuces  known  to  them  ? 

1395.  Do  they  appear  to  have  been  less  civilized  than  European  nations  of 

the  same  period  ? 

1396.  What  occurred  when  the  Spaniards  first  landed,  and  how  were  tJiejt 

affected  by  it  ? 

1397.  What  occurred  in  their  route  to  Tenochtitlan  or  Mexico  ? 

1398.  When  did  they  arrive  at  the  capital  ? 
13'>9.  What  force  had  Cortez  at  this  thue  ? 
141^0    How  were  they  received  ? 

1401.  What  was  the  first  act  of  aggression  ? 

1402.  What  most  excited  the  indignation  of  the  Mezicanif 

1403.  On  what  account  did  Cortez  leave  the  city  ? 
1404    In  what  state  did  he  find  things  on  his  return  ? 
1405.   How  was  Montezuma  kiiled  ? 

140&  Who  was  his  successor  P 


4tl  QUESTIONS. 

1407.  Where  did  the  first  battle  occur,  and  what  was  its  resuh  ? 

1408.  What  measures  did  Cortez  adopt  to  strengthen  his  force .' 

1409.  When  did  lie  return  to  the  neighbourhood  of  Teuocluitlan,  and  what 

measures  did  he  pursue  to  conquer  the  city  .' 

1410.  What  number  of  allies  did  he  receive .' 

1411.  When  was  the  city  conquered  .' 

1412.  How  did  Cortez  dispose  of  his  captives.'' 

1413.  In  whose  reign  did  the  conquest  occur  ? 

1414.  What  is  said  of  the  history  of  New  Spain  from  this  period  till  the 

revolution .' 

1415.  Whose  property  were  these  colonies  ? 

1416.  How  were  they  divided  .■" 

1417.  What  was  the  authority  of  the  viceroy .' 

1418.  What  aids  had  the  viceroys  in  the  administration  of  government? 

1419.  On  whom  did  the  supreme  authority  devolve  when  a  viceroy  died .' 

1420.  When  was  the  Council  of  the  Indies  established,  and  what  were  itt 

functions  ? 

1421.  What  other  tribunal  was  there  ? 

1422.  What  occurred  in  1808  ? 

1423.  How  did  this  affect  the  European  part  of  the  population,  and  what 

did  they  do .' 

1424.  Who  was  the  next  viceroy  .' 

1425.  What  conspiracy  was  formed,  and  how  did  it  terminate  ? 
1426-  What  other  revolts  are  mentioned  ? 

1427.  When  did  general  Mina  arrive  ? 
1423.  When  was  he  defeated  .' 

1429.  When,  and  from  what  cause,  did  the  last  revolt  from  the  authority  of 

Spain  occur  .'' 

1430.  Who  now  united  their  influence  in  favour  of  a  revolution  .' 

1431.  Who  was  selected  to  execute  their  plans  .■' 

1432.  What  measures  did  he  adopt  to  raise  himself  to  the  supretn*  au* 

thority  ? 

1433.  Who  were  his  friends,  and  wlio  his  opponents .' 

1434.  When  was  he  declared  emperor  ? 

1435.  How  were  the  clergy  affected  't 

1436.  Who  now  arose  to  produce  a  new  revolution,  and  what  were  hia 

measures  ? 

1437.  By  whom  was  Santana  assisted  .' 

1438.  When  was  tliis  revolution  completed  .' 

1439.  What  became  of  Iturbide  ? 

1440.  What  form  of  government  was  established  ' 

1441.  When  was  their  constitution  adopted? 

1442.  What  is  its  principal  defect  ? 

1443.  What  other  federal  government  was  formed  at  th«  same  period? 

1444.  What  title  does  it  assume  ? 

1445.  What  religion  is  established  ? 

SECTION  in. 

1446.  When  were  the  Bahamas  discovered  ? 

1447.  When  was  the  first  settlement  made  ? 

1448.  By  whom  were  they  soon  after  possessed  ? 

1449.  Who  was  their  leader  ? 

1450    Who  have  since  possessed  the  Bahamas? 

14^1.  What  is  said  of  tne  piratee ' 

145^^.  Wkat  is  said  of  the  Aborigmea  f 

1453.  What  of  the  Arrowauks  .' 

1454    How  were  the  Great  Antilles  dividd  ? 

14.^5.  WhatTjvas  the  authority  of  the  caciques' 

T456.  How  pof^ous  were  these  islands  ? 


aUESTlONS.  4a 

1457.  What  became  of  the  inhabitants  ? 

1458.  What  fact  is  worthy  of  record  in  faTOur  of  the  Spaniard*  ? 

1459.  Who  were  the  Buccaniers  .■"   * 

1460.  Whence  their  name  .' 

1461.  Give  the  rest  of  their  history  ? 

SECTION  IV. 

1462.  Wlien  was  this  country  discovered  and  settled  ? 

1463.  Character  of  its  history  till  1778? 

1464.  What  events  followed  .' 

1465.  When  was  the  country  invaded  ;  by  whom  ;  and  with  what  success .'' 

1466.  Where  did  the  revolution  commence,  and  what  was  its  cause? 

1467.  What  is  tiie  date  of  its  declaration  of  Independence  ? 

1468.  By  whom  was  it  afterwards  invaded  ? 

1469.  What  is  its  present  state  ? 

1470.  What  is  the  early  history  of  Brazil  ? 

1471.  When  did  the  royal  family  arrive,  and  how  long  remain  ? 

1472.  How  was  the  government  then  left  .•' 

1473.  What  circumstances  followed  .'' 

1474.  Who  is  the  Emperor  of  Brazil .' 

1475.  What  is  said  of  the  history  of  Guiana  ? 

1476.  What  is  the  principal  tribe  of  Indians  in  Guiana.' 

1477.  Of  what  was  New-Granada  originally  a  part.' 

1478.  What  changes  have  taken  place  in  the  audiences  and  vicerojalUoB? 

1479.  What  occurred  in  1811  .' 

1480.  History  of  Venezuela  from  1498  to  1806  .' 

1481.  What  is  said  of  Miranda's  expedition  .' 

1482.  What  occurred  in  1811 .' 

1483.  When  were  Venezuela  and  New-Granada  united  .' 

1484.  What  fundamental  laws  of  the  Republic  are  mentioned  ? 

1485.  What  is  said  of  the  constitution  ? 

1486.  Why  is  the  early  history  of  Peru  uncertain? 

1487.  Former  state  of  the  Peruvian  tribes  .? 

1488.  Who  appeared  among  them,  and  with  what  pretensions? 

1489.  What  city  was  founded  .' 

1490.  What  did  these  extraordinary  persons  teach  ? 

1491.  How  extensive  were  their  dominions  ? 

1492.  What  were  they  called  ? 

1493.  How  was  the  succession  of  Incas  preserved  pure  ? 

1494.  What  is  said  of  their  religion  and  civil  policy  ? 

1495.  How  many  Incas  were  there  ? 

1496.  How  far  did  they  advance  in  civilization  ? 

1497.  When  did  the  Spaniards  first  visit  Peru  ? 

1498.  What  is  the  history  of  Huana  Capac  .' 

1499.  What  is  the  history  of  Huascar  and  Atahualpa.' 

1500.  What  is  said  of  the  Spanish  invaders  ? 

1501.  What  were  their  measures  ? 

1502.  What  is  the  subsequent  history  of  Peru  ? 

1503.  What  is  its  present  condition  ? 

1504.  What  possessions  on  the  American  continent  do  the  Spaniards  sUR 

hold  ? 

1505.  What  is  the  history  of  Chili  before  the  invasion  ? 

1506.  Describe  the  first  expedition  and  its  result  ? 

1507.  Describe  the  second  expedition  ? 

1508.  What  occurred  on  the  return  of  Almagro  to  Pent  f 

1509.  Who  was  entrusted  with  the  third  expedition  ? 

1510.  What  is  said  of  the  subsequent  contests  ? 

1511.  Give  an  account  of  the  Araucanians? 

1512.  What  ocoarred  in  IdlO  * 


44  QUESTIONS 

1513.  What  in  1814  and  in  ]8ir? 

1514.  How  was  the  patriot  army  re-organized  ? 

1515.  What  is  said  of  their  passage  over  the  Andes.'* 

1516.  What  were  the  events  of  IdlB  ? 

1517.  What  government  is  established  ? 

1518.  Why  will  their  progress  in  real  knowledge  be  slow  ? 

1519.  What  is  said  of  Don  Jose  San  Martin  ? 

1520.  What  is  said  of  Bolivar  .' 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 

Los  Angeles 
This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 


Z&^ 


jrm  L9-40to-7,'56(C790s4)444 


/ 


Elements  of  senera]  "l!!l"!"'n 


rHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 


r-r\  nn-T      n 


p 


&^ 


'^ftr. 


£■'...  it  < 


